ASSIGNMENT-1

Q1. What are the modes of transmission of data.

ANS. In computer networks, data transmission occurs through different modes of

transmission, which define how data is sent between devices. These modes are classified
into three main types:

1. Simplex Mode

• Data flows in one direction only.

• No return communication is possible.
• Example: Television broadcasting, radio transmission, and keyboards sending input
to a computer.

2. Half-Duplex Mode

• Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.

• Devices take turns sending and receiving data.
• Example: Walkie-talkies, two-way radios.

3. Full-Duplex Mode

• Data flows in both directions simultaneously.

• Both sender and receiver can communicate at the same time.
• Example: Telephone calls, video conferencing, fiber-optic communication.

Q2. Discuss about the types of physical topology.

ANS. A physical topology defines the physical layout and arrangement of devices (nodes)
in a network. It determines how computers, cables, and other network devices are
interconnected.
Its types-:
1) Mesh topology-:
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-topoint link to every other device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects.
Advantages:
Cost-effective (less cabling required).
Easy to implement and expand.
Disadvantages:
A single point of failure (if the main cable fails, the entire network goes down).
Performance decreases with increased traffic.
Example: Used in small networks and early LAN setups.

2) Star Topology-:
Star Topology In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-topoint link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
High performance and reliable (failure of one node doesn’t affect others).
Easy troubleshooting and maintenance.

Disadvantages:
Expensive (requires more cabling).
Single point of failure (if the central hub fails, the network stops working).
Example: Common in modern Ethernet networks (Wi-Fi routers use this).

3) Ring Topology-:

Ring topology is a type of network topology where each device (node) is connected to
exactly two other nodes, forming a closed-loop or ring structure. Devices are connected
in a circular loop. Data travels in a unidirectional or bidirectional manner through the
ring.

Advantages:
No collisions (predictable data flow).
Suitable for high-speed networks.
Disadvantages:
 A single failure can disrupt the entire network.
More difficult to troubleshoot compared to star topology.
Example: Used in older networks and Token Ring technology.

4) Bus Topology-:

All devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).

Uses a single communication channel; data travels in both directions.
Advantages:
Cost-effective (less cabling required).
Easy to implement and expand.
Disadvantages:
A single point of failure (if the main cable fails, the entire network goes down).
Performance decreases with increased traffic.
Example: Used in small networks and early LAN setups.

Q3. Discuss about the categories of network.

ANS. Computer networks are categorized based on their size, geographic coverage, and
purpose. The main categories of networks include:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

Definition: A small network designed for personal devices within a short range.
Range: Typically 1 to 10 meters.
Devices Used: Smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, Bluetooth devices, and IoT
gadgets.
Types of PAN:

• Wired PAN (using USB cables).

• Wireless PAN (WPAN) (using Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee).
Examples:
• Bluetooth connection between a phone and wireless headphones.
• Smart home automation (e.g., controlling lights via mobile apps).
2. Local Area Network (LAN)

Definition: A network that connects multiple devices within a small geographical area
like a home, office, or campus.
Range: Up to a few kilometers.
Devices Used: Computers, routers, switches, printers, access points.
Characteristics:

• High speed (10 Mbps to several Gbps).

• Uses Ethernet (wired) or Wi-Fi (wireless).
Examples:
• Office network in a company.
• Home Wi-Fi network.
• College campus network.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Definition: A network that covers a city or a large campus by connecting multiple

LANs.
Range: 10 to 50 km.
Devices Used: Fiber-optic cables, routers, modems, microwave antennas.
Characteristics:

• Faster than LAN but slower than WAN.

• Used by governments, ISPs, universities.
Examples:
• City-wide Wi-Fi networks.
• Cable TV networks.
• University campus networks across multiple buildings.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Definition: A network that spans a large geographical area, often connecting multiple
cities, countries, or continents.
Range: 100 km to thousands of kilometers.
Devices Used: Satellites, undersea cables, leased telecommunication lines.
Characteristics:
 • Lower speed compared to LAN/MAN.
• Uses public or private communication links.
Examples:
• Internet (largest WAN in the world).
• Corporate networks connecting offices in different countries.
• Banking networks (ATM connectivity).

Q4. Explain digital to digital conversion with all its types.

ANS. Digital-to-digital conversion refers to the process of encoding digital data into
digital signals for transmission over a network. Since computers generate data in binary
form (0s and 1s), these data must be properly formatted and encoded before being sent
over communication channels.
There are three main types of digital-to-digital conversion techniques:
1. Line Coding
2. Block Coding
3. Scrambling

1)Line coding-:
The process of converting digital data to digital signal. It converts the
sequence of bits into digital signals.
At sender side- the bit sequence are encoded to signals.
At receiver side- the signals are decoded to bit sequence.

Types of Line Coding

There are three types of encoding used in line coding:

(i) Unipolar Encoding

• All the signal level are on one side of the time axis i.e. either above(+ve) or below(-
ve)
• It uses non-return to zero techniques.

(ii) Polar Encoding

 • Voltage levels will be on both the sides i.e. zero for positive and 1 for negative and
vice versa.
• Types:

• NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero Polar) – 1 is positive voltage, 0 is negative voltage.

• NRZ-Inverted (NRZI) – Changes voltage on 1, remains the same on 0.
• Return-to-Zero (RZ) – Uses three voltage levels: positive (1), negative (0), and a
return to zero between bits.
• Manchester Encoding – Uses a transition in the middle of each bit period (1 = high
to low, 0 = low to high).
• Differential Manchester Encoding – A transition occurs at the beginning of 0 but
remains unchanged for 1.

iii) Bipolar Encoding

• Uses three voltage levels: positive, zero, and negative.

• Types:
o Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) – 0 is represented by 0V, 1s alternate
between positive and negative voltage.
o Pseudoternary – Opposite of AMI (1s are 0V, 0s alternate).

2. Block Coding

Definition: A method that adds redundancy to data by grouping bits into blocks before
transmission.
Purpose: Helps in error detection and correction.

3. Scrambling

Definition: A technique used to remove long sequences of 0s or 1s without adding

extra bits like block coding.
Purpose: Helps maintain synchronization and reduce power loss.

Q5. Explain the meaning of network.

ANS. A network is a system of interconnected devices that communicate and share
resources with each other. These devices can include computers, servers, routers,
switches, and other hardware connected via wired or wireless communication links.

Key Aspects of a Network

1. Communication – Enables data exchange between devices.

2. Resource Sharing – Allows devices to share files, applications, and internet
access.
3. Connectivity – Links devices locally (LAN) or globally (WAN).
4. Security & Management – Ensures safe and efficient data transfer.

Types of Networks

• PAN (Personal Area Network) – Small-scale, e.g., Bluetooth connections.

• LAN (Local Area Network) – Covers small areas like offices or homes.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – Covers a city or town.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) – Covers large distances, like the Internet.

Examples of Networks

• Home Wi-Fi Network – Connects smartphones, laptops, and smart devices.

• Corporate Network – Used in businesses for communication and data sharing.
• The Internet – The largest global network connecting billions of devices.