Module 1

Chapter 1
Laser

Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. To
understand lasing action, it is necessary to understand how light interacts with matter.

1.1-Light Matter Interaction

A) Absorption of light
When a photon of energy hυ is incident on a matter with energy levels having energy E 1 and
E2, it will be absorbed if hυ = E2 - E1. The electron in the ground state (E1) undergoes a transition to
the higher energy level (E2). The photon thus gets absorbed.

Suppose an atom is in the lower energy level E1. If a photon of energy (E2- E1) is incident on
the atom, it imparts its energy to the atom and disappears. Then we say that the atom absorbed the
incident photon. As a result of absorption of adequate energy, the atom jumps to the excited state E 2.
Such a transition is called an absorption transition. In each absorption transition event, an atom in the
medium is excited and one photon is subtracted from the incident light beam. As the absorption
process is induced by a photon it is also called as induced absorption. We may express the process as
A+ hv = A*
where A is an atom in the lower state and A* is an excited atom.
The probability that an absorption transition occurs is proportional to the photon density ρ(ν).
P12 α ρ(ν)
P12 = B12 ρ(ν)
where B12 is the constant of proportionality. B12 is known as the Einstein coefficient for
induced absorption. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the
energy states E1 and E2.
The number of absorption transitions occurring in the material at any instant will be equal to
the product of the number of atoms at the energy level E, and the probability P 12 for the absorption
transition. Thus, the number of atoms, Nab, excited during the time ∆t is

Nab= B12N1 ρ(ν) ∆t

B) Spontaneous emission
An electron in the higher energy level (E2) comes down to the ground state (E1) on its own
because E2 is an excited state (life time of E2 ~ 10-8 s if it is an unstable state and 10-3s if it is a
metastable state). The lower energy level E1 could be unstable, metastable or stable state (life time =
∞). When the electron undergoes a downward transition, it emits a photon with energy hυ = E 2 - E1.
This is known as spontaneous emission.
A* → A+ hυ
The probability that a spontaneous transition occurs depends only on the properties of energy states
E2, and E1, and is independent of the photon density. It is equal to the lifetime of level E 2. Thus,
(P21) Spont. = A21
The number of spontaneous transition Nsp , taking place during time ∆t depends only on the number
of atoms N2 staying at the excited state E2. Thus
Nsp = A21N2∆t

C) Stimulated emission
When a photon of energy hυ = E2 - E1 encounters a system in the excited state, i.e. electron in
the energy level E2, there is a small but non-zero probability that the incident photon will stimulate
the electron to make a downward transition and emit a photon which is identical to the incident photon
in all respects (energy, direction, polarization, phase, etc.). This is known as stimulated emission.
It is also known as induced emission. The process may be expressed as
A*+ hυ →A+ 2 hυ
The probability that a stimulated transition occurs is given by
(P12)stimulated = B21 ρ(ν)
Where B12 is the constant of proportionality and is known as the Einstein coefficient for stimulated
emission. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the energy states
E 1 and E2
The number of stimulate transition occurring in the material at any instant is given as
Nst= B21N2 ρ(ν) ∆t

Fig. Absorption of a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1

 Fig. Spontaneous emission of a photon with energy hυ = E 2 - E1

Fig. Stimulated emission of two identical photons with energy hυ = E 2 - E1

1.2-Basics of laser
Stimulated emission is purely quantum mechanical phenomenon with no parallel in classical
mechanics. It is predicted by Einstein in 1917. It took almost 50 years to use this phenomenon to
build the first Laser! The main reason for this is the fact that the probability of stimulated emission
is very low and the probability that a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1 will find the system in the
excited states is again very low because the life time of an unstable excited energy level is ~ 10 -8 s.
The breakthrough came when materials were identified which had metastable energy levels, i.e., E 2
had life times ~ 10-3 s. This increases the probability of stimulated emission by 5 orders of
magnitude!!
Another stringent condition for lasing action to occur is that the population (N 2) of the higher
energy level E2 should be higher than that (N1) of the lower energy level E1, i.e. N2> N1. This is known
as population inversion. The relation between N2 and N1 is given by Boltzmann distribution:

𝑁 ( )
=𝑒
𝑁
Example: 1. Find the ratio of population of the two states in a He-Ne laser that produces light of
wavelength 6328Å at 27 °C.
Solution:
Formula:
𝑁 ( )
=𝑒
𝑁

ℎ𝑐 12400
𝐸 − 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 = = 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 𝜆(𝐴)

12400
= = 1.9595𝑒𝑉
6328

𝑁 ( ) .
.
=𝑒 =𝑒 . =𝑒 = 1.13 × 10
𝑁

It is obvious that the probability for stimulated emission will be very less as the system is far
from population inversion. There are several mechanisms, also called pumping, to rapidly excite the
electrons in the higher energy state and obtain population inversion.

Meeting the three requirements for lasing action-

1. Population Inversion
 When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by
Boltzmann factor according to the following equation:
𝑵𝟐
= 𝑬 [𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟏]/𝒌𝑻
𝑵𝟏

 It means that the population N2 at the excited level E2 will be far smaller than the population
N1 at the level E1. For example, if we take typical values for E1 and E2, the population N1
would be 1030 times of N2.
 The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower energy level and relatively lesser
number of atoms in the higher energy level is called normal state or equilibrium state.
 Thus under thermal equilibrium condition N1 >>N2.
 Population inversion is the condition of the material in which population of the upper energy
level N2 are exceeds the population of the lower energy level, N 1 that is N2>>N1
 In this condition the population distribution between the levels E1 and E2 is inverted and
hence it is known as he inverted state.
 Normal State Inverted state
N1 >>N2 N2>>N1
2. Metastable states
 An atom can be excited to higher level by supplying energy to it.
 Excited atoms have short lifetime and release their energy in a matter of nanosecond (10 -
9
) through spontaneous emission.
 Atoms do not stay long enough at the excited state to be stimulated.
 Population inversion cannot be established under such circumstance.
 In order to establish the condition of population inversion, the excited atoms are required
to wait at the upper energy level till a large number of atoms accumulated at that level
 Atoms excited to a metastable state remain excited for an appreciable time, which is of
the order of 10-6 to 10-3 s.
 Therefore, the metastable state allows accumulation of many excited atoms at that level.
 Thus, meta-stable states are those state in which atom can stay up to 10 -3 thus it is more
stable than excited state and less stable than ground state.

3. Confining Radiation within the medium / Resonant Cavity / optical

resonant cavity or optical resonator.
 The arrangement in which active medium is placed between completely silvered mirror
and partially silvered mirror is called resonant cavity
 Partially silvered mirror allows photon to pass if photons traveling perpendicular to tit
 Thus makes the light unidirectional while completely silvered mirror reflect photons
toward active medium so that more stimulated emission takes place than spontaneous
emission.
1.3- Building blocks of a laser /Components of LASER-

Fig. Block diagram of a laser

(i) Active medium

Active medium is medium which is kept between partially silvered mirror and completely
silvered mirror. It is the medium in which entire lasing action takes place.

(ii)Pumping Mechanism
An appropriate pumping mechanism achieves population inversion in the active medium.
Few of the electrons in the excited level undergo a downward transition on their own and give rise to
spontaneous emission.
These spontaneously emitted photons lead to stimulated emission and consequently leading to a
cascade of stimulated emissions. Since the original photons were emitted in all directions, the
stimulated emissions photons are also emitted in directions.

(iii) Optical cavity/ Optical resonant cavity

 The arrangement in which active medium is placed between completely silvered mirror
and partially silvered mirror is called resonant cavity
 Partially silvered mirror allows photon to pass if photons traveling perpendicular to tit
 Thus makes the light unidirectional while completely silvered mirror reflect photons
toward active medium so that more stimulated emission takes place than spontaneous
emission.

Photons travelling in all other directions are eventually lost from the sides of the active medium. The
multiplication of select photons is called amplification (of stimulated emission).
Apart from confining selected photons, the optical cavity also selects photons with
wavelength.
In the above discussion, we have assumed that the energy levels E 1 and E2 are infinitely sharp. These
levels have finite width and hence there is a spread in the energy of the emitted photons.

Hence the gain curve of the active material is as shown in Fig. The length of the optical cavity,
however, can be fine-tuned so that it accommodates integral multiple of half of the desired wavelength
𝟐𝝁𝑳
𝝀𝒎 = ,
𝒎
where m is the mode number,
L is the length of the cavity,
μ is the refractive index of the medium.
The laser beam therefore has much higher degree of monochromaticity than normal sources.

Role of the Optical Resonator /Resonant cavity

 The primary function of optical resonator is to provide positive feedback of photon.
 The laser oscillation is initiate by photon spontaneously emitted by some of the excited atoms.
Each spontaneous photon can trigger many stimulated transitions along the path of its travel.
Optical cavity makes the laser beam directional
 In order to make stimulated emission dominate spontaneous emission, a high radiation density ρ
(υ) is require to be present in active medium. The optical cavity built up the photon density to a
very high value through repeated reflections of photons and confines them within the medium
 Optical cavity selects and amplifies only certain frequencies causing the laser output to be highly
monochromatic.

Lasing Action
Step 1: Pumping:
 The process of raising atoms from ground state to excited state or meta stable state by supplying
energy is called pumping.

Step 2: Population Inversion

 The state in which number of atoms in excited state is more than number of atoms in ground state
is called population inversion.
 The lifetime of excited state extremely small (~10 -8s), the atom drops spontaneously from the
excited state to the metastable state.
 As the lifetime of atoms at the metastable state is comparatively longer(10 -3s), the atoms go on
accumulating at the metastable state.
 As soon as the number of the atom at the metastable state exceeds that of the ground state, the
medium goes into the state population inversion.

Step 3: Spontaneous emission

 Some of the excited atoms at the metastable state may emit photon spontaneously in various
direction.
 Each spontaneous photon can trigger many stimulated transitions along the direction of its
propagation.
 As the initial spontaneous photons are moving in different direction, many of such photons leave
the medium other than axial photon

Step 4: Amplification
 Many photons travelling along the axis causes stimulated emission and are reflected back on
reaching the end mirror.
 They travel towards the opposite mirror and on their way stimulate more and more atoms and
build up the photon strength.
 The photon travel once more through the medium generating more photons and more
amplification.
 The photons are then reflected again at the mirror and travel through the medium
 The mirror thus provides positive feedback of light in to the medium so that stimulated emission
acts are sustained, and the medium operates as an oscillator

Step 5: Oscillation
 At each reflection at the front-end mirror, light is partially transmission through it. The transmitted
component constitutes a loss of energy from the resonator.
 When the losses at the mirrors and within the medium balance the gain, a steady and stronger lase
beam will emerge from the front-end mirror.

Pumping Methods
In order to create the state of population inversion in an active medium, the atoms in the material
must be pumped (excited) to particular energy levels. The most common methods of pumping are
optical pumping and electrical pumping.
a) Optical pumping:
 Optical pumping uses photons to excite the atoms
 A light source such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the laser medium and the photons
of the appropriate frequency excite the atom to an upper energy level.
 The pump photon must have higher frequency than the emitted photon
 This is because the atoms are to be excited to a level above the metastable level from the ground
level or a lower energy
 Optical pumping is suitable for any laser medium that I transparent to pump light. Optical
pumping is used in solid state lasers

b) Electrical pumping:
 Electrical pumping can be used only in case of laser materials that can conduct electricity without
destroying lasing activity.
 This method is limited to gases.

c) Chemical Pumping-
Exothermic reaction is generated in active medium. The heat generated from exothermic
reaction can be used to pump atoms to higher level.

1.4-Types of lasers
Semiconductor laser/ Homojunction Semiconductor Laser /Diode LASER

Introduction
 A semiconductor diode laser is specially fabricated p-n junction devices, which emits coherent
light when it is forward biased.
 It is made from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) which operates at low temperature and emitted light in
the near IR region.
 Diode lasers are remarkably small in size (0.1 mm long) and having high efficiency of the order
of 40%.
 In a semiconductor when conduction band electron recombines directly with a hole in the valance
band. The recombination process leads to emission of light.

Principle
 The energy band structure Of a semiconductor consists of valence band and conduction band
separated by an energy gap Eg.
 The conduction band contains electron and the valence band contains holes and electrons
 When an electron from the conduction band jumps into a hole in the valence band the excess
energy EG is given out in the form of a photon
Thus the electron hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for emission of light

𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝒈 = 𝒉𝝊 =
𝝀
 Semiconductors Having suitable value of Eg emit light in the optical region.

Construction of Homojunction Semiconductor Laser

A homojunction semiconductor laser is a type of laser that uses a single material for both its p-type
and n-type regions
Semiconductor Structure: It consists of a havily doped p-n junction, which is made from the same
semiconductor material.

Junction Region (Active Region)/Depletion Region : The depletion region is formed , which is the
active region of the laser. This is where electrons and holes recombine to generate light.

Reflective Surfaces (Optical Cavity): The ends of the semiconductor crystal are polished to resonant
cavity. These surfaces allow the light generated by electron-hole recombination to bounce back and
forth, amplifying the light through stimulated emission. One of the surfaces is made partially
reflective to allow some light to escape as the laser output.

2. Active Medium

The active medium in a homojunction semiconductor laser is the p-n junction itself. The material
used for both the p-type and n-type regions is typically a direct bandgap semiconductor, such as
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
 Direct Bandgap Material: In direct bandgap semiconductors like GaAs, electrons can
directly fall from the conduction band to the valence band, releasing photons (light) without
losing much energy to heat. This makes it ideal for efficient light emission.

4. Working Principle
 Forward Bias: When a voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the forward-biased
direction (positive voltage on the p-side, negative on the n-side), it injects electrons from the
n-type region into the p-type region and holes from the p-type region into the n-type region.
 Electron-Hole Recombination: In the active region (p-n junction), the electrons and holes
recombine, releasing energy in the form of photons (light particles). These photons stimulate
more recombination, resulting in stimulated emission of light.

5. Pumping Mechanism

Type of Pumping Mechanism- Electrical pumping or forward biased pumping.

 Forward Bias-As we apply forward biased to p-n junction ,this provides the energy needed
to push the electrons and holes into the junction region, where they recombine and generate
light.
 Threshold Current: A certain minimum current, known as the threshold current, is required
to achieve sufficient recombination and stimulated emission to sustain lasing. Once the current
exceeds this threshold, the laser action begins.

6. Laser Emission

 Stimulated Emission: When an electron recombines with a hole, it emits a photon. This
photon can then stimulate another electron-hole recombination, leading to the emission of
more photons of the same phase, frequency, and direction, creating a coherent light beam.
 Amplification in Optical Cavity: The light produced is trapped between the polished
reflective surfaces of the semiconductor, bouncing back and forth within the optical cavity.
This feedback amplifies the light through repeated stimulated emission.
 Laser Output: Once the light is sufficiently amplified, it escapes through the partially
reflective mirror at one end of the cavity, producing the laser beam.

7. Applications

homojunction semiconductor lasers are widely used in:

 Optical communication systems (fiber optics)
 CD/DVD players
 Laser printers
 Bar code readers
 Medical devices (for laser surgery)
Applications of LASER In industry.-

1. Laser Cutting
 Application: Lasers are used to cut metals, plastics, glass, and textiles with precision.
 Laser Property: High intensity and focusability. The laser can be focused on a small area,
delivering a large amount of energy, which melts or vaporizes the material, allowing precise
cutting, high speed cutting.
 A laser is focussed on metal sheet and a jet of oxygen is blown on the spot .A significant
portion of the energy required for cutting is supplied by burning of metal in oxygen

2. Laser Welding
 Application: Lasers are employed to weld materials such as metals and plastics in automotive,
aerospace, and electronics industries.
 Laser Property: High power density and energy concentration. The intense heat generated
by the laser melts the material at the joint, forming a strong bond after solidification.
Two metal plates which we need to weld are held in contact at their edges. High power
laser is focused on point of contact. The metal at the point of contact melts and on cooling
gets solidifies & two metal plates stick together.
3. Laser Drilling
 Application: Lasers are used to drill fine, precise holes in hard materials like ceramics, metals,
and semiconductors.
 Laser Property: Precision and pulsed operation. The laser’s ability to deliver short, intense
pulses enables it to drill very fine and accurate holes without significant damage to
surrounding material.
 When laser is focussed on metal plate it instantly evaporates the metal which leaves the hole
in its place. Holes upto 1 mm or less than that can be drilled.

Properties of LASER
1. Coherence
 Laser Light: Highly coherent—The light waves have constant phase difference the light
waves are in phase both spatially and temporally, meaning the light waves travel together in an
organized fashion.
2. Monochromaticity
 Laser Light: Monochromatic, meaning it consists of a single wavelength or color. Lasers
emit light of a very narrow bandwidth, resulting in pure color.
3. Directionality
 Laser Light: Highly directional—laser light travels in a very straight and narrow beam, with
minimal spread, enabling it to travel long distances without much divergence.
4. Intensity (Power)
 Laser Light: Extremely intense or powerful in a small, concentrated area. The energy is
focused on a small spot, which can lead to high energy density.
5. Polarization
 Laser Light: Usually polarized, meaning the electric field oscillates in a particular direction.