NON DESTRUCTIVE

Module TESTING (NDT)

&
4 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 NON DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
✓NDT plays an important role not only in the quality control
of the finished product but also during various stages of
manufacturing.
✓NDT is also used for condition monitoring of various items
during operation to predict and assess the remaining life of
the component while retaining its structural integrity.
✓Destructive testing gives quantitative measurements and
NDT are usually qualitative measurement(quantitative
measurements can also be done).
✓In destructive testing correlation between test
measurement and material properties is direct. Whereas in
NDT skilled judgment and experience are required to interpret
indications.
 ADVANTAGES OF NDT
✓Tests are made directly on the object. 100% testing on actual components is
possible.
✓In-service testing is possible.
✓Very little preparation is sufficient.
✓Permanent record can be made on most of the NDT methods.
✓Most test methods are rapid.
Visual Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection

Magnetic particle inspection

Ultrasonic testing

Radiography testing

Eddy current testing

Acoustic emission testing

 ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
OR
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION (UI)
➢ Introduction
Module ➢ Basic principal of UT
4 ➢ Types of sound waves
➢ Velocity of sound wave
➢ Ultrasonic Transducers
➢ Attenuation
➢ Test techniques
➢ Data presentation
➢ Inspection applications
➢ Advantages of UT
➢ Limitations of UT
 INTRODUCTION
➢Ultrasonic Testing (UT) utilizes high frequency acoustic waves
generated by piezoelectric transducers .

➢Ultrasonic → inaudible sound with high frequency for human

(frequency above 20 kHz)

➢Frequency from 1 to 10 MHz are typically used.

➢Wavelength 1 to 10mm

➢Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,

dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more.

➢It is also commonly used to measure wall thickness in tubes and

can measure diameters of bars.
➢ Techniques to determine the integrity of machines,
components or structure
➢ Inspect of Measure without doing harm
Typical Uses :
1) Flaw detection ( to detect structural failure or local
damage)
2) Leak detection
3) Location determination
4) Dimensional mesurements
5) Structure and microstructure characterization
6) Estimation of mechanical and physical and
mechanical properties
7) 100 % or total inspection
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF UT
➢A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional
units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices.

➢A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high

voltage electrical pulses driven by the pulser, the transducer
generates high frequency ultrasonic energy.

➢The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the

materials in the form of waves.

➢When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path,

part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface.

➢The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal

by the transducer and is displayed on a screen
Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument
 TYPES OF SOUND WAVES

➢Longitudinal wave
➢Transverse/shear wave
 LONGITUDINAL WAVE
➢ In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction
or the direction of wave propagation.
➢ Since compressional and dilational forces are active in these waves, they
are also called pressure or compressional waves.
➢ Compression waves can be generated in fluids, as well as solids because
the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of
compression and expansion (rarefaction) movements.
 TRANSVERSE OR SHEAR WAVE
➢ In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation.
➢ For such a wave to travel through a material, it is necessary that each
particle of the material is strongly bound to its neighbors so that as one
particle moves, it pulls its neighbor with it, so velocity is above half that
of longitudinal velocity.
➢ Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials
such as liquids or gasses.
➢ Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves.
 VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
• Velocity of a sound wave in a material V = f×

• The velocity of propagation of longitudinal, transverse waves depends on

density of the material, it is independent of the frequency.

• Usually for a given frequency a defect which can be detected is of the

order of half the wavelength in that medium.

• Velocity of longitudinal, transverse and surface waves are given by

• VL = √E(1-µ)/ρ(1+µ)(1-µ)
• VT = √E/2ρ(1+µ) = √G/ρ E= Young’s Modulus
• Acoustic Impedance G= Modulus of Rigidity
Z=ρv µ= Poison’s Ratio
Ρ=Density of material
V = Sound velocity in the
material
 Attenuation
When sound waves passes through materials the sound pressure is essentially
weakened by two physical process

1. Scattering
2. Absorption

➢ Scattering results from the fact that the material is not strictly
inhomogeneous such as cast iron and brass.
➢ Remedy for scattering is to lower the frequency.
➢ Absorption is a direct conversion of sound energy into heat for which
several processes like internal friction, elastic and magnetic hysteresis,
heat conduction etc are responsible.
➢ Remedies of absorption are to lower the frequency, increase the
transmission voltage and increase the amplification.
 ULTRASOUND GENERATION
➢ Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.
➢ A piezoelectric element in the transducer converts electrical energy
into mechanical vibrations (sound), and vice versa.
➢ Quartz and some other crystal have a lattice structure such that if a
plate is cut out of the crystal with a certain orientation with respect
to the crystallographic axis, and subjected it to an electric field in
the right direction it will change its direction, it will contract or
expands according to the polarity of the field.
➢ Conversely when a similar deformation of the plate is brought
about by an external mechanical force, electric charges appear on
its opposite surfaces.
➢ The transducer is capable of both transmitting and receiving sound
energy.
 TYPES OF PROBES
➢Normal Beam Transducers
➢Angle Beam Transducers
Angle beam transducers are single element transducers
used with a wedge to introduce a refracted shear wave
or longitudinal wave into a test piece.
TEST TECHNIQUES – NORMAL AND ANGLE
BEAM

• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is

introduced into the test article at 90 degree to the
surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some angle
other than 90.
• The choice between normal and angle beam
inspection usually depends on two
considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of interest
– the sound should be directed to
produce the largest reflection from the
feature.
- Obstructions on the surface of the part
that must be worked around.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

• PT’s contain polarized material

• When electric charge is applied,
dipoles are induced and
dimensions change
• If a force is placed on the
material, it will change
dimensions and create an electric
field
 TEST TECHNIQUES

• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and

inspections can be accomplished in a number of different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into
three primary classifications.
– Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
– Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
 TEST TECHNIQUES - PULSE-ECHO
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and
the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an
echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
f
features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
plate

UT Instrument Screen
TEST TECHNIQUES – PULSE-ECHO (cont.)

Digital display showing

signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one

side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
 TEST TECHNIQUES – THROUGH-
TRANSMISSION
• Two transducers located on 11
opposing sides of the test specimen
are used. One transducer acts as a T R

transmitter, the other as a receiver.

• Discontinuities in the sound path will
result in a partial or total loss of T R

sound being transmitted and be 2

indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
• Through transmission is useful in 11
detecting discontinuities that are not
good reflectors, and when signal
strength is weak. It does not 2
provide depth information.
0 2 4 6 8 10
• Calculations:
Length of cement block (l)= 150mm
Time (t) = 38µs
Velocity = l/t, v = 3.9km/sec.
Velocity criteria for cement quality grading:
SL.NO PLUSE VELOSITY (Km/SEC) QUALITY GRADE

1 >4.5 EXCELLENT

2 3.5-4.5 GOOD

3 3.0-3.5 MEDIUM

4 <3.0 DOUTFUL
TEST TECHNIQUES – THROUGH-
TRANSMISSION

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal due
to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.
 DATA PRESENTATION

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of

different formats

The three most common formats are known in the NDT

world as

1. A-scan presentation
2. B-scan presentation
3. C-scan presentation

Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking

at and evaluating the region of material being inspected
 A-SCAN PRESENTATION

➢The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received

ultrasonic energy as a function of time.
➢The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical
axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the sound energy
travel time within the material) is displayed along the horizontal axis
 B-SCAN PRESENTATION

➢The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of

the test specimen.
➢In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy
is displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position of the
transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
 C-SCAN REPRESENTATION

➢ The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size
of test specimen features.
➢The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-
scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system,
such as a computer controlled immersion scanning system.
➢ The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features that reflect and
scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of the test piece.
 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

• Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and subsurface.

• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo technique is
used.
• High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to
flaw detection.
 LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen (special couple gels)
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.
• Sound waves traverse only a small portion of the medium . Hence
transducer should be moved to cover larger area.
 INSPECTION APPLICATIONS
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing
may be employed include:

• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively
joined and brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and
plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals
 THICKNESS GAUGING
• Ultrasonic thickness gauging is • Applications include
piping systems, storage
routinely utilized in the and containment facilities,
petrochemical and utility and pressure vessels.
industries to determine various
degrees of corrosion/erosion.
 FLAW DETECTION
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36” rolled
beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.
 FLAW DETECTION IN WELDS

• One of the most widely used

methods of inspecting
weldment is ultrasonic
inspection.
• Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam shear
wave examination.
 APPLICATIONS

➢ Inspection of rails for bolts holes breaks without dismantling end assemblies

➢ Inspection of moving strip or plate (for laminations) as regards its thickness

➢ Routine inspection of locomotive axels and wheels pins for fatigue cracks
ULTRASONIC TESTING IN THE FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
Inspection of large castings and forging, for internal soundness before carrying out
expensive machining operations. These include Voids, porosity, inclusions and
cracks

good area of casting

porosity indication
 WELDMENTS (WELDED JOINTS)

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are

▪ Porosity
▪ Slag inclusions
▪ Lack of side-wall fusion
▪ Lack of inter-run fusion
▪ Lack of root penetration
▪ Undercutting, and
▪ Longitudinal or transverse cracks
 Miscellaneous Ultrasonic Applications

Ice
measurement of ice thickness on
ponds and lakes, studies of ice
buildup in coolers and other
industrial processes

Concrete

monitor mechanical
properties such as
compressive strength
Medical and Biological Research Applications

These have included thickness measurements of skin layers, muscle

and fat, and corneal tissue, as well as sound velocity measurements
that can be related to the integrity of bone
Wood Products

Verifying bonding in laminated plywood and particle board, and

measurement of elastic properties.

Minerals, Rocks, Sand, Soil

ultrasonic properties to measure physical parameters such as hardness,
elasticity, and
grain structure,
as well as compaction of soil or sand under laboratory conditions
 Eddy Current Testing
(ECT)

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NDT
Straight conductor carrying current produces circular magnetic field around it.
Right hand rule is used to represent direction of magnetic field and current.

A coil carrying current (conductor) produces

straight magnetic in and out the coil.
Magnetic lines of force are concentrated at
the center of coil.
DC excitation source
produce stationary
magnetic field Whereas AC
produces alternating
/changing magnetic field
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
➢ When a primary conductor (coil) is excited with alternating current , a
primary magnetic field (straight)is set up around the coil . When a secondary
conductor (test object) is placed below the primary conductor ( or in the
close proximity of primary magnetic field), Current is generated in the test
object known as induced current.
➢ This induced current is circular in nature like eddies, hence popularly known
as eddy current or secondary current.

Lenz’s law
➢ Gives direction of induced current
➢ The eddy current has its own magnetic field known as secondary magnetic
field.
➢ The direction of eddy currents is such that it always opposes the change in
the field which produced eddy current (primary magnetic field).
➢ i.e. secondary magnetic field is opposite to primary magnetic field.
➢ Self inductance,
the change in the strength of current in the coil is opposed by the coil itself by
inducing an e.m.f. Self inductance is the property of a single isolated coil to
induce emf in accordance with the change in magnetic flux linked with it.

➢ Mutual inductance
Associated with a pair coils. It is the ability of one coil to produce an induced
emf in nearby coil when the magnetic flux linked with it .
Mutual Induction – basis of eddy current testing
➢ The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2,
and create eddy current to flow in circuit 2.
➢ The induced current in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field, which will
interact with magnetic filed of circuit 1.
➢ Hence at any point of time, magnetic field consists of a part due to i1 and
part due to i2 . These fields are proportional to the current producing them.

➢ Flux through the circuit is , ɸ = L1i1 + Mi2 = L2i2 + Mi1

➢ L1 and L2 represents self inductance of each coil and M represents mutual
inductance between two coil.
Calculation of Impedance Z of probe

V = VR + VL
𝑑ɸ
= iRR +
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐿iL)
= iRR +
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐿i)
= iR+
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐿i0sinwt)
= Ri0sinwt +
𝑑𝑡
iR = iL= I = Ri0sinwt + wL i0 coswt
𝑑ɸ
VL = and ɸ = Li
𝑑𝑡
= i0 (R sinwt + wL coswt)
R= resistance
L = Inductance
XL = Inductive reactance = i0 (R sinwt + XL coswt)
Z= Impedance
= i0 Z
Impedance is the combined resistance to
flow of current due resistor as well as
inductor
Working Principle of Eddy Current Testing
➢ It is based on electromagnetic laws
➢ It consist of single-element ECT probe — a combination of resistance and
inductive coil (conductive wire) is excited with an alternating electrical
current. This produces an alternating magnetic field around itself. The
magnetic field oscillates at the same frequency as the current running
through the coil. When the test specimen (conductive material) brought
closer to the probe, eddy currents opposite to the ones in the coil are
induced in the material.
➢ When the test specimen is free from crack, the eddy currents shows
symmetric pattern and no change in the impedance of probe
➢ Impedance is combined opposition to the flow of current in the probe due
to the resistance and inductive reactance.
➢ But if test object contains cracks/defects/Variations in the electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability, causes a change in eddy current
and a corresponding change in phase and amplitude that can be detected by
measuring the impedance changes in the coil.
➢ This change in impedance which is a sign of the presence of defects.
As shown in above fig.,
➢ In the absence of crack or flaws, eddy currents flow in symmetrical manner
(circular).
➢ In the presence of crack, flaws or change in material thickness , the circular
and symmetric flow of eddy current is affected. Air gap in the crack will not
support eddy current. Eddy current flow becomes unsymmetrical and hence
it intensity changes.
➢ Change in eddy current intensity , alters the associated secondary magnetic
field and hence alters the flow of current through probe. Because of this,
resistance component and inductive reactance of probe changes which in
turn changes the impedance (Z) of the probe. This change in impedance is
the indication of presence of defect.
 Probe
( Coil of wire having both resistance and Inductive reactance .
The combined opposition is known as Impedance)
Probe is used to generate eddy current in test piece.
Inside the probe , there is length of electrical conductor which is
formed into coil and has also resistance. The alternating current is
passed through coil which produces alternating primary magnetic
field in and around it. The conductive metal piece to be tested
(secondary conductor) to is brought in close proximity with
primary magnetic field . This induces eddy current and hence
secondary magnetic field in test piece. The direction of secondary
magnetic field opposes the primary magnetic field and hence
reduces net magnetic field.
 Types of Probe
(Classification Based on their Configuration)

Surface Probes
→A spring mounted flat probe (OR) a pointed
pencil type probe
→ Handheld and can be easily mounted on test
surface

Bolt hole Probes

→Exclusively for bolt hole testing – testing bores on aircraft
→ Probe is inserted into hole and can rotate to scan the hole
→ Probes with different diameters that matches bolt holes are available
 Types of Probe
(Classification Based on their Configuration)

Inside diameter (ID) or Inside Bobbin Probes

→Coil arrangement in the form of a winding over a
bobbin, which passes through components such as
tubes and scans the entire inside surface in one go

External diameter (ID) or Encircling Probes

→ Coil the encircle the material to be inspected
from outside in
→ Coil is in the form of solenoid into which
component is placed
→ Circumferential defects remain undetected as
they are aligned parallel to eddy current flow
 Inspection or Identification of crack/flaw

Change in impedance of the coil in the presence of defect/flaw is the

indication/sign of presence of defect . Eddy current signal can be
represented in different ways as follows.

1) EC signal – change in strength of impedance as phase angle

2) Impedance plane diagram
3) Lift Off curve

EC signal Signal in the

→ In the presence of crack/flaw, the absence of flaw
impedance value changes and
spike is observed on the diagram.
→ In the absence of crack, the
impedance remains constant
Signal in the
presence of flaw
Impedance plane diagram
→ In the presence of crack/flaw, the impedance value changes and spike is
observed on the diagram.
→ In the absence of crack, the impedance remains constant

Part with Imperfections

Part with No flaws
Lift Off Curve

Part with No defect Part with defect

Lift off – distance between the probe and surface of test component
→ probe is in air (point 1)
→ When probe is brought near to test surface (point 2), the resistance component of
impedance will increase as eddy currents are being generated in the specimen which
draws energy from the coil. This shows up as increase in resistance.
→ At the same time, the inductive reactance of the coil decreases as magnetic field created
by the eddy current opposes the magnetic field of coil and the net effect is weaker
magnetic field to produce inductance
→ In the defect free region, signal will move back and forth in the same pattern as 1-2
→ In the presence of discontinuity , coil impedance changes i.e. Resistance decreases and
reactive inductance increases and hence signal traces the pattern 2-3 , which is the
indications of presence of defect
 Depth of Penetration
Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their
strength decreases with distance from the coil. Eddy current density decreases
exponentially with increase in depth. This phenomenon is known as “skin effect”.

Skin effect arises because of eddy currents produced in the test object at any depth,
produce magnetic fields which opposes the primary magnetic field. Thus net
magnetic flux is reduced causing decreasing in eddy current flow with increase in
depth.
 Standard Depth of Penetration
(OR)
Skin depth

The depth at which eddy currents are only 1/e or 37% of its value on
the surface is known as standard depth of penetration.

𝟏
Standard depth of penetration = δμσ = δ =
π𝒇μσ

Where μ = magnetic permeability (H/m)

σ = Electrical conductivity (S/m)
f = frequency of excitation (Hz)
 Instrumentation

Refers to displays used to present the data

1) Analogue meters - indicators

2) Digital meters – contains analogue to digital converter and digital
readout to display this number. Have slightly higher accuracy than
analogue meters
3) Eddy signals
- Impedance plane diagram display
- Impedance strength display
- Lift off curve display
 Standard Reference

For effective eddy current testing, the signals generated

from test specimen are compared with known values.

Eddy current inspection unit is configured using

reference standard

Reference standards are manufactured using same

material as that of test specimen or similar materials

First standard reference material is tested , if it is giving

correct signal, the test components is tested
 ECT steps (Summary)

1) Generation of eddy current

2) Secondary magnetic field is set up in opposite
direction
3) Impedance of coil is changed in the presence
of flaw/discontinuity
4) Change in impedance is analysed to detect
the presence of flaw
 Advantages of ECT

1) Sensitive to fine cracks

2) Detects surface and near surface defect
3) Gives immediate result (faster)
4) Equipment is portal
5) Minimal part preparation
6) Test probes need not to contact the
component surface
7) Complex shape and size components can be
inspected
8) Used for applications other flaw detection
 Limitations of ECT

1) Only conductive materials can be inspected

2) Surface must be accessible to the probe
3) Operator training required is more extensive
4) Depth of penetration is limited
5) Reference standards must be used
6) Surface roughness and geometry may
interfere the results
7) Flaws parallel to coil winding remains
undetected
 Applications of ECT
1) Crack/flaw detection
2) Material thickness measurement – thicker material
supports more eddy current than thinner materials. The
strength or amount of eddy current is measured and
related to material thickness
3) Non conductive coating measurements – the non
conductive coating displaces the probe from conductive
base material and hence weakens the strength of eddy
current. This reduction in strength is measured and related
to coating thickness
4) Conductivity measurements – the change in impedance of
the coil can be directly correlated to conductivity of
material and hence conductivity can be measured
 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
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 IMPACT TESTING
Different fracture behavior @ different strain rates (low and high)

Conventional tensile test – lower strain rates – 10-4 to 10-2 / sec → ductile
behavior

Same material shows brittle behavior at higher strain rates (sudden o

intense blow)

Plastics such as Polyethylene

Strain rate during impact testing → very high → 103/ sec→ 5 to 7 times
higher than conventional tensile test

Hardness → analogous to strength

Toughness → analogous to impact → energy required to fracture standard
test piece under impact load

Sinking of “Titanic” ship in Atlantic ocean in 1912

 IMPACT TESTING
IMPACT TEST CONDITIONS
➢ Chosen to be most severe
➢ High strain rate → rapid deformation rate
➢ Stress concentration
➢ Triaxial state of stress – introduced by the presence of notch

All these factors together or individually responsible for brittle behavior of

the material

Testing at lower temperature → enhances the brittle behavior of material

Many steels tend to loose strength as very low temperature is approached

Impact testing need

➢ To evaluate impact energy
➢ To determine embrittling temperature range
➢ To determine ductile brittle transition temperature
 CHARPY IMPACT TESTING

Without Notch many alloys will simply bend . Hence it becomes to

difficult to determine the energy absorbed.
Velocity of pendulum approximately → 3 to 6 m/sec
Elastic deformation → plastic deformation → fracture
IZOD IMPACT TESTING

➢ Notch is not at the center of the specimen

➢ Specimens with circular cross section can be
used but are not popular
➢ Specimen is placed vertically and
pendulum/hammer strikes the specimen
above the notch and breaks it.
➢ Notch faces the striking hammer
 DUCTILE BRITTLE TRANSITION
One of the primary function of impact test is to determine whether or not a
material experiences the ductile – brittle transition with decreasing temperature , if
so the temperature range over which occurs.

Number of samples are tested at different temperature and energy absorbed by

these specimens is determined.

Higher the energy absorbed → more ductile fracture

Energy
Absorbed
Vs.
Test
Temperature
Factor affecting Impact testing

→ Notch sensitivity materials – absorbed energies are much lower

→ Size of specimen – thick component – chances of having cracks – lower
absorbed energy
→ Rate of application of energy
→ Crystal structure
→ Chemical composition
→ Grain Size
→ Heat treatment

Precaution:
 Fatigue testing
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R R Moore Rotating beam Fatigue testing Equipment
ASTM E466 – Standard Practice for Controlling Constant Amplitude Axial fatigue
Tests of Metallic Material.

ASTM E468 – Standard Practice for presentation of constant amplitude fatigue test
result for metallic materials
 Fatigue Cracks

Beach marks – macroscopic and one beach

mark represents period of time over which
crack growth had occurred. Visible under
optical microscope or sometimes with
naked eye. These are concentric ridges , in a
circular or semi circular pattern, the spacing
of which increases as we move away form
crack initiation site.

Fatigue striations on other hand, are microscopic in size and observed under scanning
electron microscope or transmission electron microscope. Each striation represents the
distance over which crack has grown in one cycle. Each Beach mark may contains
thousands of striations.

Presence of beach marks or fatigue striation is the indication that component has
undergone fatigue failure.
 Fatigue Prevention methods
These methods are focussed on delaying initiation of fatigue
cracks and hence improved fatigue life. It is observed that , in the
presence of compressive stress , nucleation and propagation of
crack will not happen or delayed. Also, if crack is present, under
the action of compressive stress, it closes or does not propagate.
Hence all the methods are aimed at inducing residual
compressive stress on surface of the component or making the
surface hard.

1) Increasing surface hardness by changing chemical

composition or heat treating the surface
2) Shot peening
3) burnishing
THANK YOU