Domain C.

1. Behaviorism and behavior modification

2. Classical and operant conditioning, conditioned and unconditioned
reinforcement and
punishment
3. Three-part contingency; antecedents, behaviors, consequences (ABC data)
4. Foundational behavioral terminology including, extinction, extinction
burst, spontaneous
recovery, deprivation, satiation, stimulus, discriminative stimulus, stimulus
control, responses, motivation operations, establishing operations, setting
events
5. Principles and types of schedules of reinforcement and punishment
6. Contingent and non-contingent; primary and secondary
reinforcement and punishment
7. Terms and s of Applied Verbal Behavior (AVB)

1. Behaviorism and Behavior Modification

Behaviorism: Behaviorism is a psychological approach that focuses on

observable behaviors and discards any consideration of internal mental states.
The primary premise of behaviorism is that all behaviors are acquired through
interaction with the environment, and thus, behaviors can be studied in a
systematic and observable manner regardless of internal mental states.

Proponents of Behaviorism:

1. John B. Watson: Often considered the father of behaviorism, Watson

emphasized the study of observable behavior and rejected introspection
as a method of psychological research. He famously said, "Give me a
dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select."
2. B.F. Skinner: Known for his work in operant conditioning, Skinner
introduced the concept of reinforcement and punishment to shape
behavior. His work with the Skinner box demonstrated how behaviors
could be controlled by manipulating environmental variables.
3. Ivan Pavlov: A Russian physiologist known for his work on classical
 conditioning, Pavlov demonstrated how a neutral stimulus, when paired
with an unconditioned stimulus, could elicit a conditioned response.

Behavior Modification: Behavior modification is the application of behaviorist

principles to change behavior. This involves the systematic application of
reinforcement, punishment, and other techniques to increase or decrease the
occurrence of specific behaviors. The goal is to replace undesirable behaviors with
more desirable ones using the principles derived from both classical and operant
conditioning.

7 Principles of Behaviorism

1. Determinism:
○ Behavior is determined by a combination of genetic and
environmental factors. It implies that behavior is not random but
is caused by specific conditions.
2. Empiricism:
○ Scientific knowledge comes from observable, measurable
phenomena. In behaviorism, this means that only behaviors that can
be seen and measured are studied, avoiding speculation about
internal mental states.
3. Parsimony:
○ The simplest explanation for a behavior is preferred. Behaviorists
seek to explain behavior in the simplest terms, without unnecessary
assumptions.
4. Scientific Manipulation:
○ Behavior can be studied scientifically through manipulation and
controlled experimentation. By manipulating environmental
variables, behaviorists can observe changes and draw conclusions
about the causes of behavior.
5. Philosophic Doubt:
○ Conclusions are tentative and subject to change as new evidence
emerges. This principle encourages ongoing questioning and
testing of existing knowledge.
6. Law of Effect:
○ Proposed by Edward Thorndike, this principle states that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur in the
future, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less
likely to be repeated. It forms the basis for operant conditioning.
 7. Behavioral Technology:
○ The application of behavioral principles to solve practical problems.
This involves developing interventions based on behaviorist
principles to bring
about positive changes in behavior in real-world settings, such as
schools, workplaces, and clinical environments.

Proponents of Behaviorism

John B. Watson:

● Focused on observable behavior.

● Famous for the "Little Albert" experiment demonstrating conditioned
emotional responses.

B.F. Skinner:

● Developed the theory of operant conditioning.

● Introduced concepts of reinforcement schedules, shaping, and the Skinner
box.

Ivan Pavlov:
● Discovered classical conditioning through his work with dogs.
● Demonstrated how neutral stimuli could become conditioned stimuli.

Edward Thorndike:

● Known for the Law of Effect.

● Studied how consequences affect behavior in his puzzle box experiments
with cats.

Clark Hull:

● Proposed the drive-reduction theory of learning.

● Emphasized the importance of habits in behavior.
Albert Bandura (later developed Social Learning Theory, which combines
behaviorist principles with cognitive elements):

● Known for the Bobo doll experiment.

● Emphasized observational learning and modeling.

2. Classical and Operant Conditioning, Conditioned and

Unconditioned Reinforcement and Punishment

Classical Conditioning: This is a learning process that occurs through

associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus. Pavlov's dogs are a classic example, where a neutral stimulus (bell)
becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit a
conditioned response (salivation).

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus

comes to evoke a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally
evokes a response.

Key Components:

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR): The naturally occurring response to the

unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The neutral stimulus that, after being paired
with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Example: Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, where a bell (CS) was
repeatedly paired with food (US), leading to the bell alone eliciting salivation
(CR).
Operant Conditioning: This type of learning is based on the
consequences of behavior. It includes:

Reinforcer: Any consequence that increases a behavior. For example, if you

give a cookie to the client who is screaming I WANT A COOKIE, the client is
more likely to scream in the future to receive a cookie.

Punisher: Any consequence that decreases a behavior. For example, if you

reprimand a client for jumping on the couch, the client is less likely to jump on
the couch in the future you have punished the client.

Reinforcement: INCREASES the likelihood of a behavior being repeated again in

the future

Reinforcement is a process that increases the likelihood of a behavior being

repeated by following that behavior with a consequence the individual finds
rewarding or satisfying.

● Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a

behavior (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).

Example:

During a class discussion, the teacher notices that Sarah, one of her
students, raises her hand and contributes to the discussion by
sharing an insightful comment. The teacher immediately responds
with positive reinforcement. Teacher said: "Thank you, Sarah, for
sharing your thoughts. That was an excellent contribution to our
discussion!"

● Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a

behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a correct action is performed).

Example:

In a math class, the teacher notices that Tom struggles with

completing his homework assignments on time. The teacher decides
 to implement negative reinforcement to encourage Tom to complete
his homework promptly. Teacher: "Tom, I see that you've completed
your homework assignment on time this week. As a result, you won't
have to stay after class for extra practice problems."

Punishment is a process that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being

repeated again in the future.

Punishment is a process that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being

repeated by following that behavior with a consequence the individual finds
unpleasant. Like reinforcement, there are two types of punishment: positive
punishment and negative punishment.

● Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a

behavior (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).

Scenario: In a classroom, the teacher notices that Sarah often talks

out of turn and disrupts the class. To address this, the teacher
decides to
implement positive punishment.

● Teacher: "Sarah, if you continue to talk out of turn, you will

have to write 'I will not disrupt the class' 50 times during
recess."
● Behavior: Sarah talks out of turn.
● Aversive Stimulus: Writing lines during recess.
● Result: Sarah is less likely to talk out of turn in the future to
avoid writing lines.

● Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a

behavior (e.g., taking away a toy for bad behavior).

Scenario: At home, parents notice that Jake has been hitting his
younger brother during playtime. To address this, they decide to
implement negative punishment.

● Parent: "Jake, because you hit your brother, you won't be

allowed to play with your video games for the rest of the
day."
 ● Behavior: Jake hits his brother.
● Desirable Stimulus: Playing video games.
● Result: Jake is less likely to hit his brother in the future to
avoid losing video game time.

UNCONDITIONED AND CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT

Unconditioned Reinforcement:

● : This is like the basic, natural stuff that we all find rewarding without having
to
learn it. It's not dependent on our past experiences; it's just something
we're born wanting.
● Also Known As: Primary reinforcers.
● Examples: Things like food, water, warmth, pleasure, and air fall under
unconditioned reinforcement. These are things that everyone
generally finds
rewarding without having to be taught. Babies, for example, naturally seek
these things.

Conditioned Reinforcement:

● : This is when something becomes rewarding because of our past

experiences or learning history. It's not inherently rewarding; its
effectiveness depends on what we've learned about it.
● Also Known As: Secondary reinforcers.
● Examples: Unlike the basic stuff, conditioned reinforcement varies from
person to person. For one person, it might be music, for another, it could
be a specific
type of food or electronics. These are things we've learned to find
rewarding based on our experiences.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

-refer to patterns or rules that determine when and how often reinforcement is
delivered after a behavior.

Types of reinforcement schedules

1.Continuous Reinforcement: (CRF or FR1)
● YOU USED CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE WHEN YOU
ARE TEACHING A NEW SKILL. PRAISE AND REINFORCE THE CHILD
FOR EVERY CORRECT RESPONSE.
i. : Reinforcement is delivered every time the behavior occurs.
ii. Example: If your students answers yes every time you
call his name. You give him a verbal praise. you're using
continuous reinforcement.

2.Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: This is used when you start to fade

out
your reinforcement to promote or elicit natural response.
● : Reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the
behavior occurs.

Fixed- means Constant

Variable- average -

(changes) Ratio= Number

of response

Interval= Time period

Type of Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement:

● Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is given after a fixed number

of responses.
Example:In a classroom, Alex often interrupts the
teacher during lessons. The teacher introduces a
reward system where Alex earns a sticker for every
three times he raises
his hand and waits to speak. When Alex successfully
raises his hand and waits his turn three times, he
receives a sticker as a reward, encouraging him to
continue the positive behavior. (FR3)
● Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is given after a
varying number of responses.
● Example: In a classroom, the teacher wants to
encourage students to participate more actively in
class discussions. They implement a variable ratio
reinforcement schedule, where students receive
praise or a reward for their contributions. Sometimes
it's after every third participation,
other times after every fifth or seventh. This keeps
students engaged and motivated to participate
consistently.

● Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount

of time has passed

Example: .In a classroom, the teacher wants to keep

students focused during independent work time. They
decide to implement a fixed interval reinforcement
schedule. For example, every 15 minutes of focused
work earns students verbal praise or a token. This
encourages students to stay
on task and work independently throughout the
designated time. (FI15)

● Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is given after a

varying amount of time has passed.

● Example: In a classroom, the teacher aims to boost

student participation in discussions. They use a variable
interval reinforcement schedule, where students
receive praise or a reward at irregular intervals, such as
after 5, 7, or 10 minutes, for contributing to class
discussions. This keeps students engaged and eager to
participate consistently.
3. Three-part contingency: Antecedents, Behaviors, Consequences (ABC data)

The three-part contingency, also known as ABC data, refers to the three
essential components involved in understanding and analyzing behavior.

Antecedents:
● : Antecedents are events, situations, or circumstances that occur
before a behavior takes place. They set the stage for the behavior to
happen.
● Example: If a teacher asks a question (antecedent), a student raising
their hand to answer (behavior) might be the expected response.
Behaviors:
● : Behaviors are the observable and measurable actions or reactions
of an individual. It's what the person does in response to the
antecedent.
● Example: In the scenario mentioned earlier, the behavior is the
student raising their hand to answer the teacher's question.
Consequences:
● : Consequences are the events or outcomes that occur after
behavior. They can be positive (adding something desirable),
negative (removing something undesirable), or neutral.
● Example: If the teacher praises the student for the correct answer
(positive consequence), it may increase the likelihood of the student
participating in class discussions in the future.
Scenario 1:

When it's time for dinner, Emily refuses to sit at the table and throws her plate
on the floor. Emily's parents scold her for her behavior, and Emily is sent to her
room for a
timeout.

Antecedent: Announcement of dinner time.

Behavior: Emily refuses to sit at the table and throws her plate on the
floor.

Consequence: Emily's parents scold her for her behavior, and Emily is
sent to her room for a timeout.

Type: Negative punishment

Function: Escape or avoidance (avoiding the demand to sit at the

table) and attention-seeking behavior (from parental scolding).

Scenario2 :

Whenever the fire alarm goes off at school, Tim covers his ears and hides under
his desk. Tim's classmates and teacher notice his reaction, reassure him, remove
him from the area and help him calm down until the alarm stops.

Antecedent: Fire alarm goes off.

Behavior: Tim covers his ears and hides under his desk.

Consequence: Tim's classmates and teacher notice his reaction,

reassure him, and help him calm down until the alarm stops.

Type: negative reinforcement

Function: Sensory sensitivity or escape from aversive stimulus

(loud noise) and attention-seeking behavior (classmates and
teacher's attention).
4. Foundational Behavioral Terminology

Responses

: Specific instances of behavior.

Extinction

: The process of reducing a behavior by withholding reinforcement.

Example:

● Scenario: A child cries every time they want a toy, and the parent usually
gives in.
● Intervention: The parent decides to stop giving the child the toy when they
cry.
● Result: Over time, the child stops crying to get the toy because the
behavior is no longer reinforced.

Extinction Burst

: A temporary increase in the frequency or intensity of a behavior after extinction is

first implemented.

Example:

● Scenario: After the parent stops giving the child a toy when they cry,
the child starts crying louder and more frequently at first.
● Result: This increase in crying (extinction burst) eventually diminishes as
the behavior continues to go unrewarded.
Spontaneous Recovery

: The reappearance of an extinguished behavior after a period of non-exposure

to the conditioned stimulus.

Example:

● Scenario: Weeks after the child has stopped crying for toys due to
extinction, they suddenly cry for a toy again.
● Result: The parent continues to withhold the toy, and the crying
behavior quickly extinguishes again.

Deprivation

: The absence or reduction of a reinforcer, which increases its effectiveness.

Example:

● Scenario: A dog has not eaten for several hours.

● Result: The dog is more likely to perform tricks for a food reward
because the deprivation makes the food more reinforcing.

Satiation

: The decrease in effectiveness of a reinforcer after repeated exposure.

Example:

● Scenario: A child has been given candy every time they complete a task,
and they have eaten a lot of candy.
● Result: The child is less motivated to complete tasks for candy
because they are satiated and no longer find the candy as rewarding.
Stimulus

: Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Example:

● Scenario: A loud noise (stimulus) causes a person to jump (response).

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment,

increasing the likelihood of a specific behavior.

Example:

● Scenario: A teacher holds up a green card (SD) signaling that

students can ask questions.
● Result: Students are more likely to raise their hands to ask questions
when the green card is displayed.

Stimulus Control

: The degree to which a behavior is influenced by a discriminative stimulus.

Example:

● Scenario: A child learns to clean their room when their parent

gives a specific command.
● Result: The child’s room-cleaning behavior is under strong stimulus
control of the parent’s command.
Motivating Operations (MO)

: Environmental variables that alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher

and influence behavior. Includes establishing operations (EO) and abolishing
operations (AO).

Example:

● Scenario: A child is very hungry (MO).

● Result: Food becomes a more effective reinforcer, and the child is more
likely to comply with requests to obtain food.

Establishing Operations (EO)

: Increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher.

Example:

● Scenario: A teacher announces that students who complete their work on

time will get extra recess (EO).
● Result: The promise of extra recess makes timely work completion more
reinforcing.

Setting Events

: Contextual factors that influence behavior.

Example:
● Scenario: A child behaves better in class after having a good breakfast
and plenty of sleep.
● Result: The positive setting events (good breakfast, adequate sleep)
influence the child’s behavior positively in the classroom.
Applied Verbal Behavior (AVB) is a branch of behavior analysis that focuses on
how verbal behavior can be taught and analyzed. Here’s a detailed explanation of
each term with examples:

1. Mand:
○ Definition: A mand is a type of verbal behavior where the speaker
makes a request or demand to obtain something they want or need.
It’s driven by the speaker’s motivation.
○ Example: If a child is hungry and says “cookie,” that’s a mand. The
child is requesting a cookie, and their verbal behavior is directly
related to their current need or desire.
2. Tact:
○ Definition: A tact is a verbal behavior used to comment on or label
the environment. It’s usually a statement that shares information or
provides a description of something that the speaker is observing or
experiencing.
○ Example: When someone says “The sky is blue” while looking
outside, that’s a tact. The speaker is labeling or commenting on the
color of the sky based on their observation.
3. Intraverbal:
○ Definition: An intraverbal is a verbal response that is influenced by
previous verbal behavior. It involves answering questions, engaging
in conversations, or providing comments based on what someone
else has said.
○ Example: If a person is asked, “What did you do last weekend?” and
they respond, “I went hiking,” that’s an intraverbal. The response is
related to the question asked and is part of a conversation or
dialogue.
4. Echoic:
○ Definition: Echoic behavior involves repeating or imitating what
another person has said. It’s a direct verbal replication of someone
else’s speech.
○ Example: If a child hears an adult say “ball” and then repeats “ball,”
that’s an echoic response. The child is imitating the adult’s speech
without necessarily understanding the meaning behind it.
5. Listener Behavior:
○ Definition: Listener behavior refers to the actions or responses
of an individual in reaction to someone else’s verbal behavior.
This includes following instructions, responding to questions, or
making appropriate reactions based on verbal input.
 ○ Example: If a teacher says, “Please sit down,” and a student follows
the instruction by sitting in their chair, that’s an example of listener
behavior. The student’s action is a response to the teacher’s verbal
command.
6. Imitation:

● Definition: Imitation involves reproducing or mimicking another

person's behavior, including verbal behavior. It’s a key process
through which
individuals learn and develop new skills by observing and
replicating the actions or speech of others.