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GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Dr. A. Sivakumar
A. Arun

LAXMI BOOK PUBLICATION

2018
Price: 500/-

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Dr. A. Sivakumar
A. Arun
© 2018 by Laxmi Book Publication, Solapur.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission of the
author. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for
damages.[The responsibility for the facts stated, conclusions reached,
etc., is entirely that of the author. The publisher is not responsible for
them, whatsoever.]

ISBN: 978-1-387-85383-0

Published by
Lulu Publication
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 PREFACE

Guidance and counseling are very consequential part of

activity in scholastic institutions all over the world. But in
Indian literature on this subject is very scanty and hence, there
is a great desideratum for an ideal book on the subject in our
land. In the present book guidance and counseling, an
endeavor has been made to consummate this need in the wake
of transmuting pattern of socio-economic, socio-scholastic and
socio-cultural system which are composing involute shape
owning to advancement in science and technology and
transmuting nature of human comportment and a person’s
adjustment with his family, community and society. After
relegating the concept of guidance, the book studies its
relationship with inculcate specialties, its areas, its types such
as self-guidance and guidance to other individuals.it proceeds
to discuss professional counseling and explicates counseling of
individuals and in groups. It examines counseling for
vocational development and leisure time guidance. This book
Guidance and Counselling disseminates the necessary content
of the educational practices.This book consists of five chapters
and its deals with The Concept of Guidance, Areas and
Techniques of Guidance, The Concept of Counselling,
Counselling Tools, Techniques and Problems and Organization
of Guidance and Counseling Services. This book is dedicated to
all students. Suggestions and comments to improve the
contents of this book will be welcomed.

- Dr. A.Sivakumar & A. Arun

 CONTENTS

S.No. CHAPTER Page No.

1 THE CONCEPT OF GUIDANCE 1

2 AREAS AND TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE 28

3 THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING 70

COUNSELLING TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND

4 89
PROBLEMS

ORGANIZATION OF GUIDANCE AND

5 116
COUNSELING SERVICES

REFERENCES 130
Chapter – 1
THE CONCEPT OF GUIDANCE

1.1. MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF GUIDANCE

Definition
"Guidance is a process of helping young persons learns to
adjust to self to others and to circumstances'. - Skinner.
Meaning of Guidance
Guidance is a personal assistance.Guidance is a process
by which individual solves his problems by his own
efforts.Guidance focuses on the attention of the welfare of the
individual.
Needs of Guidance
 To help an individual to solve any complex situation.
 It is mainly created around educational needs, vocational
needs &personal needs.
 It helps the child to adjust with situations and develop the
ability to faceproblems and resolve them.
 To develop the personality of the child according to his
inborn tendencies,traits and capacities.
 To provide all necessary information to the people to choose
a bettercareer and to get success in life.
Types of Guidance in Schools
Educational Guidance
 It is concerned with the assistance given to pupils in their
choices and adjustments with relation to schools curriculum,
courses and school life.
 It includes the help and assistance given to pupils in adjusting
to thedemands of the school and to plan intelligently an
educational programmesuited to their abilities and needs.
 It serves to realize the aims and objectives of education and
to check wastage and stagnation.
1
Vocational Guidance
 It is the process of helping the individual to choose
occupation that fit him best.
 It involves a thorough understanding of the individual
general and special capacities.
Personal Guidance
 It assists the individual to adjust with psychological and
social environment.
 1t is to solve the emotional and psychological problems.
 Educational and Vocational guidance can be called personal
guidance.
Scope of Guidance service in schools
 Help to make a satisfactory transition from home to the
school.
 To diagnose the difficulties in the learning of basic skills.
 To help to avoid potential dropouts to study in schools.
 To help them understand the purpose and meaning of life.
 To plan for further education.
Guidance at Elementary School level
 To adjust the new environment.
 To adjust the special character of some children.
 To reduce the learning disabilities.
 To preserve their emotional, educational, social needs.
 To prevent emotional, educational, social backwardness.
SCOPE OF GUIDANCE
The scope of guidance is too wide. In the words of Crow
and Crow, “Guidance touches every aspect of an individual’s
personality- physical, mental, emotional and social. It is
concerned with all aspects of an individual’s attitudes and
behaviour patterns. It seeks to help the individual to integrate all
of his activities in terms of his basic potentialities and
environmental opportunities.”
Any needy person can be guided. This can include the
persons of different age, different interests, various

2
characteristics and persons of different nature. Hence, we cannot
draw boundaries around the process of guidance.
The following factors are responsible for the expansion of the
scope of guidance.
1. Complex nature of personality. Industrialisation brings
with it a number of tensions such as adjustment with the job,
with the place of work, with the physical and social
environment, and also with the advancements of technology
and modernisation. To cope with all these, guidance is
essential. So the scope of guidance in the field of adjustment
with almost all spheres of life has increased.
2. Complexity of Occupation. In the process of
industrialisation, automation and cybernetics, many new
occupations are coming up and a few old occupations are
dying. In U.S.A., an average man changes seven occupation
through his life. The trend is bound to effect as the process of
development will need very complex sophisticated and
complicated occupations for which higher educational
background and intensive training will be necessary. This
complexity is bound to increase the scope of guidance in so
many ways.
3. Complexity of Training. For the new jobs, new type of
training, new courses of studies, use of new types of
machines and above all to prepare oneself for employment in
the changing world are some of the problems which will have
to be tackled in an effective way, with the help of guidance.
The scope of guidance will be to put right man in the right
job.
4. Increasing Areas. With the passing of time and complexity
of circumstances, scholars like Brewer have prepared about
10 areas of guidance i.e., educational, vocational, religious,
home relationship, citizenship, leisure time and recreation,
personal well-being, right doing, cooperation and cultural
action. The fact remain that more complex the society, more
will be the need for guidance.

3
5. Migration. Because of industrialisation process, people move
from one state to other states. In India, the states are quite
different in their religion, culture, mode of living, dress,
eating habits and marriages. When they move from one social
set up to another one, the problem of adjustment becomes
serious for which guidance is needed.
The similar types of adjustment problems are found when the
people from one country migrate to another country for
employment, education or training, for which guidance if
required.
6. The Expansion of Education. The days are gone when only a
few privileged were to be educated. Now, education has
become asset for the nation and right placement of persons
need a lot of guidance.
7. Areas of guidance. The Scope of guidance is classified into
several areas where and individual needs guidance. These
areas can be classified into educational guidance, vocational
guidance, personal guidance, social guidance, avocational
guidance and Health guidance.
Thus guidance is a continuous, complex, dynamic and
comprehensive process. Guidance is concerned with educational,
vocational and other problems along with personal problems.
Guidance work can occur anywhere and can be provided even
through magazines, books and correspondence.
1.2. PHILOSOPHICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL
BASES OF GUIDANCE
PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF GUIDANCE
Philosophy is the mother of education and education
gives birth to Philosophy. This may seem contradictory but the
relationship between philosophy and education is very close.
Philosophy furnishes the goals of life and education gives the
means to achieve those goals. Man is the common subject of both
philosophy and education. Philosophy and education are
interrelated, interdependent, identical and inseparable from each
other. Every philosopher has an educational outlook and every
educator has a philosophy of life. No system of education is
4
completely divorced from philosophy. Philosophy provides the
aim of life and thereby the aim of education, and education
provides the vehicle for carrying out that philosophic aim in
practical life. According to James Ross, “Philosophy and
Education are two sides of a coin: the former is contemplative
while the latter is the active side,” Philosophy is thus an
exhaustive and comprehensive inquiry into the world of matter
and mind viewed as one whole. John Dewey defines philosophy
as a theory of education in its most general aspects. He holds that
“education is the laboratory in which philosophic truth become
concrete and are tested.”
The interdependence of philosophy and education is
evident from the fact that all great philosophers are great
educators- Socrates in Greece, Confucius in China, Buddha,
Tagore and Gandhi in India. They reflected their philosophical
views in their educational schemes. For example, Plato’s idealism
gave birth to his cultural scheme of education, Rationalism in
philosophy produced the theory of formal discipline in education,
Rousseau’s anti-social philosophy was reflected in his “negative
or natural education”. American pragmatism has resulted in the
project method of education. Naturalism has introduced the play-
way method. Hence there is no reason to believe that education is
unaffected by philosophy. The truths and principle established by
philosophy are applied in the conduct of education process.
Rousseau, Fichte and others, therefore contend that in the true
sense of the term education is real philosophy. All educational
programmes become consistent if their foundations are laid on
sound philosophy. Philosophy formulates the aims of life and
education offers suggestion how these aims are to be achieved.
Education is a sustaining, progressive and purposive effort,
whose strength comes only form the moral values of the
community, the only source of which is philosophy.
Therefore, we can say that without philosophy, education
would be nothing but a blind effort and without education
philosophy would be no better than a cripple. Divorced from
philosophy, education would become an aimless endeavor; a

5
hopeless waste of time and energy. Thus, philosophy gives
education its point, its target, its goal.
Philosophy exercises tremendous influence on education
in all its aspects - aims, curriculum, methods, teachers, textbooks,
administration, discipline, evaluation etc. There is no aspect of
education, which is not influenced and determined by
philosophy. There is no escape from a philosophy of life and of
education. It determines the aims and content of education; it
influences discipline in the school; it exercises an effective
influence on the methods of teaching and it defines the role of the
teacher in the educational set-up.
Philosophy and Aims of Education
Every scheme of education has some aims to be attained.
Aims differ from time to time and place to place. But aims have a
common element. Aims of education are determined by aim of
life or philosophy of life. Philosophy formulates the ends of life,
and education offers suggestions how these ends are to be
achieved. Aims of education change with the changing philosophy
of life. The aim of Spartan system of education was to prepare
patriotic citizens and soldiers. The Athenian system of education
aimed at the cultural development of each individual. The British
Public Schools aimed at citizenship. The Nazi system of education
was determined by Nazi philosophy of life. Thus, aims of
education are relative to the aims and philosophy of life.
Philosophy and Curriculum
Philosophy determines the aims of education and
curriculum determines how these aims can be attained. The
curriculum is the means to attain aims of education. Curriculum
is to be determined by the educational objectives which are again
determined by philosophy. Hence, the curriculum to be followed
in schools has to conform to the prevailing philosophy. Thus, the
problem of curriculum construction is tackled and solved by
philosophical beliefs.
Philosophy and Text Books
The text books constitute the part of curriculum. The
adoption of appropriate text-books is, therefore, closely
6
connected with philosophy. Briggs has rightly pointed out that
the selection of text books depends on the ideals and values of a
particular time and society. Philosophy is reflected in the content
material of text-books.
Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
Method means the art of teaching or the knowledge to
which the teacher follows in the communication of knowledge to
the students. The effectiveness of this teaching-learning process
depends to great extent on the nature or art of communication.
This art of communication or the classroom techniques are
satisfactorily tackled by philosophy.
Naturalist philosophy has emphasized the child-centered
methods of education. It requires the methodology to recognize
the inborn capacities of children. Educators like Rousseau, Fichte
and Montessori stand for non-intervention by the teacher. The
idealist philosophy, on the other hand, pleads for intervention in
the education of the child by the teacher. Idealism argues that as
the child has to realize certain ultimate values , the method of
teaching must be teacher-centered. Pragmatism lays stress on
problematic and creative activities and it advocates project
method for effective learning.
Philosophy and Discipline
The nature or type of discipline is always determined by
the philosophy. Naturalism emphasizes self-assertion of the
individual, as against blind obedience to authority. The idealists,
on the other hand, wish the individual to rise above self. Idealism
relies much on the personality of the teacher for the maintenance
of discipline. Pragmatists advocate complete freedom from
external pressure. Thus, we see that the problem of discipline is
closely related with philosophy, and the conception of discipline
as held by a teacher or educator will always be influenced by his
philosophical beliefs.
Philosophy and Teacher
The teacher is the soul of the educative process. A teacher
not only has a thorough knowledge of his subject, but also he
must know man, the society at large. He must have a clear vision
7
about everything he comes into contact. Plato has defined
philosopher as “One who has a taste for every sort of knowledge,
one who is curious to learn and is never satisfied.” A teacher
needs to study philosophy as a person and as a teacher. It helps
him to keep manifold relations with his pupil.
A teacher must have a definite outlook on life, optimistic
or pessimistic, positive or negative, materialistic or idealistic. Any
one of these beliefs will affect the various problems of education -
the aims, the discipline, the curricula, the methods, the technique
of teaching and the organization. So a teacher must have an
adequate and sound philosophy. He must have a thorough
grounding in philosophy.
Philosophy and Educational Administration
Educational administration is also not untouched by
philosophical doctrine. Mental tests and personality tests, which
occupy a very prominent place in the field of educational
administration, also require a definite philosophy.
Philosophy and Evaluation
Evaluation is the continuous process of measuring the
educational achievements in the light of educational aims already
determined. Educational aims are determined by philosophy of
life. Hence the first step of evaluation is the clear knowledge of
educational aims.
Thus, we find that philosophy affects both the theoretical
and practical aspects of education.
One cannot be separated from the other. For individual
and social development first of all we must have clear and
definite educational objectives. Philosophy helps to solve the
problem. We are in urgent need of a comprehensive philosophy
of education, without it a teacher cannot work creatively and
efficiently.
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF GUIDANCE
Influence of Psychology on Modern Education
Educational Psychology has influenced the modern
educational theories and practices in various ways. Psychology
8
deals with the total behaviour pattern of man. Educational
behaviour has different facets or dimensions, as it is also a social
behaviour. In order to make the educational process effective
Psychology helps us greatly.
Influence of Psychology on the Theoretical Aspect of
Education
The primary aim of education is the total development of
the child. In the past the child occupied the pivotal position in the
educational area. But now the child occupies the central position.
Modern education is child-centric, that is why psychology studies
the nature and behaviour of the child in different facets. Child
centricism is the direct effect of psychology on education.
In modern education, the concept of school has
undergone tremendous changes. The school is now regarded as
the replica of the society. For bringing desirable and permanent
changes in the child the school should be organized as a society.
So the child should be educated in the social environment of the
school. Thus in modern education the concept of school has
greatly been influenced by the theory and practice of social
psychology.
Another important theoretical aspect of modern
education is the activity principle. This means that the child
should learn through self- activity. According to the psychologists
activity is the natural tendency of the child. His natural
inclinations are expressed through his activity. Education can be
meaningful if these inclinations are utilized for the purpose of
education. This activity principle is based on the psychological
theory.
In modern times the meaning of education has changed to
a great extent. It is a life-long process from birth to maturity.
Education is the process of acquiring experience throughout life.
Growth brings changes in the behaviour pattern of the child.
Changes take place through the adjustment to the environment in
which the child lives. In the way of adjustment the child acquires
new experiences and this process of acquiring experience is

9
education. Thus this new meaning of education has psychological
basis.
Influence of Psychology on the Practical Aspect of Education
 All modern methods are psychological methods. Learning can
be effective if the content of education is communicated
through the senses. Children are sensitive as well as
imaginative. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Hence in
presenting instructional materials the senses (audio-visual)
should be maximum utilized. In psychology the training of
the senses has greatly been emphasized.
 Another characteristic feature of modern educational method
is that content of instruction should be presented in
continuous, sequenced and integrated way. Psychology
emphasizes that for proper understanding this continuous,
sequenced and integrated presentation of facts is needed.
This is the contribution of psychology.
 Each individual has his own innate potentialities. For his
educational development each individual should be treated
separately. This educational principle is the product of
psychology.
 All modern methods of teaching emphasize that the students
should actively participate in the learning process. He should
not be passive recipient of knowledge. Through different
methods of teaching the students are made active. This
activity principle of education is the contribution of
psychology.
 Psychology has also influenced the modern principle of
curriculum construction. In the past, disciplinary value of a
subject was the main criteria of selection of subjects for
curriculum. But the modern psychologists have discarded the
theory of formal discipline. They think that no subject is
indispensable for curriculum construction for its unlimited
disciplinary value.
 All the principles of modern school organization and
administration have directly been influenced by psychology.

10
 For example timetable is framed on the basis of fatigue index
of the students. The modern concept of school discipline is
also a psychological product. Psychology emphasizes the
importance of freedom of the child in the maintenance of
discipline in the school.
 Modern educational science attaches importance to the
proper analysis of maladjusted behaviour of the school
children.
From the above discussion it is evident that psychology
has influenced education in different ways. In the field of
determination of aims of education the impact of psychology is
very meager. The educational aims have mainly been influenced
by philosophy. But psychology chalks out the ways and means by
which the educational aims can be attained. Thus the influence of
psychology on the theoretical aspect of education is partial and
limited. But its influence on the practical field of education is
significant and total.
SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF GUIDANCE
Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist, for the first time
felt the need of sociological approach to Education. He
considered education “to be something essentially social in
character, in its origin and its functions.” He emphasized that
education is not a static phenomenon but a dynamic and ever-
changing process. Every society with its own changing socio-
cultural needs will require an education to meet those needs.
Since needs, change continuously therefore education must also
change. The needs of different societies differ therefore
education should be dynamic.
Educational sociology is a branch of sociology, which is
confronted with the problems of relationship between society
and education. It makes an effort to achieve the aims of sociology
through educational process, which is nothing but an interaction
between the individual and the society. The knowledge of social
interaction is one of the most important elements for social
progress. Thus the development of the individuality is dependent
on the reaction of the individual to his social environment. Hence
11
we can say “By educational sociology we mean the science which
describes and explains institutions, social groups and social
processes, and social relationships in which or through which the
individual gains and organizes his experiences.”
According to Brown, Educational Sociology is the study of
interaction of the individual and his cultural environment. Thus
social interaction is the key area of educational sociology. The
individual becomes a person as a product of this interaction.
Educational Sociology is particularly interested in finding out
how to manipulate the educational process for better personality
development.”
John Dewey emphasized the importance of the
socialization of the individual for education. He considered that
through the participation of the individual in social process the
complete development of education takes place. The educational
process is nothing but a social process. The school is a social
institution, which purifies the society, progress it and makes the
individual conversant with the society.
Thus, Educational Sociology is the study of those phases
of sociology that are of significance for educative processes.
Education sociology treats the school problems as of greatest
importance to the nation. They are the problems of society and
all social institutions, social direction, individual motivation and
of effective group-actions. Educational sociology analyses and
evaluates the groups and institutions in which learning takes
place and the social process involved in learning and teaching. It
analyses and evaluates the social trends and ideologies, which
affect education. It helps us to understand that education is a
means of social change. It throws light on human interaction and
relationships within the school and the community. It
emphasizes that learning is a social process. It is the total cultural
milieu in which and through which the learning experience is
acquired and organized.
Scope of Educational Sociology
The scope of education sociology is very vast. It takes into
account the various social forces and agencies like the school, the
12
home, the religious organization, the play groups, It also studies
the different processes of social interaction such as conflict, co-
operation, competition etc. It also induces such topics as the role
of the press, the T.V., the radio and the cinema as aids to social
interaction. The other themes include social change and social
control. It deals with the impact of sociology on the aims of
education, the curricula, the school organization and the
mythology of teaching. However, for the central personality
development of the learner some specific social problems are
also included in the scope of educational sociology. These are: the
importance of teacher in the society, the relationship between
the teacher and the taught, the behaviour of a student in a group,
the influence of social life on the school, the teacher and the
student, the relationship between the school and other social
agencies, the relationship between the society and the
curriculum.
Impact of Educational Sociology on Education
Educational sociology plays a vital role on the modern
educational theories and practices the aims of education, the
principles of curriculum construction, the methods of teaching,
the school organization and administration.
Meaning of Education
Education is not mere schooling or instruction imposed
by the elders on the younger ones. It is equivalent to the
development of character or personality by means of the social
life of education institutions. The social life includes all kinds of
out-of-class activities. Man acquires experience throughout his
life. This acquisition of experience is education. This process of
acquiring experience is a social process and it is related to and
influenced by social factors. Education is thus a social process
and its function is not only to preserve the social heritage but
also to enrich it. Learning is the result of social interaction and
social motivation. Education helps to develop this social self so
that an individual may become an effective and useful member of
the society. Education is a process of directed learning. Education

13
sociology focuses upon the social forces through which the
individual gains experience.
Aims of Education
Education sociology has its indirect impact on the aims
and objectives of education. Educational sociologists think that
education is a social process and it should be directed to social
welfare. With this view the determination of the objectives of
education is highly needed. The sociologists attach equal
importance to the individual and social aspects of education.
The aim of modern education is individual development
as well as social advancement. Education enables an individual to
make his life better both as an individual and as a member of his
society. Education now emphasizes total development of an
individual. This total development includes intellectual, social,
moral, aesthetic, cultural, physical development. Education
should bring about a change not only in the amount of knowledge
gained but in abilities to do, to acquire habits, skills, interests and
attitudes which characterize a person who is society accepted,
personally well-adjusted and socially responsible. Thus,
educational sociology emphasizes the social aims of education.
Functions of Education
According to Payne, from the point of view of educational
sociology the functions of education are mainly three (a)
transmission of social and cultural heritage, (b) development of
new social patterns, and (c) creative and constructive role.
Education is to help in transmitting the cultural heritage
with the help of such agencies as the school, the home, the
religious organization, the radio, the T. V., the cinema, the press
and the playgroup. But education is not only to transmit the past
cultural heritage but also to develop new social patterns in such
areas as health, leisure, vocation, home-life etc. Thus from the
sociological point of view, education be regarded as a
conservative force, a creative force and a critical force.

14
Curriculum Construction
The impact of educational sociology on the principles of
curriculum construction cannot be ignored. In ancient age the
child was regarded as an adult. The adults used to frame the
curriculum and imposed it on the young learners. This
curriculum was obviously the brainchild of the adults. The child,
his interests and inclinations were not taken into consideration.
But in the modern age all these traditional views of curriculum
construction have been totally rejected as unscientific. The
curriculum is now in conformity with the general aims of
education and it must help in the total development of the child.
In the modern sense the curriculum is not mere a bundle of
subjects but includes all types of activities in the school, which
provide diverse experiences to the child. It is now the sum total
of the experiences gathered by the child through social
interactions in the school. Modern curriculum thus emphasizes
the social need of education.
Activity Principle in Education
Nothing can be taught, everything is to be learnt is the
main idea of present-day education. The children are no longer
passive recipients of knowledge they are now active participants
in the learning process. This means that every useful productive
work has learning value. Thus work-based education helps in the
social development of the child. It prepares an individual to face
the social reality. It helps in the process of socialization of the
child and bringing social cohesion and solidarity.
The School
In modern education the school is regarded as a society in
miniature. The students learn through constant social
interactions in the school. John Dewey says: “School is a purified,
simplified and better balanced society.” The school is an effective
vehicle for socialization of the child. Thus schools are an
important social agency or institution, which performs various
social functions and responsibilities.

15
The School Organization and Management
The school administration has now been democratized.
The students are now allowed to participate in school
administration and shoulder various administrative
responsibilities. The school self-government is now an accepted
educational principle and practice. This is no doubt the result of
sociological principle in education.
The Teacher
In modern education the teacher is regarded as a friend,
philosopher and guide. He must prepare himself for this noble
work. To fulfill this responsibility the teacher must possess
suitable personality.
Human Relations
Education thinks that the work of education cannot be
carried on properly without reference to human relations.
Human relations are also developed among students in the
school society. These human relations determine the course of
education. For this purpose now sociometric technique is applied
in education. With the help of sociometric technique the group
dynamics in school can be ascertained.
Methods of Teaching
The methods of teaching are also influenced by
educational sociology. The teacher has to adopt some method or
technique to establish relationship between the objectives and
the materials of instruction. The educational sociologist,
according to Payne, judges the effectiveness of teaching method
and technique in the light of three principles:
 The method of teaching is effective only in so far as the skills
and knowledge acquired in the classroom are actually made
by the individual in his adjustment to social situations.
 The method of teaching must place primary emphasis on
social behaviour outside the classroom.
 The method of teaching must seek to utilize the social forces
operative in the social life in order to develop capacity for
social adjustment.
16
 Thus it is evident that every aspect of education such as
aims, functions, materials of instructions, methods of teaching is
greatly influenced by social factors. Modern education aims at
total development. Here lies the need of sociological foundation
of education.
1.3. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE SERVICES IN
COLLEGES
Adolescence is considered to be one of the most critical
stages of human development. At this stage adolescents are
under pressure to choose their subjects according to their career
choice. Selection of subjects and career would go hand in hand.
Lecturers at pre-university colleges encounter with such
situations where they should be in position to help their students
who are at the adolescent stage of development. Subject selection
depends on their career interests. Career interest may not be
sufficient to choosing the career. In order to select a career
besides interest, their potential/abilities and opportunities
should also be taken into consideration. In order to help them in
such career related decisions, pre-university lecturers should
have adequate awareness and knowledge about different careers.
Career selection may not help students to achieve success; they
should have to work hard to achieve it. Hence, it is necessary to
equip pre-university students with necessary skills in planning,
decision making, assertive behaviour etc.

The advantages of guidance services to college students

1. Facilitate learning and improve academic achievement of
students
2. Helps students in adjusting with their self as well as society
3. Improves inter and intra personal relationships
4. Helps students in managing their emotions and resolve
conflicts personal or social
5. Students can have access to occupational information
There are two options that a university or college can
adopt in extending guidance service to students. First option is to
place a professional counseller fully qualified and the second

17
option is to involve existing lecturers in this support service. First
option is the best one but it is difficult to appoint a separate
professional counselor. Hence the second option of using existing
lecturers for guidance and counseling is realitstic, practicable and
feasible. This is a concept of teacher as a counseller. University
lecturers can play the role of as a guidance counselor after basic
orientation/training. Besides their regular curricular
resposibilities, pre university lecturers may also have to play the
role of a guidance-counseller. Major roles of pre university
lecturers in college guidance programme are:
 Help students for better learning in the curricular subjects by
locating their difficulties and introducing appropriate
remedial measures
 Identification of students with behavioural problems and
helping them in coping
 Helping students to choose right career depending on their
strengths by providing occupational information
Some of the activities that a college can undertake as part
of its guidance programme are listed below and the details of
these activities are provided in separate pages of this section.
 Class Talks
 Career Talks
 Career Conference
 Guidance for Further Study
 Dissemination of Occupational Information
 Career Corners
 Workshops
 Group Discussions
 Field Trips
1.4. HISTORY OF GUIDANCE MOVEMENT
India has had a long history of educational development
presenting many marked contrasts to American education.
Guidance in India has existed for some years and is progressing,
but there are numerous problems which tend to hinder
development. Educational and vocational guidance in the schools
will be pushed in the Third Five-Year Plan, but first the
18
youngsters and young people must be placed in the schools.
Another complication in the educational picture is the
fact that only about half of the students who have completed high
school are able to pass the school-leaving examination
successfully and so receive their certificates. Before examining
the changes in the educational program and the progress of the
guidance movement, several other problems should be briefly
mentioned. India's history is ancient and amazingly complex.
Only in the past 13 years has there been political unity and
freedom from outside domination. The government and the
people are busy at the tremendous task of trying to hurdle the
centuries and to attain economic and industrial sufficiency. India
has moved ahead in the field of guidance but there are many
obstacles to overcome. The size of the tasks to be accomplished is
almost overwhelming.
1.5. CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF GUIDANCE IN INDIA
To address the developmental needs and concerns of
students at different stages of schooling, a professionally trained
person, a counsellor or a teacher-counsellor is required to work
within and with the system. The purpose of guidance and
counselling services is to help each student develop as an
individual in his/her own right, make choices and set goals on
the basis of his/her strengths. By attending to the special needs
and requirements of students belonging to different social,
economic and cultural backgrounds, guidance and counselling
helps students engage in the educational process and, thereby,
benefit from the curricular experiences. Guidance and
counselling not only helps students to develop an understanding
of one self and of others, it also supports students to deal with
their personal- social, academic and career related concerns. It
facilitates development of effective study habits, motivation,
identifying learning or subject related problems, helping students
to see the relevance of school years in life and for future,
developing skills, right attitude and interests to help making a
choice in career etc. Guidance and counselling, thus, promotes
holistic development of every student. This signifies the need for

19
every teacher to become a ‘guidance minded’ teacher and carry
out his/her functions with guidance aim.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) envisions
equipping the State personnel with skills and competencies to
facilitate educational, personal, social and career development of
students. It is of immense significance and needs to be taken
forward. The proposed guidelines would provide a road map to
implement this vision and take it to the States. The document
begins with a brief on need of guidance and counselling in
supporting overall development of children, followed by
presenting a historical view of guidance and counselling concerns
as reflected in policy documents and the status, approaches etc.
of these services in the country. In view of the developmental
nature of guidance, a broad general developmental framework to
undertake guidance and counselling programme in schools is
given, which would need to be contextualised according to the
needs and concerns of the students. This is followed by what do
schools need to focus on to guide students at secondary stage? An
exemplar guidance programme drawn for secondary stage
provides a view of what can be taken up by schools. The attempts
made at national level to strengthen Guidance and Counselling
services in the country states are presented next. This is followed
by a plan to operationalize guidance and counselling services in
states, the roles and responsibilities of the organisations at
national, state, block and school levels are delineated with
respect to academic, infrastructural and training components. A
few exemplars of the course material are also appended.
Guidance -Indian Scenario
In attempts towards strengthening guidance and
counselling services in the country, a historical summation is
imperative. A view of guidance and counselling is provided as
articulated in various policy documents, advances in
establishment of guidance and counselling services across the
states, existing status, locale, structure, functions and approach
to offering guidance and counselling services.

20
 Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) of
Education, the first Education Commission in independent India
also known as Mudaliar Commission, recognized the importance
of proper guidance for students as part of education. The specific
recommendations included:
(i) establishment of centres in different regions of the country
for training of guidance officers and career masters, and
(ii) Central Research Organization for carrying out research in
educational and vocational guidance. As an outcome of the
recommendations of the Commission Central Bureau of
Educational and Vocational Guidance (CBEVG), a Central
agency, was set up in 1954 under Ministry of Education and
several such bureaus at state level also. Establishment of All
India Educational and Vocational Guidance Association in
1956 was a result of this. This gave impetus process to the
idea of providing guidance services in the country in an
organized manner.
Education Commission (1964-66) expanded the scope of
guidance services beyond educational and vocational guidance.
Guidance was viewed as both adjustive and developmental;
therefore it was regarded as an integral part of education and not
a special psychological or social service peripheral to educational
purpose. Guidance, therefore, was seen as a continuous process
aimed at assisting the individual to make decisions and
adjustments from time to time (9.43-45 (p.238). A detailed
framework of guidance services describing the functions and
strategies of guidance at primary and secondary school stages as
well as training of guidance functionaries was given. It
recommended guidance at the Primary Stage “to begin from the
lowest class of the primary school to help pupils make
satisfactory transition from home to school; to diagnose
difficulties in the learning; identify pupils in need of special
education (e.g., the gifted, the backward, the physically
handicapped); and to guide pupils to develop insight into the
world of work and favourable attitudes towards work” (9.44-45,
p238-239). Guidance at the Secondary Stage aimed to
identification and development of the abilities and interests of
21
adolescent pupils. The emphasis was laid on trained counsellor
to provide guidance services in all secondary schools. However, it
also recommended adopting a short-range programme consisting
of (i) A minimum guidance programme for all secondary schools
through a visiting school counsellor assisted by the school
teachers in the simpler guidance functions; (ii) Comprehensive
guidance programme in selected schools (one in each district) to
serve as models; (iii) Provision of necessary supervisory staff in
the State Bureaus of Guidance to inspect and offer consultation to
the school workers; and (iv) All secondary school teachers to be
introduced to guidance concepts through pre- or inservice
training.
National Policy of Education (NPE, 1986) and Programme
of Action (POA, 1992) linked guidance services with the
vocationalization of education and the POA (1992) stated
emphatically the need for a parallel infrastructure of guidance
and counselling: “the centrally sponsored scheme envisages that
vocational guidance will be available in the school for providing
necessary guidance to the students, parents and teachers
regarding suitable educational and vocational choices. The
guidance programme should be directed at informing the
students about job opportunities in various courses, facilities for
on-the-job training and placement by working in collaboration
with employees” (p.109). The policy also recommended
responsibility of Vocational Guidance Teachers for general
foundation course and appointment of trained counsellor at
district level (at state’s cost) to organize career advise centre and
existing bureaus to train teachers. Later the revised scheme of
Vocationalisation of Secondary Education (VOSE) (1993)
suggested that Vocational Guidance Teacher (VGT) be appointed
in each school for the purpose.
National Curriculum Framework for School Education
(NCFSE, 2000) mentioned guidance services mainly for providing
assistance to students for choice of courses and selection of a
suitable career required at school leaving stage and not as an
intervention to facilitate holistic development throughout the
school years. Accordingly, NCFSE laid stress on provision of a
22
guidance counsellor for every higher secondary school and one
visiting school counsellor for a cluster of 3 to 4 secondary
schools. In addition, it also laid stress on providing a career
teacher for each secondary school wherever counsellor could not
be appointed.
National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005) provided
guidelines for facilitating healthy growth and development of
students across are school stages and scope for guidance/
counselling at each of these school stages from elementary
through secondary and higher secondary stages. Recognizing the
elementary school years as one of tremendous cognitive and
affective development, NCF advocates the teacher’s guidance
approach: “Teachers with background in guidance and
counselling can design and lead activities to meet the
developmental needs of children, thus laying the foundation for
necessary attitudes and perceptions towards self and the world
of work. They can also provide needed support and guidance to
children belonging to various groups and strata of society for
their sustenance through the elementary school areas” (p.68).At
secondary stage NCF states: “The courses at this level generally
aim at creating an awareness of the various disciplines and
introduces students to the possibilities and scope of study in
them. Through such engagement, they also discover their own
interests and aptitudes and begin to form ideas on what courses
of study and related work they might like to pursue later. Such
needs could be effectively met by Guidance and Counselling
interventions of an organized nature with support of trained
teachers and professional counsellors”.
In an attempt to make available guidance and counselling
services to school students, RMSA has laid stress on
strengthening of state level guidance agencies and
appointment/utilization of trained guidance personnel and in
service training/orientation programmes and has made the
following suggestions:
i. Strengthening the existing, Bureaus of Guidance, by adequate
staffing training provision, resource materials and other aids

23
 for effective implementation. Appointment of full time school
counselors of PGT level by the state government and UTs. at
cluster/block/district level” (5.10.3).
ii. Every school to have at least one teacher and preferably two
(one male and one female) teacher trained in guidance and
counselling. TeacherCounsellors already trained should be
utilized for extending training further at state level. (5.10.4).
iii. The Guidance and Counselling should be an essential part of
pre service and in-service training programme for teachers
and principals/vice principals (5.10.4).
iv. Every State Department of Education/State Bureau of
Guidance is expected to ensure creating a cadre of trained
guidance personnel as Guidance Officers. (5.10.5).
v. Sensitization programmes for Principals/Heads of Schools at
state level and enrichment programmes for trained guidance
personnel should be a regular feature (5.10.6).
vi. The scheme provides funds to states for strengthening of
Guidance Bureaus for appointment of staff, development of
Guidance Resource Centre and organizing programmes such
as :
 Strengthening of guidance Bureaus/filling up of five posts
in 35 States/UTs. 5 persons @2.4 lakh per person per
year,
 Setting up of Guidance Resource Centre (funds for
psychological tests/tools, guidance/career literature,
display materials etc.) @ Rs.50,000/- per State,
 Resource Persons/Research Assistant for development
work/field work @Rs.1.0 lakh (Salary + TA/DA +
Contingency)
 Sensitization programmes (2 days) for Principals (35-40)
by State Bureaus @Rs.40,000/- per programme per state
for 35 States plus contingency (5.10.7)
1.6. STATUS OF GUIDANCE SERVICES IN INDIA
Guidance and Counselling services across the states in the
country have been offered since long. Early the beginning of the
services can be traced back to the year 1947. The “Bureau of
Psychology (Manovigyan Shala)” was established in Allahabad in
24
1952-53 the Central Bureau of Educational and Vocational
Guidance (CBEVG) was set up at the CIE, Delhi under the
Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Government. The department
continuously updates the status of guidance services in the
country; the information is collected by sending a questionnaire.
In the past NCERT has been collecting information about the
guidance bureaus/cells from time to time by conducting status
survey of guidance and counselling services (1981, 1993),
organising All India Conferences of State Bureaus during the
years 1976, 1982, 1985, 1989, 1992, 1998; creating data base of
guidance services and resource persons during 2005-07 and the
latest update of these services was conducted during May -
November, 2011. At present (during 2014) the process of
updating information has been initiated and information is
awaited .
Position of Guidance and Counselling Personnel
The positions of personnel providing guidance services
are stated under different names at different level in the states,
districts, blocks and schools. Some of these are:
a. At state level: Lecturers (Psychology), Vocational Guidance
Officers (VGOs), Psychologists, Psychometrician,
Occupational Information Officers, Technical Assistants or
Counsellors
b. At district level: District Guidance Counsellors
c. At school level: Counsellors, Teacher-Counsellors, Career
Teachers
Structure of Guidance and Counselling Services Guidance and
counselling services are organised through a number of channels.
Some of these are:
a. State level guidance agencies in the form of State Bureaus of
Educational and Vocational Guidance or Guidance and
Counselling Cells/Units in SCERTs/SIEs/DoEs or sometimes
in DIETs.
b. Employment Exchanges/University Employment Information
and Guidance Bureaus.

25
c. Guidance and Counselling Cells in Psychology/Education
Departments of Universities and Colleges/Counsellor
Training Institutions.
d. Child Guidance Clinics.
e. Vocational Rehabilitation Centres.
f. NGOs/Private Practitioners.
Roles and Responsibilities of Guidance and Counselling
Personnel
The functions of guidance and counselling personnel commonly
pertain to the following:
a. Planning, coordination and supervision of guidance services
within the states.
b. Training of guidance personnel such as career teaches’
training programmes.
c. Preparation, development or translation of tests and tools of
assessment.
d. Conducting research on various problems in the field of
guidance.
e. Collection, classification, production and dissemination of
career information.
f. Publication of suitable guidance materials in the regional
language for the use of students, parents and teachers.
Teacher Counsellor Approach
It is premised that every teacher has a Guidance role and
can provide guidance and counselling services to students. To be
teacher counsellors, teachers undergo professional counsellor
training programme to develop/enhance the desired knowledge
and skills. It is expected that these teachers would integrate
guidance philosophy and principles in their day-to-day teaching
work and other school activities and during interaction with
students, parents, principals etc. This approach views every
teacher as having the potential to be a counsellor. This view has
great acceptance all over the world. Especially in developing
countries, because of limited trained human resource and
finances in schools, guidance and counselling services are
provided through teacher counsellors and can reach students in
26
large numbers. The approaches to provide guidance and
counselling services to students may vary but the focus of all the
approaches is aimed at meeting the challenges faced by students.

27
Chapter – 2
AREAS AND TECHNIQUES OF
GUIDANCE

2.1. TYPES OF GUIDANCE

2.1.1. EDUCATIONAL, VOCATIONAL AND PERSONAL
GUIDANCE
EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE
Educational guidance is a process of assisting the
individual student to reach optimum educational development. It
is a sort of guidance that is only rendered to the student
community.Educational Guidance helps the students to make
right choices, as well as make adjustments in relation to schools,
curriculum, courses and school life which is contribute to the all-
round development.
Educational guidance, in short, answers the following questions:
 What is a student best suited for?
 What type of education will reveal his inborn capacities and
help him to develop them?
 What is the purpose of his learning and study?
Definitions of Educational Guidance
1. In the words of Brewer, “Educational guidance is a Conscious
effort to assist in the intellectual growth of an individual.”
2. Arthur A. Jones defined Educational Guidance “as the
assistance given to pupils in their choices and adjustment
with relation to schools, curriculum, courses and school life.”
3. Ruth Strang regards Educational Guidance “as something
intended to aid the individual in choosing an appropriate
program and in making progress in it.”
4. According to Myers, “Educational Guidance is a process
concerned with bringing about between a pupil with his
distinctive characteristics on the one hand, and different
28
 opportunities and requirements on the other, a favourable
setting for the pupil’s development or education.”
5. For Dunsmoor and Miller, Educational Guidance is
primarily concerned with the student’s success in his
educational career. It relates to the student’s adjustment to
school and to the preparation and carrying out of suitable
educational plans in keeping with his educational needs,
abilities and career interests.”
Need of Educational Guidance
The need of educational guidance can be properly
discussed in the light of above discussion. However, we can
summarize the reasons for the justification of such guidance at
the present juncture in the following way:
1. Individual Differences
Had there been no individual differences among the students,
the need of guidance services would have never arisen.
Guidance is needed because of individuals differ in
intellectual abilities, interests, motivation and also in their
levels of aspirations. To cater to the needs of individual
students, educational guidance is needed to be imparted in
schools.
2. Need of Checking the Wastage and Stagnation in
Education
We find that there is a huge wastage and stagnation in
education. Many students fail repeatedly and remain in the
same class for a number of years. They feel difficulty in
learning or acquiring some or the other piece of knowledge
and skill. It leads to the wastage of human as well as national
resources. Such wastage and stagnation can only be checked
through a suitable program of educational guidance.
3. The Need of Making Right Educational Choices
Almost every system of education is based on two
assumptions. The first is that every student should strive for
maximum self-development and the other is that every
student should make his place in the society as its useful
member. These two assumptions imply that the school and

29
 community activities of a child should be based on some
definite pattern. Educational guidance services must assist
the child to achieve this end by way of making correct
choices. The students, while taking education, are, often,
confronted with the problem of making selection or choice.
There are diversified courses where they have to make
selection of the subjects or activities. The wrong choice of a
subject or activity may doom their career and future.
Therefore, they should be helped by guidance in making right
choice with regard to subjects or courses of study, co-
curricular activities, methods of learning style of speaking,
writing and reading and books and other literature for study
etc.
4. The Need of Proper Educational Adjustment
Adjustment to prevailing educational environment is
essential for the proper educational growth and well being of
children. The child enters the school directly from his home
environment. Here he finds a formal environment of
education and gets experiences that are quite novel and
strange to him. He needs to be adjusted to these educational
situations and environmental conditions. He has to read,
write, speak and participate in the learning process-Drill
work and home assignments have to be completed.
Participation in co-curricular activities is required. Regularity
and punctuality in educational process is to be observed.
Sometimes he has to derive benefit from the new techniques
and devices of teaching. He has to prepare himself for the
desired tests and evaluation. In this way the child faces so
many adjustment problems with regard to his educational
environment and therefore needs proper educational
guidance.
5. Decision of Further Education
Students in the present system of education rush to colleges
or universities for high education irrespective of their
aptitude for higher studies. Many of them do so because they
do not have appropriate knowledge of other professional
courses or trainings. There is a great need to provide proper
30
 guidance with regards to the suitability of the individual to
pursue higher education.
6. Making the Grade
Another important area where educational guidance is
needed is the area of giving students help to progress
satisfactorily in the course chosen. In our country, a large
number of student fail in schools, colleges and universities
because of lack of educational guidance.
7. Education of Exceptional Children
Generally in our schools, the teacher proceeds with the
average student in mind with the result that gifted, slow
learner, deaf and mentally and physically handicapped, are
not benefitted by classroom teaching. Educational guidance is
most essential for different categories of exceptional
children, if we are interested in the welfare of the individual
and society.
How to Impart Educational Guidance to Pupils
The guidance worker by means of the various tests,
personal interviews etc., tries to find out the students mental
capacities, interests aptitudes, etc. and thus suggest courses that
he or she is capable of pursuing. The process of educational
guidance, like the general pattern of guidance process, involves
three important phases:
a) Collecting Information or Data:
In the first phase it is required to collect the full
information or data regarding the people. The information like
the following can be collected for this purpose:
 Details concerning his health and physique
 His intelligence and other cognitive abilities
 Details concerning his scholastic attainments
 His interests, aptitudes, attitudes and other personality
characteristics
 Family history and background
 Details regarding his social and emotional development
 Details regarding the previous school attended.
31
 Details regarding his company and friendships.
Various techniques like personality tests, achievement
tests, intelligence tests, aptitude tests, attitude scales, interviews,
questionnaires, rating scales, inventories, observations etc. can
be employed for collecting these information or data.
b) Rendering Guidance:
The next phase concerns with the work of actual
guidance imparted to the needed one. It is rather a difficult task.
It requires the complete analysis of the information gathered
about an individual. On these bases certain conclusions are
derived about his personality makeup and adjustment. These
conclusions further provide a base for making decisions about
the nature of guidance to be given to the individual in question.
For example he is guided to select a course on a method of
learning or a mode of study that suits his individuality as well as
his peculiar environment.
c) Follow up Program:
The work of guidance worker does not stop with the
rendering of guidance but it requires some more efforts on his
part in the form of some follow-up program. Under this program
the progress made by the child is evaluated. On this basis,
required steps if necessary are taken for giving him any further
guidance or necessary changes are introduced in the previous
guidance program. Under every situation, it is to be seen that the
child becomes able to solve his educational problem-
development or adjustment. It happens, then and only then we
can think about the success of a guidance program.
Vocational Guidance
Vocational Guidance means assistance given to an
individual in solving problems related to vocational planning and
to occupational choice and profess with due regard for the
individual's characteristics and their relation to occupational
opportunities.
Guidance is beneficial for the individual as well as to the
society. It helps an individual by providing assistance in solving

32
problems relating to choice of career, occupational change and
adjustments. From the standpoint of the society, it is one of the
means of achieving proper utilization of manpower. Indirectly, it
helps in raising productivity and in minimizing
unemployment/under-employment.
Vocational Guidance is an aspect of guidance, having
focus on the problems relating to vocational life. Guidance
services are, therefore, a constellation of services concerned with
educational, vocational, personal, social or health aspects; such
labelling has been done for practical considerations.
Objectives
Vocational Guidance Programme is integrated with the
placement functions as a whole.
Specific objectives of Vocational Guidance in the Employment
Service are:-
i. To suggest measures with a view to enhancing the
employability of an individual or groups of individuals;
ii. To offer assistance to an individual or groups of individuals
in preparing to choose, change and adjust to occupational
life;
iii. To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the individuals
and match them with the job requirements ;
iv. To generate awareness and appreciation of the realities of
employment market in the community;
v. To collaborate or co-operate with other agencies in the field
of guidance to stimulate and promote joint efforts; and
vi. To promote self-employment
State Vocational Guidance Unit
The State Vocational Guidance Unit coordinates the
services of Vocational Guidance units in the 14 District
Employment Exchanges
Laptop computer
LCD Projector
Broad band internet connectivity
Career Library
33
 Career pamphlets etc
Functions
 Career Guidance
 Career Class/Seminars
 Career Exhibition
 Career Library
 Coaching Class
 Education Guidance
 Career Publication
 Field Activities
 Job Fest
Vocational Guidance Unit is functioning in each District
Employment Exchange for collection and dissemination of
occupational information. They give proper guidance to job
seekers and students. It also conducts Vocational Guidance
classes in Schools, Colleges, ITIs, Orphanages, and Polytechnics
and for all the institutes/libraries who need their services.
University Employment Information and Guidance
Bureaus have been set up at University level, to impart career
guidance and occupational information to the candidates.
Collection and dissemination of occupational information on job
opportunities, educational training facilities, scholarship and
fellowship are major functions of University Employment
Information and Guidance Bureau.
UEI&GBs also conducts seminars on personality
Development, Job Fest etc in colleges. UEI&GBs also impart
exhaustive coaching classes for Bank Recruitment Examinations,
UGC/CSIR Exam for JRF/Lectureship, Civil Service Examination
etc, etc. They also give practical training on mock interview and
Group Discussion. Deputy Chief of this Bureau frequently visits
educational institutions to deliver vocational guidance classes.
Another function of the Guidance Bureau is to conduct
career seminars in colleges to create awareness among the
students on career opportunities and skill developments.

34
Seminars would focus mainly on career trends in India, career
opportunities in India and abroad, opportunities for higher
studies, techniques on facing the interview and on personality
development. Eminent resource persons would be invited for the
purpose.
PERSONAL GUIDANCE
As the name suggests, Personal Guidance is that which is
rendered to a person for solving his personal problems. In this
world of struggle and competition, one has to strive hard for the
satisfaction of his personal needs. For the purpose, he has to
make adjustment in so many aspects in different situations.There
are occasions when one feels difficulty in satisfaction of one’s
personal needs. He also faces problems in making adjustment to
himself, others and his peculiar environment. In this way one
needs personal assistance or help for satisfying one’s personal
needs as well as for solving one’s adjustment problems.Thus
personal guidance is the assistance offered to a person to solve
his social, emotional, moral and health problems.
Some Definitions
 Hopkins – “Personal guidance is that guidance which is
concerned with the problems of health, emotional
adjustments and social adjustment of an individual. It also
includes his recreation and leisure-time problems.”
 Ruth Strang – “Personal guidance is the assistance given to
an individual to solve his personal problems, such as
emotional and social adjustment, economic and social
relationship and problems connected with his physical as
well as mental health.”
 Wilson – “The purpose of personal guidance is to help the
individual in his physical, emotional, social, moral and
spiritual developments and adjustment.”
Taking all such aspects into consideration personal
guidance may be found to cover all the problems and aspects
concerning the development and adjustment of a person. Crow
and Crow opines that, “Personal Guidance refers to help given an

35
individual toward a better adjustment in the development of
attitudes and behaviour in all areas of life.”
Objectives of Personal Guidance
The following are some of the important objectives of personal
guidance.
 To assist the pupils to realize that it is natural to experience
periods of turmoil.
 To assist him to enter into mental activity with renewed
interest and vigour as he attains maturity.
 To help him to overcome the awkward years of physical
development.
 To encourage him to continue the health, safety and physical
education activities.
 To help him to move gradually from dependence on others
independence of judgment and action.
 To help him to work to the limit of his capacity with full
knowledge that he may not be as capable as other pupils.
 To help him to develop a control over his emotions.
How to Render Personal Guidance
The following steps are involved in a personal guidance
programme:
1. Collection of all the Information or Data: First of all, the
essential information or data concerning the individual, who
needs personal or psychological guidance, should be
collected. It may be concerned with his physical, intellectual,
social and emotional development, academic or scholastic
achievement; personality characteristics, interests and
aptitudes, family and school background and other
environmental conditions. Thus an adequate picture of the
background and personality make-up of an individual should
be drawn in the mind for the solution of the problems, faced
by individual.
2. Diagnosis of the Causes of the Problems: Now the problem
of the individual is analysed in the relation with the collected
information. The causes lying within the individual or his
36
 environment are detected. For having a correct diagnosis, a
personal interview or other techniques may also be adopted
and more information if needed may also be acquired.
3. Thinking about the Remedial Measures: In view of the
detected possible causes, the remedial measures are chalked
out. The Guidance worker now thinks about the personal
guidance that may be provided for the individual in getting
rid of his trouble.
4. Rendering Personal Guidance: By establishing proper
rapport, the Guidance personnel makes the individual realize
the main cause’ of his difficulty or trouble. Sometimes, on
these bases he is made to realize or even think about the
possible change in his behaviour or attitude. At this stage,
possible solutions are offered, suggestions are proposed,
affectionate and sympathetic advice may be given, goal
setting techniques may be adopted… The sole purpose of
such guidance is to help or assist the individual in getting rid
of his difficulty either by modifying his behaviour or bringing
some changes in his environment.
5. Follow-up Service: After rendering personal guidance to an
individual, it is essential to evaluate the progress or outcome
of such guidance through personal interview, contact or any
other suitable technique. It is such follow-up programme that
helps in knowing the strength and weakness of the
administered personal guidance. It may also suggest the need
of further guidance to him or any alteration in the proposed
guidance.
2.2. HEALTH GUIDANCE
Health is regarded as the wealth. Total health i.e.
preventive and curative is the goal of health guidance. The health
guidance may be a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors,
Counsellor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and parents. For
promoting preventive care the conditions of school hostel,
canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through
formal classes and information is essential in school education
stages. In the present day the concern of health guidance also
pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs. Habits of cleanliness, Healthy
37
food habits, awareness on nutrition, prevention of communicable
diseases, measures and practices for the prevention of pollution,
maintenance of body fitness, importance of physical exercises
etc. should be practiced compulsorily at this age level.
2.3. SOCIAL GUIDANCE:
School/educational institution is a miniature society and
pupil from different socio-economic status, linguistic and socio-
cultural background reach there. Students some time may face
problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very
important that the students are to be helped in acquiring the
feeling of security and they must be accepted by the group in
developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards
others. Religious maturity, National Integration, International
understanding, secularism, Democracy, Political responsibility,
Empathy, Sympathy etc. can be built up through social guidance.
Social guidance will help the students to attain intellectual and
personality development through pragmatic opportunities
provided to them.
Children construct knowledge as a result of reflecting on
their experiences. As they experiment with blocks, for instance,
they observe the results of trying to stack, balance, and bridge
structures. Thinking about the results helps children revise
erroneous ideas. This process helps them construct
understanding about such concepts as gravity, balance, and
measurement. Children construct their theories of how the social
world works in the same sort of trial-and-error situations. As
youngsters experiment with different ways of interacting with
others, they observe the results of various approaches. Reflecting
on the results of their social overtures can help children figure
out how to play with others successfully and how to make
friends. We have remarked previously on the value of peer
conflicts as teaching situations. You may be surprised to hear that
children’s fights are useful teaching tools. Conflicts tend to
challenge children’s assumptions and encourage an exchange of
viewpoints. They help youngsters realize that not everyone sees
things their way. Thus, conflicts provide the necessary

38
experience for learning and they provide the teachable moments.
Helping children deal with their disputes gives the teacher an
opportunity to guide children’s thinking about the experience.
The adult role varies, depending on the child’s individual levels of
emotional, intellectual, and social development.
Teaching children to think critically about their behavior
and to use reasoning abilities to learn to solve interpersonal
problems is consistent with current recommended approaches to
teaching other subjects. National guidelines in every area of the
curriculum urge teaching for critical thinking and problem
solving instead of old approaches of memorized learning. Some
adults think it is enough to simply tell children how they are
expected to behave and then punish them if they do not. That
approach would be the same as a teacher merely demanding
mastery of mathematics without instruction, assessment, and re-
teaching
2.4. PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONS
A well-organized programme of guidance services is very
essential for the maximum development of the person. Following
are some of the important benefits of such a programme:
 It is possible to determine the needs of the personmore
accurately.
 It makes it possible to put proper persons at the proper place,
in the proper manner and at the proper time.
 To cultivate essential life skills in a person
 Maximum use of resources both human and material.
 To enable the individual to make proper choices at various
stages of their education, career and life.
 To minimize the mismatching between education and
employment and help in the efficient use of man power.
 To understand the individual responsibilities and to adapt
themselves with their environment and make them to
become an efficient citizen of the society and nation.
 To minimize the incidence of indiscipline and anti-social
activities.

39
 To help students make the best possible adjustments to the
situations in the school as in the home.
 To check wastage and stagnation.
 To ensure the proper use of leisure time and motivate to
develop creative hobbies.
 To develop all aspects of personality of the individual.
 To equip individual in understanding the variety, depth, and
breadth of personal experiences, the opportunities available,
and the choices open to them by helping them recognize,
strengths and facilitate, interpret, and act upon their personal
resources.
Guidance and counselling aim at orienting individuals to
face the ever-changing challenges in today's fast-moving
technological world. The guidance researcher has to visualize the
needs of future generations in facing these unknown realities and
suggest ways and methods of developing built-in resources for
this purpose. The world of work is changing fast and much more
research is required to help the traditional worker to switch over
to new technological gadgets and learn to be independent of
others.
2.5. INDIVIDUAL GUIDANCE
Individual guidance is advice, strategy or planning
designed for a singular person or thing and their unique
situation. This is in contrast to general guidance which is
frequently based on demographic information such as age or
income or meant for the general population.
Children and Students
 The most common reference to individual guidance is in
reference to children or students. This is ideally the role of
guidance, educational or career counselors.
Professional Advice
 Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice,
usually professional advice, given to a person based on their
unique circumstances. This could include legal services,
career counseling, financial planning, medical or

40
 psychological advice or a number of other areas where a
trained professional is looked to for direction in a given area.
Other
 In rare cases, individual guidance can be used to describe
systems or methods that do not relate to humans. Examples
of this include individual guidance systems for airplanes.
Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice,
strategy or planning designed for a singular person or thing
and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general
guidance which is frequently based on demographic
information such as age or income or meant for the general
population. The most common reference to individual
guidance is in reference to children or students. This is
ideally the role of guidance, educational or career. Individual
guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually
professional advice, given to a person based on their unique
circumstances. This could include legal services, career
counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological
advice or a number of other areas where a trained
professional is looked to for direction in a given area.
Techniques
1. Observe a pattern of mistaken behavior. The teacher notices
a pattern of behavior that could indicate trouble in a child’s
life. Any child is entitled to an occasional day that includes
conflicts. A pattern of atypical, extreme, or inappropriate
behavior for more than a few days, however, indicates
potentially serious unmet physical or emotional needs.
2. Build the relationship. A child facing life challenges needs a
helping relationship with a teacher. Acknowledge the child’s
efforts, achievements, and frustrations. Find times outside of
the conflict to get to know the child. Often “good morning
time” (quality time with the child upon arrival) is a wise
investment in preventing conflicts during the day. Be sure to
build a relationship with the child’s family. Start as soon as
each child enrolls in the program. Having an established

41
 relationship with family members makes it easier to address
serious conflicts should they occur.
3. Use consistent guidance intervention techniques. The teacher
responds in firm but friendly ways to the mistaken behavior,
using interventions like guidance talks, conflict mediation,
and crisis management methods (mainly to calm). In
classrooms with a teaching team, one teacher may be
designated as the lead for each child, to ensure predictable
limits and consistent interventions.
4. Obtain additional information. The teacher seeks to
understand the child and the child’s behavior more fully. She
or he charts incidents of mistaken behavior by days of the
week, times of the day, and events in the daily schedule.
Strategies for gaining more information include talking with
the child, recording anecdotal observations, discussing what
you learn with staff, and contacting the family to exchange
information about the child’s activities, experiences,
behavior, and progress. The teacher uses the new
information while repeating steps 1 through 3 for a
reasonable number of days or when having a meeting with
the child. Then the teacher reassesses the situation.
5. Hold an Individual Guidance Plan (IGP) meeting. Over the
designated period, if steps 1 to 4 do not result in fewer and
much less severe conflicts, it’s time for an Individual
Guidance Plan team meeting. See Part Two: Notes for
Conducting Individual Guidance Plan Meetings for
information on preparing for and holding the meeting. Team
members include the family, teaching staff, and other
involved adults. In developing the IGP, the team may use or
adapt information from Part Three: Individual Guidance Plan
Worksheet. The team shares the plan with the child.
6. Implement the Individual Guidance Plan. The team works
together to put the IGP into operation. One necessary
component of most plans is staff’s continued building of
relationships with the child and the family. A second is
adaptation of the educational program to ensure that the

42
 child has increased opportunities to experience success,
leading to a decreased need to experience conflicts. The plan
may include referral for assessment by special education or
other helping professionals. (If special education services are
warranted, an Individualized Education Program [IEP]
process may supersede the IGP.) Counseling or other
professional services also may be part of the plan.
7. Monitor the Individual Guidance Plan. Staff review the IGP,
communicate with the family, and make modifications if the
approach is not helping the child learn new behaviors. If
necessary, the team holds a second IGP meeting.
Notes for Conducting Individual Guidance Plan Meetings
The formula for successful IGPs is always the same: Staff
and parents first agree on the problem. Next, they agree on what
needs to be done about the problem, do it, and monitor the
results. Collaboration in taking a guidance-oriented, problem-
solving approach is key. Sometimes, the IGP process can be
handled informally, without a face-to-face meeting. Other times,
it is most effective to get all parties together in the same room.
IGP meetings follow the same steps as those in the conflict
mediation approach that teachers use with children in the
classroom.
Before the meeting
The staff decides who will attend, who will be the team
leader, and who will be the recorder. The staff members discuss
the meeting dynamics, such as the trust level between the staff
and family or where and when the meeting might occur.
Considering these factors, the team generates possible outcomes,
which the group will decide together. Staff review the importance
of a compliment sandwich approach by which each staff member
expressing a concern also gives at least two compliments about
the child’s/family’s effort, progress, or attitude. Give one
compliment before the concern and one after. The compliment
sandwich strategy helps to keep the IGP positive and on track.
The team leader contacts the family before the meeting to inform
and prepare them and to put them at ease.
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At the meeting
1. Make everyone as comfortable as possible. The leader offers
greetings and assurances; lets attendees know that this is a
meeting where all will work together for a common goal, the
good of the child. The leader emphasizes that agreement on
decisions is important, and introduces the recorder, who
writes down key points and decisions on a chart that all can
see. The leader reviews meeting guidelines such as these:
a. Everyone has a common purpose: the good of the child.
This will help to make the meeting positive.
b. Each member of the group treats all others with respect,
even when viewpoints differ. All members work to
separate facts from interpretations of facts.
c. Each member is responsible for what he or she chooses
to share.
d. Each member remains open to new thoughts and ways of
thinking.
e. Decisions made at the meeting are by consensus.
2. Assist all in agreeing about what the problem is. The leader
provides necessary facts and interpretations and asks the
others to contribute. She or he encourages participants to
separate facts from interpretations in their presentations and
models this practice throughout the meeting. The recorder
may write down only what is agreed on about the problem
3. Brainstorm possible nonpunitive responses. With the
recorder’s assistance the leader organizes the brainstorming
around components such as (some or all of) these:
a. In-class crisis interventions that use guidance
b. In-class relationship-building responses
c. In-class long-term remediation strategies
d. In-home crisis responses using guidance
e. In-home togetherness-building responses
f. In-home long-term remediation strategies

44
 g. Referral strategies for additional assessment and
remedial assistance
h. Realistic assessment of resources needed to implement
the plan
4. Decide on a plan. Include the most promising strategies for
components agreed on in step 3. This is where negotiation,
flexibility, and compromise are key. If the group disagrees
about any parts of the plan, its potential for success is
endangered. The recorder seeks clarification of major points
and gives a written summary of the strategies agreed to.
5. Designate the role of each member in using the plan, and
schedule a second meeting date to monitor progress. The
leader and family select a staff member to be team leader on
the plan. This staff person will assist the family in
implementing their part of the plan, including any referral
process. The team leader will also ensure continuity among
staff in accomplishing the classroom goals of the plan. She or
he will coordinate between home and classroom in carrying
out the plan. The group sets a time and date for the follow-up
meeting. The recorder sends a copy of the completed IGP to
the plan leader and the family. The plan leader works to
ensure all members can and do attend the next meeting. The
second meeting to review and possibly modify the IGP is
often less formal than the initial meeting. Follow-up contact
after the second meeting is less formal still. A final or exit IGP
meeting is sometimes held, to celebrate success or to decide
what additional actions are necessary
2.6.GROUP GUIDANCE
A form of guidance in which guider interact more than
one person and they have same age group and same problem.A
situation in which guidance counselors teach classes on various
issues of emotional and social development. Examples of issues
include puberty changes, parent-child relationships, dating and
sexuality, and interpersonal conflict. These sessions may be
designed by the guidance counselor or may be structured around
a standardized curriculum.
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Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance: Group refers to
collection of people, interaction between individuals,
development of shared perceptions, the development of affective
ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For
example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may
gather together to form a group. Group guidance encompasses
those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group
situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or
even necessary for making - appropriate decisions in the
prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the
individual in a group situation. Group could be of any type ,but
for guidance purposes a group should have a common goal. Just
collection of individual may not be called a group for organizing
guidance activities. Selection of group members will have to
depend on sharing a common problem, volunteering to be
members and willingness to group activities. Jones,
A.J(1951)define group guidance as any group enterprise or
activity in which the primary purpose is to assist each individual
in the group to solve his problems and to make his adjustment‘.
Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a
functional group consisting of a number of students to implement
programme that would benefit them at all time.Students in group
with common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e.
small or large. In other words, if guidance is to be available to all,
it should be planned in groups.
Some of the objectives of group guidance are:
1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse
them and find relevant solutions
2. To place a wide range of information before people with
common problems which could be useful for them for finding
solutions?
3. To provide a platform where people with common problems
could interact with each other and could be benefited by each
other‘s perspectives, ideas and experiences
4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an
opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze
themselves.
46
Organization of Group Guidance Activities: Planning of group
guidance activity may focus the following points.
1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find
out the common problems of individuals in the group. This
can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists and
interview.
2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group
activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the
group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and
manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to
account the group selected for activity.
3. Selection of members and role specifications: The
participants selection for group guidance activity is also very
important. The students for example should be
communicated about their roles in group activities.
4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified.
It should be stated in clear, objective and measurable terms.
5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we
want to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be
properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback
about activity needs to be collected from participants.
Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk,
career talk, displays and exhibitions.
2.7. TECHNIQUES OF GROUP GUIDANCE
A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance
Group Discussion:
For example at senior secondary stage students should
have knowledge about different career.A group discussion may
be organized in the school. For organization of the group
discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and
expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion
will be useful only if the members participate effectively without
the fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate.
But the effectiveness of the groupm discussion depends upon the
facilitator and the group selected.

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Problem Solving:
For solving individual as well as common problems,
problem solving can be applied as a technique. It comprises of
the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Focused description of the problem
 Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant
facts
 Analysis of problem in the light of data collected
 Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them
 Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group
Role play:
In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique
of guidance. Role playing is a method where real life situations
are simulated by group members/participants. This provide new
insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing
viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Orientation of group to role playing and the problem
 Assigning of roles
 Preparation of other members/audience to observe
intelligently
 Assessing the role play Concluding session and feedback
 Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can
be used as group guidance technique.
2.8. USE OF TESTS IN GUIDANCE
2.8.1. INTELLIGENCE, ACHIEVEMENT AND - PERSONALITY
TESTS
Definition
Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are
designed to measure a variety of mental functions, such as
reasoning, comprehension, and judgment.

48
Purpose
The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the
person's intellectual potential. The tests center around a set of
stimuli designed to yield a score based on the test maker's model
of what makes up intelligence. Intelligence tests are often given
as a part of a battery of tests.
Precautions
There are many different types of intelligence tests and
they all do not measure the same abilities. Although the tests
often have aspects that are related with each other, one should
not expect that scores from one intelligence test, that measures a
single factor, will be similar to scores on another intelligence test,
that measures a variety of factors. Also, when determining
whether or not to use an intelligence test, a person should make
sure that the test has been adequately developed and has solid
research to show its reliability and validity.
Additionally, psychometric testing requires a clinically trained
examiner. Therefore, the test should only be administered and
interpreted by a trained professional.
A central criticism of intelligence tests is that
psychologists and educators use these tests to distribute the
limited resources of our society. These test results are used to
provide rewards such as special classes for gifted students,
admission to college, and employment. Those who do not qualify
for these resources based on intelligence test scores may feel
angry and as if the tests are denying them opportunities for
success. Unfortunately, intelligence test scores have not only
become associated with a person's ability to perform certain
tasks, but with self-worth.
Many people are under the false assumption that
intelligence tests measure a person's inborn or biological
intelligence. Intelligence tests are based on an individual's
interaction with the environment and never exclusively measure
inborn intelligence. Intelligence tests have been associated
with categorizing and stereotyping people. Additionally,
knowledge of one's performance on an intelligence test may
49
affect a person's aspirations and motivation to obtain goals.
Intelligence tests can be culturally biased against certain groups.
Description
When taking an intelligence test, a person can expect to
do a variety of tasks. These tasks may include having to answer
questions that are asked verbally, doing mathematical problems,
and doing a variety of tasks that require eye-hand coordination.
Some tasks may be timed and require the person to work as
quickly as possible. Typically, most questions and tasks start out
easy and progressively get more difficult. It is unusual for anyone
to know the answer to all of the questions or be able to complete
all of the tasks. If a person is unsure of an answer, guessing is
usually allowed.
The four most commonly used intelligence tests are:
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
 Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
 Wechsler Primary & Preschool Scale of Intelligence
ADVANTAGES
In general, intelligence tests measure a wide variety of
human behaviors better than any other measure that has been
developed. They allow professionals to have a uniform way of
comparing a person's performance with that of other people who
are similar in age. These tests also provide information on
cultural and biological differences among people.
Intelligence tests are excellent predictors of academic
achievement and provide an outline of a person's mental
strengths and weaknesses. Many times the scores have revealed
talents in many people, which have led to an improvement in
their educational opportunities. Teachers, parents, and
psychologists are able to devise individual curricula that matches
a person's level of development and expectations.
Disadvantages
Some researchers argue that intelligence tests have
serious shortcomings. For example, many intelligence tests
50
produce a single intelligence score. This single score is often
inadequate in explaining the multidimensionalaspects of
intelligence. Another problem with a single score is the fact that
individuals with similar intelligence test scores can vary greatly
in their expression of these talents. It is important to know the
person's performance on the various subtests that make up the
overall intelligence test score. Knowing the performance on these
various scales can influence the understanding of a person's
abilities and how these abilities are expressed. For example, two
people have identical scores on intelligence tests. Although both
people have the same test score, one person may have obtained
the score because of strong verbal skills while the other may
have obtained the score because of strong skills in perceiving and
organizing various tasks.
Furthermore, intelligence tests only measure a sample of
behaviors or situations in which intelligent behavior is revealed.
For instance, some intelligence tests do not measure a person's
everyday functioning, social knowledge, mechanical skills,
and/or creativity. Along with this, the formats of many
intelligence tests do not capture the complexity and immediacy
of real-life situations. Therefore, intelligence tests have been
criticized for their limited ability to predict non-test or
nonacademic intellectual abilities. Since intelligence test scores
can be influenced by a variety of different experiences and
behaviors, they should not be considered a perfect indicator of a
person's intellectual potential.
Results
The person's raw scores on an intelligence test are
typically converted to standard scores. The standard scores allow
the examiner to compare the individual's score to other people
who have taken the test. Additionally, by converting raw scores
to standard scores the examiner has uniform scores and can
more easily compare an individual's performance on one test
with the individual's performance on another test. Depending on
the intelligence test that is used, a variety of scores can be
obtained. Most intelligence tests generate an overall

51
intelligence quotient or IQ. As previously noted, it is valuable to
know how a person performs on the various tasks that make up
the test. This can influence the interpretation of the test and what
the IQ means. The average of score for most intelligence tests is
100.
Achievement Testing
The purpose of achievement testing is to measure some
aspect of the intellectual competence of human beings: what a
person has learned to know or to do. Teachers use achievement
tests to measure the attainments of their students. Employers use
achievement tests to measure the competence of prospective
employees. Professional associations use achievement tests to
exclude unqualified applicants from the practice of the
profession. In any circumstances where it is necessary or useful
to distinguish persons of higher from those of lower competence
or attainments, achievement testing is likely to occur.
The varieties of intellectual competence that may be
developed by formal education, self-study, or other types of
experience are numerous and diverse. There is a corresponding
number and diversity of types of tests used to measure
achievement. In this article attention will be directed mainly
toward the measurement of cognitive achievements by means of
paper and pencil tests. The justifications for this limitation are
1. that cognitive achievements are of central importance to
effective human behavior,
2. that the use of paper and pencil tests to measure these
achievements is a comparatively well-developed and
effective technique, and
3. that other aspects of intellectual competence will be
discussed in other articles, such as those on motivation,
learning, attitudes, leadership, aesthetics, and personality.
Measurability of Achievement
Despite the complexity, intangibility, and delayed fruition
of many educational achievements and despite the relative
imprecision of many of the techniques of educational

52
measurement, there are logical grounds for believing that all
important educational achievements can be measured. To be
important, an educational achievement must lead to a difference
in behavior. The person who has achieved more must in some
circumstances behave differently from the person who has
achieved less. If such a difference cannot be observed and
verified no grounds exist for believing that the achievement is
important.
Measurement, in its most fundamental form, requires
nothing more than the verifiable observation of such a difference.
If person A exhibits to any qualified observer more of a particular
trait than person B, then that trait is measurable. By definition,
then, any important achievement is potentially measurable.
Many important educational achievements can be
measured quite satisfactorily by means of paper and pencil tests.
But in some cases the achievement is so complex, variable, and
conditional that the measurements obtained are only rough
approximations. In other cases the difficulty lies in the attempt to
measure something that has been alleged to exist but that has
never been defined specifically. Thus, to say that all important
achievements are potentially measurable is not to say that all
those achievements have been clearly identified or that
satisfactory techniques for measuring all of them have been
developed.
Achievement, Aptitude, and Intelligence Tests
Achievement tests are often distinguished from aptitude
tests that purport to predict what a person is able to learn or
from intelligence tests intended to measure his capacity for
learning. But the distinction between aptitude and achievement
is more apparent than real, more a difference in the use made of
the measurements, than in what is being measured. In a very real
sense, tests of aptitude and intelligence are also tests of
achievement.
The tasks used to measure a child’s mental age may differ
from those used to measure his knowledge of the facts of
addition. The tasks used to assess a youth’s aptitude for the study
53
of a foreign language may differ from those used to assess his
knowledge of English literature. But all of these tasks test
achievement; they measure what a person has learned to know
or to do. All learning except the very earliest builds on prior
learning. Thus, what is regarded as achievement in retrospect is
regarded as aptitude when looking to the future.
There may well be differences in genetically determined
biological equipment for learning among normal human beings.
But no method has yet been discovered for measuring these
differences directly. Only if one is willing to assume that several
persons have had identical opportunities, incentives, and other
favorable circumstances for learning (and that is quite an
assumption) is it reasonable to use present differences in
achievements as a basis for dependable estimates of
corresponding differences in native ability to learn.
Types of Tests
Although some achievement testing is done orally, with
examinee and examiner face to face, most of it makes use of
written tests. Of these written tests there are two main types:
essay and objective. If the test consists of a relatively small
number of questions or directions in response to which the
examinee writes a sentence, a paragraph, or a longer essay of his
own composition, the test is usually referred to as an essay test.
Alternatively, if the test consists of a relatively large number of
questions or incomplete statements in response to which the
examinee chooses one of several suggested answers, the test is
ordinarily referred to as an objective test.
Objective tests can be scored by clerks or scoring
machines. Essay tests must be scored by judges who have special
qualifications and who sometimes are specially trained for the
particular scoring process. The scores obtained from objective
tests tend to be more reliable than those obtained from essay
tests. That is, independent scorings of the same answers, or of the
same person’s answers to equivalent sets of questions, tend to
agree more closely in the case of objective tests than in the case
of essay tests.

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 There are four major steps in achievement testing: (1) the
preparation or selection of the test, (2) the administration of the
test to the examinees, (3) the scoring of the answers given, and
(4) the interpretation of the resulting scores.
Test development. In the United States, and to a lesser extent in
other countries, achievement tests have been developed and are
offered for sale by commercial test publishers. Buros (1961) has
provided a list of tests in print and has indicated where they may
be obtained. Recent catalogs of tests are available from most of
the publishers listed in that volume.
Most achievement tests, however, are prepared for
limited, specific use by teachers, professors, test committees, or
test specialists. These test constructors usually start with some
fairly well-defined notions of the reasons for testing. Their
purposes, and their acquaintance with the theory and principles
of achievement testing, lead them to select certain abilities and
areas of knowledge to test, certain types of test items, and certain
procedures for test administration and scoring.
Mental abilities. Too little is known about the mind and how it
works to permit clear identification of distinct and relatively
independent mental abilities or mental processes. Thus, while it
is easy to say that a good achievement test should sample in due
proportions all the mental abilities related to that achievement, it
is much more difficult to speak clearly about the nature and
unique characteristics of these supposedly distinct mental
abilities. Terms likerecognition, recall, problem solving, critical
thinking, and evaluative judgment have been used in referring to
such abilities or mental processes. But although these terms
obviously refer to somewhat different kinds of tasks, the
evidence that they involve independent and distinct mental
processes is practically nonexistent. Hence, the test constructor
may be well advised to avoid claims or speculations about the
mental abilities he is testing.
Among specialists in test construction there is general
preference for test questions that require more than the recall of
factual details: for test questions that require thought. This has

55
led many test constructors to avoid simple true-false or
completion types of test items in favor of more complex test
situations that call for problem solving, critical interpretation, or
evaluative judgment. Sometimes the test constructor supplies as
background information much of the factual information the
examinee is likely to need to answer the questions successfully.
Then, presumably, a student’s score depends more on his ability
to use knowledge than on his ability to recall it.
It is easier to specify areas of knowledge than mental
abilities, but test constructors often face problems in determining
just which areas a particular achievement test ought to sample,
and with what relative weights. Sometimes textbooks, courses of
study, and other sources are studied for guidance as to which
areas of content deserve inclusion or emphasis. But in the last
analysis, problems of this sort must be resolved on the basis of
the judgments of the test constructor or test construction
committee. Since different test constructors may not agree on
these judgments, two achievement tests bearing the same titles
may cover some-what different areas of content.
Types of questions. A wide variety of different types of questions
may be used in essay tests of achievement. Here are some
examples.
 List the similarities and differences of the eye and the
camera.
 What is the relation between the boiling point of water and
the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water?
 Explain the electrolysis of water.
 What is meant by the term “cultural lag”?
 What internal weaknesses and external forces led to the fall
of the Roman Empire?
 Objective test items also differ widely. Two of the more
common types are illustrated here.
True-False. Weather systems affecting the State of Illinois
usually approach from the southeast rather than from the
northwest. (False)
56
Multiple-choice. Why is chlorine sometimes added to water in
city water supply systems?
1. To clarify the water (dissolve sediment)
2. To kill bacteria
3. To protect the pipes from corrosion
4. To remove objectionable odors
Other types of objective test items are illustrated and
discussed in various books on achievement test construction.
Some of these are listed at the end of this article.
The choice between essay or objective tests, or among
different types of objective test items, is often made on the
assumption that each of these types is particularly well adapted,
or poorly adapted, to the measurement of a particular ability or
mental process. But available evidence does more to question
this assumption than to support it. It is true that certain
questions or tasks used in achievement testing fall more
naturally into one type of test or test item than into another. But
on the whole, types of test items appear to be general rather than
specific in function. Whatever educational achievement that can
be measured well using one type of test item can probably also
be measured quite well using some other types. How well the
achievement is measured seems to depend less on the type of
item chosen than on the skill with which it is used.
Test Administration
Most tests of educational achievement are given to
groups rather than individuals. In either case, effective
administration requires (1) that examinees be motivated to do as
well as they can, (2) that they understand clearly what the test
requires them to do, (3) that the environment in which they work
allows and encourages their best efforts, and (4) that each
examinee has an equal chance to demonstrate his achievement.
Examinees are usually motivated to do their best on an
achievement test because of the present rewards and future
opportunities that depend on the quality of their performance. It
is possible for an examinee to be so highly motivated that his

57
anxiety actually interferes with his best performance on a test.
Some examinees report that they never do themselves justice on
a written examination because of the emotional upset they suffer
or because of some deficiency in test-taking skills. But the
evidence suggests that these problems afflict persons of low
achievement far more often than those of high achievement.
Cheating. Cheating is a perennial problem in achievement
testing. The problem could be alleviated, as some have suggested,
by reducing emphasis on, and rewards for, achievement; but
there are obvious disadvantages in this solution. A better
solution, in general, is to provide sufficient supervision during
the test administration to discourage attempts to cheat and to
deal with those who do cheat firmly enough to make cheating
quite unattractive. In some cases cheating on school and college
achievement tests has been discouraged effectively by cultivation
of honor systems, in which the students themselves take
responsibility for honest examination behavior and for reporting
any instances of cheating.
Time limits. The current trend in achievement testing is to avoid
“speed tests.” Examinees differ widely in their rates of work, so
that the slowest may require twice as long as the fastest to
complete a test to his satisfaction. There is usually a positive
correlation between rate of work and correctness of response,
that is, examinees who know the most answers tend to give them
the most quickly. But the correlation is not high enough to allow
rate-of-work scores to add appreciable valid information to
correct-answer scores as measures of achievement. Even among
the most capable examinees there may be wide differences in
rate of work. Hence, the most accurate predictions of subsequent
achievement can usually be made when tests have time limits
generous enough to allow most examinees to finish.
Scoring. Each type of test presents unique problems of scoring.
Essay test scoring. Essay test scoring calls for higher degrees of
competence, and ordinarily takes considerably more time, than
the scoring of objective tests. In addition to this, essay test
scoring presents two special problems. The first is that of

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providing a basis for judgment that is sufficiently definite, and of
sufficiently general validity, to give the scores assigned by a
particular reader some objective meaning. To be useful, his
scores should not represent purely subjective opinions and
personal biases that equally competent readers might or might
not share. The second problem is that of discounting irrelevant
factors, such as quality of handwriting, verbal fluency, or
gamesmanship, in appealing to the scorer’s interests and biases.
The reader’s scores should reflect unbiased estimates of the
essential achievements of the examinee.
One means of improving objectivity and relevancy in
scoring essay tests is to prepare an ideal answer to each essay
question and to base the scoring on relations between examinee
answers and the ideal answer. Another is to defer assignment of
scores until the examinee answers have been sorted and resorted
into three to nine sets at different levels of quality. Scoring the
test question by question through the entire set of papers, rather
than paper by paper (marking all questions on one paper before
considering the next) improves the accuracy of scoring. If several
scorers will be marking the same questions in a set of papers, it is
usually helpful to plan a training and practice session in which
the scorers mark the same papers, compare their marks and
strive to reach a common basis for marking.
Objective test scoring
Answers to true-false, multiple-choice, and other
objective-item types can be marked directly on the test copy. But
scoring is facilitated if the answers are indicated by position
marking a separate answer sheet. For example, the examinee
may be directed to indicate his choice of the first, second, third,
fourth, or fifth alternative to a multiple-choice test item by
blackening the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth position
following the item number on his answer sheet.
Answers so marked can be scored by clerks with the aid
of a stencil key on which the correct answer positions have been
punched. To get the number of correct answers, the clerk simply
counts the number of marks appearing through the holes on the

59
stencil key. Or the answers can be scored, usually much more
quickly and accurately, by electrical scoring machines. Some of
these machines, which “count” correct answers by cumulating
the current flowing through correctly placed pencil marks,
require the examinee to use special graphite pencils; others,
which use photoelectric cells to scan the answer sheet, require
only marks black enough to contrast sharply with the lightly
printed guide lines. High-speed photoelectric test scoring
machines usually incorporate, or are connected to, electronic
data processing and print-out equipment.
Correction for guessing
One question that often arises is whether or not objective
test scores should be corrected for guessing. Differences of
opinion on this question are much greater and more easily
observable than differences in the accuracy of the scores
produced by the two methods of scoring. If well-motivated
examinees take a test that is appropriate to their abilities,
little blind guessing is likely to occur. There may be
many considered guesses, if every answer given with less than
complete certainty is called a guess. But the examinee’s success
in guessing right after thoughtful consideration is usually a good
measure of his achievement.
Since the meaning of most achievement test scores is
relative, not absolute the scores serve only to indicate how the
achievement of a particular examinee compares with that of
other examinees - the argument that scores uncorrected for
guessing will be too high carries little weight. Indeed, one method
of correcting for guessing results in scores higher than the
uncorrected scores.
The logical objective of most guessing correction
procedures is to eliminate the expected advantage of the
examinee who guesses blindly in preference to omitting an item.
This can be done by subtracting a fraction of the number of
wrong answers from the number of right answers, using the
formula S = R – W/(k – 1) where S is the score corrected for
guessing, R is the number of right answers, W is the number of

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wrong answers, and k is the number of choices available to the
examinee in each item. An alternative formula is S = R +
O/k where O is the number of items omitted, and the other
symbols have the same meaning as before. Both formulas rank
any set of examinee answer sheets in exactly the same relative
positions, although the second formula yields a higher score for
the same answers than does the first.
Logical arguments for and against correction for guessing
on objective tests are complex and elaborate. But both these
arguments and the experimental data point to one general
conclusion. In most circumstances a correction for guessing is not
likely to yield scores that are appreciably more or less accurate
than the uncorrected scores.
Score interpretation. It is possible to prepare an achievement
test on which the scores have absolute meaning. For example,
scores on a test of ability to add pairs of single-digit numbers can
be used to estimate how many of the 100 addition facts an
examinee knows. Or, if a test of word meanings is built by
systematically sampling the words in a particular dictionary and
systematically mixing words and definitions to produce test
items, the test can be used to estimate what portion of the words
in that dictionary an examinee understands, in one sense of that
term.
But most achievement tests are not constructed so
systematically nor based on such clearly defined universes of
knowledge. Scores on most achievement tests, therefore, are
interpreted in relative terms. Whether an examinee’s score on
such a test is regarded as good or poor depends on whether most
of his presumed peers scored lower or higher on the same test.
Several statistical techniques may be used to aid in score
interpretation on a relative basis. One of these is the frequency
distribution of a set of test scores. Each score in the set is tallied
on a scale extending from the highest to the lowest scores. One
can then tell by visual inspection whether a particular score is
high, medium, or low relative to other scores in this distribution.

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Percentile ranks. The information contained in a frequency
distribution of scores can be quantified by calculating a
corresponding percentile rank for each possible score in the total
range of scores. The percentile rank of a particular score
indicates what percentage of the scores in the given set (or in a
hypothetical population of which the given set is a sample) are
lower than the particular score. Percentile ranks can range from
0 to 100. They are easy to interpret, but they do not preserve all
of the information on relative achievements available in the
original set of scores, nor do they reflect these relative
achievements with perfect fidelity.
Standard score systems
Measures of the average score value and of score
dispersion are often used as aids to score interpretation. The
measure of average value most commonly used in thearithmetic
mean, defined as the sum of all scores divided by the number of
scores. The measure of dispersion most commonly used is
the standard deviation, the square root of the arithmetic mean of
the squared deviations of the scores from their own mean. In the
set of scores 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the mean score is 3 and the standard
deviation is 1.414.
The mean and standard deviation can be used to
transform the scores in any set into standard scores having a
predetermined mean and standard deviation. One type of
standard score is the z score. If the mean of a set of scores is
subtracted from a particular score, and if the resulting difference
is divided by the standard deviation, a z score is obtained. When z
scores are obtained for an entire set of scores, the
new z distribution has a mean of 0, a standard deviation of 1, and
most of the scores fall within the range —3 to +3. The z scores
corresponding to the scores 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are -1.4, -0.7, 0, +0.7,
and +1.4.
To avoid negative scores and decimals, z scores may be
multiplied by 10 and added to 50. This set of operations provides
another type of standard score whose mean is 50 and whose
standard deviation is 10. Single-digit standard scores, ranging

62
from 1 to 9, with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2 are
called stanines (standard nines). Various other types of standard
scores are in use. In stanines and some other standard score
systems, the distribution of raw scores is not only converted to a
standard scale but is also transformed into a normal distribution.
The special value of standard scores of the types just
discussed is that each of them has a clearly defined relative
meaning. Standard scores of a particular type for different tests
are comparable when based on scores from the same group of
examinees. That is, a particular standard score value indicates
the same degree of relative excellence or deficiency in the group
of examinees, regardless of the test to which it applies.
Reliability. Proper interpretation of an achievement test
score requires, in addition to knowledge of its absolute and
relative meanings, some perception of its precision and of its
relations to other significant measurements. Achievement test
specialists use coefficients of reliability as measures of precision.
A reliability coefficient is a coefficient of correlation
between two sets of test scores. Often this is obtained when a
particular group of examinees provides scores on two equivalent
tests. If equivalent tests are not available, or cannot be
administered conveniently, reliability may be estimated by
readministering the same test after an interval of time.
Alternatively, and preferably in most circumstances, a test may
be split into two or more parts that are more or less equivalent.
The correlations obtained between scores on the parts
may be used as a basis for calculating the reliability coefficient.
Reliability coefficients obtained from equivalent forms of a test
are sometimes referred to as coefficients of equivalence. Those
obtained by splitting a single test are known as coefficients
of internal consistency. Equivalence or internal consistency in
tests is often referred to as “homogeneity.” Correlations obtained
by readministering the same test are called coefficients of
stability.
In most situations a good achievement test will have a
reliability coefficient of .90 or higher. The reliability coefficient of

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a test depends on a number of factors. Reliability tends to be high
if (1) the range of achievements in the group tested is broad, (2)
the area of achievement covered by the test is narrow, (3) the
discriminating power of the individual items is high, and (4) the
number of items included in the test is large. Only the last two of
these factors are ordinarily subject to control by the test
constructor.
Discriminating power. The discriminating power of a test
item can be measured by the difference between scores on that
item for examinees of high and low achievement. To obtain the
clearest contrast between these two levels of achievement,
examinees whose test scores place them among the top 27% are
placed in the high group and those whose scores fall in the
bottom 27% are placed in the low group. Extreme groups of
upper and lower quarters, or upper and lower thirds, are almost
equally satisfactory. The difference between the two groups’ total
scores on the item, divided by the maximum possible value of
that difference, yields anindex of discrimination.
Good achievement test items have indexes of
discrimination of .40 or higher. Items having indexes of .20 or
lower are of questionable value. If the discrimination index is
near zero, or even negative, as it sometimes may be, the test can
be improved by omitting the item, even though this means
shortening the test. Sometimes it is possible to revise items that
are low in discrimination to remove errors or ambiguities or to
make the level of difficulty more appropriate. Items that nearly
everyone answers correctly, or nearly everyone misses, are
certain to be low in discrimination. Discrimination indexes based
on small groups of examinees are likely to be quite unreliable,
but even unreliable data provide some basis for test
improvement.
Standard error of measurement. Another measure of
precision or accuracy in test scores is the standard error of
measurement. The standard error of measurement depends on
the standard deviation of the test scores and on their reliability.
It may be calculated from the formula, in which σmens indicates

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the standard error of measurement, σt indicates the standard
deviation of the test scores, and rtt represents the reliability
coefficient of the test scores. About two-thirds of the scores in a
given set differ from the ideal true score values by less than one
standard error of measurement. The other one-third, of course,
differ from the corresponding true scores by more than one
standard error of measurement. A true score is defined as the
mean of the scores that would be obtained in an infinite number
of samples of tests equivalent to the given test.
The test having the smallest standard error of
measurement is not necessarily the best test, since good tests
yield large score standard deviations and this, in turn, tends to be
associated with large standard errors of measurement. Hence, it
is better to use the standard error of measurement as an
indication of the degree of accuracy of a particular test score,
rather than as a measure of the ability of the test to differentiate
among various levels of achievement.
Validity. The reliability coefficient of a test shows how
precisely it measures whatever it does measure. In contrast,
the validity coefficient is sometimes said to show how precisely it
measures what it ought to measure, or what it purports to
measure. But since good criterion scores, i.e., actual measures of
that which the test ought to measure, are seldom available to the
constructor of an achievement test, the practical value of this
concept of predictive validity is limited.
Knowledge of what other measures the test scores are
related to, that is, what they correlate with, adds to the test
constructor’s knowledge of what the test is measuring. In this
sense these correlations contribute to understanding of
the concurrent validity of the test. But for most achievement tests,
validity is primarily a matter of operational definition,
or content or face validity, and only secondarily, if at all, a matter
of empirical demonstration. Validity must be built into most
achievement tests. The content to be covered by an achievement
test and the tasks to be used to indicate achievement are best
determined by a consensus of experts. Experience and

65
experiments shed light on some of the issues that these experts
may debate, but there is no good substitute for their expertness,
their values, and their experience as bases for valid achievement
test construction.
Importance and limitations. Achievement tests play important
roles in education, in government, in business and industry, and
in the professions. If they were constructed more carefully and
more expertly, and used more consistently and more wisely, they
could do even more to improve the effectiveness of these
enterprises.
But achievement tests also have limitations beyond those
attributable to hasty, inexpert construction or improper use. In
the first place, they are limited to measuring a person’s command
of the knowledge that can be expressed in verbal or symbolic
terms. This is a very large area of knowledge, and command of it
constitutes a very important human achievement; but it does not
include all knowledge, and it does not represent the whole of
human achievement. There is, for example, the unverbalized
knowledge obtained by direct perceptions of objects, events,
feelings, relationships, etc. There are also physical skills and
behavioral skills, such as leadership and friendship, that are not
highly dependent on command of verbal knowledge. A paper and
pencil test of achievement can measure what a person knows
about these achievements but not necessarily how effectively he
uses them in practice.
In the second place, while command of knowledge may be
a necessary condition for success in modern human activities, it
is by no means a sufficient condition. Energy, persistence, and
plain good fortune, among other things, combine to determine
how successfully he uses the knowledge he possesses. A person
with high achievement scores is a better bet to succeed than one
with low achievement scores, but high scores cannot guarantee
success.
Personality Tests
Personality tests and inventories evaluate the thoughts,
emotions, attitudes, and behavioral traits that comprise
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personality. The results of these tests can help determine a
child's personality strengths and weaknesses, and may identify
certain disturbances in personality, or psychopathology. Tests
such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for
Adolescents (MMPI-A) and the Millon Pre-Adolescent Clinical
Inventory III (M-PACI), are used to screen children for specific
psychopathologies or emotional problems.
Another type of personality test is the projective
personality assessment. A projective test asks a child to interpret
some ambiguous stimuli, such as a series of inkblots. The child's
responses provide insight into his or her thought processes and
personality traits. For example, the Holtzman Ink blot Test (HIT)
uses a series of inkblots that the test subject is asked to identify.
Another projective assessment, the Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT), asks the child to tell a story about a series of pictures.
Some consider projective tests to be less reliable than objective
personality tests. If the examiner is not well-trained
in psychometric evaluation, subjective interpretations may affect
the evaluation of these tests.
MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence Quotient (IQ):
Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s mental
and chronological age
IQ Score = MA/CA x 100
Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for
people at a given chronological age Chronological age (CA): the
actual age of the child taking the intelligence test
People whose mental age is equal to their chronological
age will always have an IQ of 100. If the chronological age
exceeds mental age - below-average intelligence (below 100).If
the mental age exceed the chronological age - above-average
intelligence (above 100).
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Measure of intelligence that
takes into account a child’s mental and chronological age IQ
Score = MA/CA x 100 Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence

67
level found for people at a given chronological age Chronological
age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test
People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will
always have an IQ of 100. If the chronological age exceeds mental
age - below-average intelligence (below 100). If the mental age
exceed the chronological age - above-average intelligence (above
100)
The normal distribution: most of the population falls in
the middle range of scores between 84 and 116.
Very Superior Intelligence (gifted) - Above 130
• Superior Intelligence - 120 to 129
• High Average Intelligence - 110 to 119
• Average Intelligence - 90 to 109
• Low Average Intelligence - 80 to 89
 Borderline Intellectual Functioning - 71 to 79
• Mild Mental Retardation - 55 to 70
• Moderate Retardation - 40 to 54
• Severe Mental Retardation - 25 to 39
• Profound Mental Retardation - Below 25
Intelligence tests were developed for the practical
function of selecting students for admission or placement in
schools. Originally these tests were not based on any theory of
intelligence. They defined intelligence as the ability to do well in
school.
Stanford-Binet
This test was developed to identify children who had
serious intellectual difficulties - such that they would not succeed
in the public school system and who should not be placed in the
same classes with other students. This test measured things that
were necessary for school success such as understanding and
using language, computational skills, memory, and the ability to
follow instructions.
Individual responses in four content areas:
 Verbal reasoning
 Quantitative reasoning

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 Abstract/visual reasoning
 Short-term memory
Wechsler Scales
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III):
Used with people 17 and older
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-
III): Used with children 6 to 16

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Chapter – 3
THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING

3.1. MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF COUNSELLING

Meaning of Counselling
Counselling is the service offered to the individual who is
undergoing a problem and needs professional help to overcome
it. The problem keeps him disturbed high strung and under
tension and unless solved his development is hampered or
stunted. Counseling therefore is a more specialized service
requiring training in personality development and handling
exceptional groups of individuals.According to Willey and
Andrew Counseling involves two individuals one skeeking help
and other a professionally trained person helped solved
problems to orient and direct him to words a goals. Which needs
to his maximum development and growth?
Counseling services are therefore required for individuals
having developmental problems because of the handicap they
suffer in any area of emotional either because of hereditary
factors or environment conditions.
Generally such cases are only about five to seven percent
in a population and therefore counseling is required only for such
a small number. As compared to guidance which is for percent of
individuals. Counseling involves a lot of time for the client to
unfold the problem, gain an insight in to the complex situation.
Counseling techniques involve active listening, emphatic
understanding releasing the pent up feelings confronting the
client and so on counseling therefore is offered to only those
individuals who are under serious problem and need
professional help to overcome it.
Need of Counselling
Counselling is an integral part of an over-all programme
of guidance. “Counselling is a specific process of assistance
70
extended by an expert in an individual situation to a needy
person”. This means the counseling situation arises when a needy
person is face to face with and expert who makes available his
assistance to the needy individual to fulfill his needs.
There is an urgent need of introducing and strengthening
the counseling service in the schools and colleges of our country
to meet the various needs of the students administrational and
the educational system.
1. To help in the total development of the student:
Along with the intellectual development proper motivation
and clarification of goals and ideas to pupils in conformity
with their basic potentialities and social tendencies are
important total development of the student nauseates that
individual differences among them are expected,accepted,
understood and planned for and all types of experiences in an
institution are to be so organized as to contribute to the total
development of the student.
2. To help in the proper choices of courses
3. To help in the proper choices of carvers
4. To help in the students in vocational development
5. To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new
challenges.
6. To minimize the mismatching between education and
employment and help in the efficient use of manpower.
7. To motivate the youth for self-employment.
8. To help freshers establish proper identity Guidance and
counseling service is needed to help students deal effectively
with the normal developmental tasks of adolescence and face
life situations boldly.
9. To identify and motivate the students form weaker sections
of society.
10. To help the students in their period of turmoil and confusion.
11. To help in checking wastage and stagnation.
12. To identity and help students in need of special help.

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13. There are such students as the gifted, the backward the
handicapped who need special opportunities. They need
special attention and opportunities.
14. To ensure the proper utilization of time spent outside the
classrooms.
The manner in which student spend their non class hours
clearly affects their success in achieving both academic
competence and personal development of all types a positive
direction to students should be provided by influencing how
they can use those non class hours.
15. To help in talking problems arising out of students
population explosion.
16. To check migration to prevent brain drain.
17. To make up for the deficiencies of home.
18. To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.
Bargadon has mentioned the following situations where
counseling in required:
1. When a pupil requires not only reliable information but also
an interesting introspection of those in formations which can
solve his personal difficulties.
2. When a pupil needs intelligent listener who has more
experience than the pupil to whom he can recite his
difficulties and through which can seek suggestions for his
working plan.
3. When the counsellor has to assess those facilities which can
help in resolving the pupil problems but the pupil doesn’t
enjoy such an access to those facilities.
4. When the pupil has some problem but he is unaware of that
problem and his development, he is to be made aware of that
problem.
5. when the pupil is aware of the problem and difficulties
created by the problem but he feels difficult to define it and
to understand it that is, when the pupil is familiar with the
presence of the problem and its nature but he is unable to

72
 face the problem due to this temporary tension
anddistraction.
6. When the pupil suffer the main maladjustment problem or
some handicapped which is temporary and which needs
careful long due diagnosis by an expert.
Majority of students lack a sense of direction, a sense of
purpose and a sense of fulfillment and include in destructive
activities which lead to social damage and loss. Adequate
guidance and counselling facilities is the only answer to help
and guide the youth to worthwhile channels and help them to
realize the goals of optimum academic personal and social
development.
Problems and needs in society are nothing new. But today
they have seen to be proliferating unprecedented rate. The
unique problems in the changing family, cities in up level,
conflicts in values, attitudes and moral , the new criticism
about politics, economic factors the changing role of work,
new pressure and demands on school and the problems of
the youth all points out the needs for the counselling services.
Guidance and counselling have a challenging role to play in
every developing economy much more so if it is a labour
surplus one.
Nature of Guidance
1. Guidance is education itself. Guidance aims at educating the
individual for understanding himself, unfolding his
potentialities to their maximum so that he may eventually
prove himself to be an adjusted and pragmatic member of the
community. Guidance therefore is a significant education
procedure. It is in short education itself.
2. Guidance is a process. Guidance is a process that enables an
individual in discovering himself in the most satisfying and
positive manner. It provides direction to enable an individual
harness his potentialities, abilities, interests and aptitudes.
3. Guidance is a continuous process. Guidance is a dynamic and
a non-stop process. In this process, an individual understands
himself, learns to use maximum his own capacities, interests
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 and other abilities. He continues his struggle for adjustment
in different situations. He develops his capacity of decision-
making.
4. Guidance is related with life. The process of guidance is
related to life, its problems and challenges and how to face
them. Problems and challenges are the building blocks of our
personality. Guidance helps people to live a balanced and
tension free-life with full satisfaction under the
circumstances.
5. Guidance is self-direction. The nature of Guidance is not to
thrust itself on an individual. It does not make choices for
him. The ultimate purpose of guidance is guide the individual
to direct himself in the right direction, to make his own
choices, to fix his own life-goals and to carry his own burden.
6. Guidance is individual-centred. Whether given on individual
or group basis, the focus of all guidance programmes is the
individual who need to manage himself for a joyous today
and a happy tomorrow by a healthy alignment of individual
desires and aspiration with socially desirable good.
7. Guidance is a qualified and complex and organised service.
Guidance is given by qualified and trained personnel. Hence
guidance is a skill-involved process. The varied and complex
nature of human life leaves its imprint on the guidance
programmes which are a totality of experiences. Guidance
depends on prior study of the individual, his assessment,
initial counselling, interview, case study and a host of other
subsidiary activities that qualifies Guidance as a complex
process.
8. Guidance is based on individual differences. Individual
differences or, the fact that individuals differ significantly,
forms the basis of Guidance. If all the individuals had been
alike, there was no scope for guidance. Individuals differ not
only in their appearances but in their mental and intellectual
endowments, desires, aspirations, and aptitudes.
9. Universality of guidance. Guidance is for all. Every person
needs guidance at all the stages of life situations from
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 childhood to old age. He needs guidance for solving problems
to adjust in the family as well as in the society.
10. Guidance is making potential actual. Studies indicate that
each person is born with more potential than he uses.
Guidance programme aid the individual in the discovery of a
hidden potential individual for his own benefit that that of
the community. Thus guidance programme is used as an aid
to discover the talent and use it for the progress of the
country.
11. Preparation for future. The process of guidance is helpful in
preparing a person for his future. Guidance helps in the
choice of one’s career, one’s partner in life etc. Guidance
helps the individual to march towards the future with
confidence.
12. Modification of Behaviour. Guidance helps the persons in his
adjustment in different situations and to modify one’s
behaviour. Negative personality traits have been modified
through skilful guidance and counselling. According to Carter
V. Good, “Guidance is a process of dynamic interpersonal
relationship designed to influence the attitudes and
subsequent behaviour of a person.”
Scope of Guidance
The scope of guidance is too wide. In the words of Crow
and Crow, “Guidance touches every aspect of an individual’s
personality- physical, mental, emotional and social. It is
concerned with all aspects of an individual’s attitudes and
behaviour patterns. It seeks to help the individual to integrate all
of his activities in terms of his basic potentialities and
environmental opportunities.” Any needy person can be guided.
This can include the persons of different age, different interests,
various characteristics and persons of different nature. Hence,
we cannot draw boundaries around the process of guidance.
The following factors are responsible for the expansion of the
scope of guidance.
1. Complex nature of personality. Industrialisation brings with
it a number of tensions such as adjustment with the job, with
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 the place of work, with the physical and social environment,
and also with the advancements of technology and
modernisation. To cope with all these, guidance is essential.
So the scope of guidance in the field of adjustment with
almost all spheres of life has increased.
2. Complexity of Occupation. In the process of industrialisation,
automation and cybernetics, many new occupations are
coming up and a few old occupations are dying. In U.S.A., an
average man changes seven occupation through his life. The
trend is bound to effect as the process of development will
need very complex sophisticated and complicated
occupations for which higher educational background and
intensive training will be necessary. This complexity is bound
to increase the scope of guidance in so many ways.
3. Complexity of Training. For the new jobs, new type of
training, new courses of studies, use of new types of
machines and above all to prepare oneself for employment in
the changing world are some of the problems which will have
to be tackled in an effective way, with the help of guidance.
The scope of guidance will be to put right man in the right
job.
4. Increasing Areas. With the passing of time and complexity of
circumstances, scholars like Brewer have prepared about 10
areas of guidance i.e., educational, vocational, religious, home
relationship, citizenship, leisure time and recreation,
personal well-being, right doing, cooperation and cultural
action. The fact remain that more complex the society, more
will be the need for guidance.
5. Migration. Because of industrialisation process, people move
from one state to other states. In India, the states are quite
different in their religion, culture, mode of living, dress,
eating habits and marriages. When they move from one social
set up to another one, the problem of adjustment becomes
serious for which guidance is needed. The similar types of
adjustment problems are found when the people from one
country migrate to another country for employment,
education or training, for which guidance if required.
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6. The Expansion of Education. The days are gone when only a
few privileged were to be educated. Now, education has
become asset for the nation and right placement of persons
need a lot of guidance.
7. Areas of guidance. The Scope of guidance is classified into
several areas where and individual needs guidance. These
areas can be classified into educational guidance, vocational
guidance, personal guidance, social guidance, a vocational
guidance and Health guidance. Thus guidance is a continuous,
complex, dynamic and comprehensive process. Guidance is
concerned with educational, vocational and other problems
along with personal problems. Guidance work can occur
anywhere and can be provided even through magazines,
books and correspondence.
3.2. DIFFERENT APPROACHES OF COUNSELLING (DIRECTIVE,
CLIENT CENTERED AND ECLECTIC)
TYPES OF COUNSELLING
 Directive
 Non Directive
 Eclectic
3.3. Directive Counselling
(CounsellorCentred, Prescriptive Counselling)
(Chief exponent – E G Williamson)
Characteristics:
 Counsellor plays vital role in the whole process
 Counsellor is very active
 Counsellor leads the interview
 Client subordinate to the counsellor, not at par
 Focal point is the problem not the person
 Stresses more on the person’s intellectual aspect than the
emotional aspect
 Counsellor owns entire responsibility of solving problems
Procedure (Steps) of Directive Counselling
1) Analysis - collection of data
2) Synthesis - summarizing and organizing the data
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3) Diagnosis - interpretation of data
4) Prognosis - prediction about future progress
5) Counselling - treatment given by counsellor
6) Follow up - evaluation of the effectiveness of counselling
Advantages:
 Economical in time
 Counsellor can see the client more objectively than the client
himself
 Intellectual problems can be solved easily
Disadvantages:
 Client is dependent
 Fails in saving the client to commit the mistakes in future
 Scarcity of information regarding the client can create the
possibility of wrong counseling
 Emotional problems may be better solved by Non Directive
counselling
3.4. Non Directive Counselling (Client Centred, Permissive
Counselling) (Chief exponent - Carl Rogers)
 It revolves around the client
 Client leads the conversation
 Counsellor is mostly passive
 Open ended questions are asked
 Diagnostic instruments are not used
 Client can act with his own intellect
 The entire responsibility is of client
Procedure (Steps) of Non Directive Counselling
1) Defining the problematic situation
2) Free expression of feeling
3) Classification of positive and negative feeling
4) Development of insight
5) Termination of counselling situation
Advantages:
 Development of the problem solving ability
 Unwonted tests can be avoided

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 Removes the emotional blokes, help individual to bring out
repressed thoughts and reduces tension
 Leaves its impression for a longer time
Limitations:
 Slow and time consuming process
 If Client is immature it is not suitable
 All the problems cannot be solved orally
 Sometimes due to the counsellors passiveness, the client
hesitate in expressing his feelings
 Not successful always
3.5. Eclectic Counselling (Chief exponent - F.C. Thorne)
 Coordinative methods are used
 The counsellor is neither active like Directive counselling nor
passive like Non Directive counselling
 The need and personality of the client are studied and then
he selects the techniques
 The main techniques are used are reassurance, giving
information, case history, testing
 Both counsellor and client are active and cooperative, they
participate in conversation turn wise and solve the problem
Procedure (Steps) of Eclectic Counselling
1) Study of the need and personality of the client
2) Selection of the technique
3) Application of techniques
4) Evaluation of effectiveness
5) Preparation of counseling
6) Seeking the opinion of the client and other related people.
Advantages:
 Practical value is very high
 Both client and counsellor are active
Disadvantages:
 Some people are of the view that both the types cannot be
mixed together
 Vague and opportunistic

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 Question arises how much freedom should be given to the
client, no definite rule
Counseling Techniques Used by Counselors
There are many different techniques that counselors can
use with their clients. Let’s take a look at some of the
techniques that we feel to be most effective during a counseling
session:
 Spheres of Influence: This assessment tool will get the
individual to look at areas of their life and see which areas
may be impacting and influencing them. The person’s job is
to figure out which systems in their life give them strength,
and which ones give them stress. Some spheres of influence
to consider are: themselves, immediate family, friends,
husband or wife, extended family, job or school, community,
culture or religion, and any external influences.
 Clarification: A counselor should often ask their client to
clarify what they are telling them to make sure they
understand the situation correctly. This will help the
counselor avoid any misconceptions or avoid them having
to make any assumptions that could hinder their feedback.
 Client Expectations: When a person enters therapy, they
should voice their opinions about counseling and their
beliefs about treatment. In the beginning, they should be
able to communicate with their counselor as to what they
expect to get out of counseling. This can help the counselor
guide and direct their counseling accordingly.
 Confrontation: We do not mean the client confronting the
therapist, or vice versa. The confrontation that should
happen here is within the client. The client should be able
to self-examine themselves during counseling. However,
the speed at which they do this should be discussed
between the counselor and the client.
 Congruence: This has to do with the counselor being
genuine with their feedback and beliefs about their client’s
situation and progress. The more authentic and true they

80
 are with their counseling, the more that their client and
work to grow and benefit from their help.
 Core Conditions: This technique in counseling goes over
some essential traits that the counselor needs to integrate
for effective counseling, which are: positive regard,
empathy, congruence or genuineness, and warmth.
 Encouraging: Being encouraging as a counselor for your
client is an essential technique that will help facilitate
confidence and respect between both parties. This
technique asks that the counselor focus on the client’s
strengths and assets to help them see themselves in a
positive light. This will help with the client’s progression.
 Engagement: As a therapist, having a good, yet professional
relationship with your client is essential. However, there
are bound to be difficult moments in counseling sessions,
which will require influential engagement on the
counselor’s behalf.
 Focusing: This technique involves the counselor
demonstrating that they understand what their client is
experiencing by using non-judgmental attention without
any words. Focusing can help the counselor determine
what the client needs to obtain next from their services.
 Immediacy: The technique of the counselor speaking
openly about something that is occurring in the present
moment. This helps the client learn from their real life
experiences and apply this to their reactions for other past
situations.
 Listening Skills: With any relationship, listening skills are
needed to show that the counselor understands and
interprets the information that their client gives them
correctly. The counselor should do this by showing
attentiveness in non-verbal ways, such as: summarizing,
capping, or matching the body language of their clients.
 Open-Ended Questions: Open ended questions encourage
people in a counseling session to give more details on their
discussion. Therefore, these types of questions are used as
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 a technique by counselors to help their clients answer how,
why, and what.
 Paraphrasing: This technique will show clients that the
counselor is listening to their information and processing
what they have been telling them. Paraphrasing is also good
to reiterate or clarify any misinformation that might have
occurred.
 Positive Asset Search: A positive technique used by
counselors helps clients think up their positive strengths
and attributes to get them into a strong mindset about
themselves.
 Reflection of Feeling: Counselors use this technique to show
their clients that they are fully aware of the feelings that
their client is experiencing. They can do this by using exact
words and phrases that their client is expressing to them.
 Miracle Question: The technique of asking a question of this
sort will help the client see the world in a different way or
perspective. A miracle question could be something along
the lines of: “What would your world look like if a miracle
occurred? What would that miracle be and how would it
change things?”
 Stages of Change: By assessing a client’s needs, a counselor
can determine the changes that need to occur for their
client, and when they should take place. This can be
determined by what they believe to be most important.
 Trustworthiness: The counselor must create an
environment for their client as such that their client feels
that they have the capacity to trust their counselor. A
therapist must be: congruent, warm, empathetic, and speak
with positive regard to their client.
 Capping: A lot of counselors use the technique of capping
during their sessions. Capping involves changing a
conversation’s direction from emotional to cognitive if the
counselor feels their client’s emotions need to be calmed or
regulated.

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 Working Alliance: Creating a working alliance between a
counselor and their client is essential for a successful
counseling environment that will work to achieve the
client’s needs. This technique involves the client and
therapist being active collaborators during counseling and
agreeing upon goals of treatment that are necessary, as well
as how to achieve those goals.
 Proxemics: This technique has the counselor study the
spatial movements and conditions of communication that
their client exhibits. By studying their clients body
orientation, the counselor can determine mood, feelings,
and reactions.
 Self-Disclosure: The counselor will make note when
personal information is disclosed at certain points of
therapy. This technique will help the counselor learn more
about the client and use this information only to benefit
them.
 Structuring: When the individual enters counseling, the
counselor should discuss the agenda for the day with their
client, the activities, and the processes that they will go
through. This technique in counseling will help the client
understand their counselor’s train of thought into
determining how this routine will work for them. Soon
enough, the client will get used to the routine, and this
establishes comfort and trust in counseling.
 Hierarchy of Needs: This technique involves the counselor
assessing their client’s level of needs as based on the
progress that they are making. The needs that they will
factor in are: physiological needs, safety needs, love and
belonging needs, self esteem needs, and self-actualization
needs. All these will determine if change needs to take place
in counseling.
3.6. Various Steps of Counseling
1. Identify the problem. Make sure that you really know the
problem. Analyze the forces influencing the behavior.
Determine which of these forces you have control over and
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 which of the forces the employee has control over.
Determine if the force has to be modified, eliminated, or
enforced.
2. Plan, coordinate, and organize the session. Determine the
best time to conduct the session.
3. Conduct the session using sincerity, compassion, and
kindness. This does not mean you cannot be firm or in
control.
4. During the session, determine what the employee believes
causes the counterproductive behavior and what will be
required to change it.
5. Try to maintain a sense of timing as to when to use
directive or non-directive counseling. (See below for
definitions.)
6. Using all the facts, make a decision and/or a plan of action
to correct the problem. If more counseling is needed, set a
firm date and time for the next session.
Steps in the Counseling Process
1. Establish a safe, trusting environment
2. CLARIFY: Help the person put their concern into words.
3. Active listening: find out the client's agenda
a) paraphrase, summarize, reflect, interpret
b) focus on feelings, not events
4. Transform problem statements into goal statements.
5. Explore possible approaches to goal
6. Help person choose one way towards goal
DEVELOP A PLAN (may involve several steps)
7. Make a contract to fulfill the plan (or to take the next step)
8. Summarize what has occurred, clarify, get verification
EVALUATE PROGRESS
9. Get feedback and confirmation

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3.7. QUALITIES OF A GOOD COUNSELLOR
Good Listener
Counselors spend a significant amount of time listening
to their clients.
Compassionate
It is very important that clients feel councellor
compassion for their problems and that they sense councellor
truly care about them
Nonjudgmental
Counselors hear all kinds of private information and
encounter all types of people. Multicultural competency is a
necessary skill. The counseling environment needs to be a safe
place for a client to share their most intimate concerns.
Research-Oriented
Being a counselor involves a significant amount of time
spent researching.
Empathetic
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the
feelings of others. Some people struggle as counselors because
they are unable to maintain objectivity and therefore carry home
the emotional stress of the job. The level of empathy necessary
can be a fine line between helpful to client and harmful to
counselor.
Discrete
Confidentiality is of upmost importance when you are a
counselor.
Encouraging
The ability to encourage is important for a counselor.
Many clients are struggling to find hope in their situation. One of
the primary jobs of a counselor often involves instilling hope in a
hopeless individual.
Self-Aware
A counselor who is aware of their own fears, insecurities,
and weaknesses will be effective in the therapeutic relationship.

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Authenticity
Authenticity is vital when working with clients.
Communication Skills
Effective counselors should have excellent
communication skills. Although some of these skills can be honed
during graduate school and are developed and refined over the
course of your career, you should already possess certain
communication skills before embarking on a counseling career.
Counselors need to have a natural ability to listen and be able
clearly explain their ideas and thoughts to others.
Acceptance
Being nonjudgmental and accepting are important
attributes in any of the helping professions. But professional
counselors must be able to "start where the client is at." This
phrase is often used in counseling to describe the ability to relate
to clients with an open, nonjudgmental attitude - accepting the
client for who she is and in her current situation. Counselors
need to be able to convey acceptance to their clients with warmth
and understanding.
Empathy
Counselors help people through some of the most difficult
and stressful times of their lives. They must be able to display
empathy - the ability to feel what another person is feeling.
Empathy means that you are truly able to imagine what it's like
to stand in someone else's shoes. Compassion and empathy help
your clients feel understood and heard.
Problem-Solving Skills
It's not up to a counselor to solve her clients' problems,
no matter how much she might want to help. But counselors
must have excellent problem-solving skills to be able to help
their clients identify and make changes to negative thought
patterns and other harmful behaviors that might be contributing
to their issues, says Dr. Lynn Ponton in an article for
PsychCentral.

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Rapport-Building Skills
Counselors must possess a strong set of interpersonal
skills to help establish rapport quickly with clients and develop
strong relationships. They must give their undivided attention to
clients and be able to cultivate trust. Counselors need to be able
to place all of their focus on what their clients are saying and
avoid being distracted by their own personal problems or
concerns when they are in a session.
Flexibility
Flexibility in counseling is defined as the ability to adapt
and change the way you respond to meet your clients' needs. You
don't stay rigid and stick to a predetermined treatment path
when your clients require a different approach. Being flexible is
one of the most important attributes of a professional counselor,
says Gerald Juhnke, professor of counseling at the University of
Texas at San Antonio, in an interview with "Counseling Today."
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to look within and identify
your own unmet psychological needs and desires, such as a need
for intimacy or the desire to be professionally competent. This
ability prevents your issues from affecting or conflicting with
those of your clients. Self-awareness has a major impact on a
counselor's effectiveness, says professor David Hutchinson in his
book, "The Essential Counselor."
Multicultural Competency
Counselors help people from all walks of life. They must
display multicultural competency and adopt a multicultural
worldview, says Hutchinson. Multicultural competency means
that you try to relate to and understand your clients regardless of
their race, ethnicity, religious or political beliefs or
socioeconomic background.
3.8. COMPARISON OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING
Psychology is a discipline that studies human behavior
and mind. It attempts to ask questions about the reason behind
an individual’s behavior and thinking. Two important concepts of

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psychology, which people do not easily discern are guidance and
counseling, because both seeks to find out the solutions for
problems and works for human development. While
in guidance the focus is made on listening problem, on which
readymade solution is given by the expert. Counseling aims at
discussing and understanding the problem, advising and
empowering him to take a decision. Learning the differences
between guidance and counseling might help in choosing the
right method.
1. Counseling is a psychological field that deals with research
and applied work to provide training and supervision, while
Guidance is a psychological field that deals with assisting
clients in their need to choose the right course of action.
2. While both are being used in organizations and by
individuals, counseling has a broader reach, while Guidance
is usually being used in schools to guide students towards
proper actions.
3. Both can help in the treatment and rehabilitation of a person
suffering from a mental illness or disorder, but counseling is
more extensive than guidance.
4. Counseling encompasses several other fields of psychology,
while Guidance tends to be more specific.

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Chapter – 4
COUNSELLING TOOLS,
TECHNIQUES AND PROBLEMS

4.1. SOCIOMETRIC TEST

Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social
relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L.
Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social
structures and psychological well-being.
The term sociometry relates to its Latin etymology,
sociusmeaningcompanion, and metrum meaning measure. Jacob
Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and
organization of groups and the position of individuals within
them." He goes on to write "As the science of group organization,
it attacks the problem not from the outer structure of the group,
the group surface, but from the inner structure."Sociometric
explorations reveal the hidden structures that give a group its
form: the alliances, the subgroups, the hidden beliefs, the
forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the ‘stars’ of the
show."
He developed sociometry within the new sciences,
although its ultimate purpose is transcendence and not science.
'By making choices based on criteria, overt and energetic,
Moreno hoped that individuals would be more spontaneous, and
organizations and groups structures would become fresh, clear
and lively.'
One of Moreno's innovations in sociometry was the
development of the sociogram, a systematic method for
graphically representing individuals as points/nodes and the
relationships between them as lines/arcs. Moreno, who wrote
extensively of his thinking, applications and findings, also
founded a journal entitledSociometry.

89
Moreno's Sociograms

90
 Within sociology, sociometry has two main branches:
research sociometry, and applied sociometry. Research
sociometry is action research with groups exploring the socio-
emotional networks of relationships using specified criteria e.g.
Who in this group do you want to sit beside you at work? Who in
the group do you go to for advice on a work problem? Who in the
group do you see providing satisfying leadership in the pending
project? Sometimes called network explorations, research
sociometry is concerned with relational patterns in small
(individual and small group) and larger populations, such as
organizations and neighborhoods. Applied sociometrists utilize a
range of methods to assist people and groups review, expand and
develop their existing psycho-social networks of relationships.
Both fields of sociometry exist to produce through their
application, greater spontaneity and creativity of both individuals
and groups.
In Sociometry, Experimental Method and the Science of
Society: An Approach to a New Political Orientation, Moreno
describes the depth to which a group needs to go for the method
to be "sociometric". The term for him had a qualitative meaning
and did not apply unless some group process criteria were met.
One of these is that there is acknowledgment of the difference
between process dynamics and the manifest content. To quote
Moreno: "there is a deep discrepancy between the official and the
secret behavior of members". Moreno advocates that before any
"social program" can be proposed, the sociometrist has to "take
into account the actual constitution of the group."
Other criteria include the rule of adequate motivation:
"Every participant should feel about the experiment that it is in
his (or her) own cause that it is an opportunity for him (or her) to
become an active agent in matters concerning his (or her) life
situation." and the Rule of "gradual" inclusion of all extraneous
criteria. Moreno speaks here of "the slow dialectic process of the
sociometric experiment"

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4.2. INTEREST INVENTORIES
An interest inventory is a testing instrument designed for
the purpose of measuring and evaluating the level of an
individual's interest in, or preference for, a variety of activities;
also known as interest test. Testing methods include direct
observation of behavior, ability tests, and self-reporting
inventories of interest in educational, social, recreational, and
vocational activities. The activities usually represented in
interest inventories are variously related to occupational areas,
and these instruments and their results are often used in
vocational guidance.
The first widely used interest inventory was the Strong
Vocational Interest Blank, developed in 1927 by E.K. Strong. The
original test was designed for men only; a version for women was
developed in 1933. In 1974 the Strong test was merged into the
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, which was further revised in
1981. The test contains 325 activities, subjects, etc. Takers of this
test are asked whether they like, dislike, or are indifferent to 325
items representing a wide variety of school subjects, occupations,
activities, and types of people. They are also asked to choose
their favorite among pairs of activities and indicate which of 14
selected characteristics apply to them. The Strong-Campbell test
is scored according to 162 separate occupational scales as well as
23 scales that group together various types of occupations
("basic interest scales"). Examinees are also scored on six
"general occupational themes" derived from J.L. Holland's
interest classification scheme (realistic, investigative, artistic,
social, enterprising, and conventional).
The other most commonly administered interest
inventory is the Kuder Preference Record, originally developed in
1939. The Kuder Preference Record contains 168 items, each of
which lists three broad choices concerning occupational
interests, from which the individual selects the one that is most
preferred. The test is scored on 10 interest scales consisting of
items having a high degree of correlation with each other. A

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typical score profile will have high and low scores on one or more
of the scales and average scores on the rest.
Other interest inventories include the Guilford-
Zimmerman Interest Inventory, the G-S-Z Interest Survey, the
California Occupational Preference Survey, the Jackson
Vocational Interest Survey, and the Ohio Vocational Interest
Survey. There are also inventories designed especially for
children, for the disabled, and for those interested in the skilled
trades.
Interest inventories are widely used in vocational
counseling, both with adolescents and adults. Since these tests
measure only interest and not ability, their value as predictors of
occupational success, while significant, is limited. They are
especially useful in helping high school and college students
become familiar with career options and aware of their
vocational interests. Interest inventories are also used in
employee selection and classification.
4.3. APTITUDE TESTS
Aptitude Testing helps match clients talents and
potentials with interests and helps choose appropriate decisions
from a wide range of choices suited to abilities, example whether
a student wondering what course of study to pursue, whether
you are working and thinking of changing job or whether seeking
voluntary retirement.
Process of career counselling (career guidance) through
aptitude testing involves the following steps:
1. Undergoing the aptitude test on any working day between 10
am and 2:00 pm (it takes about three hours to do the battery
of tests, no preparation or prior appointment is needed). Bulk
tests can be conducted at the premises of institutions on
prior arrangement.
2. The candidate will be called back for individual career
counselling after the evaluation (which will require some
time as it has to be done individually). An exhaustive report
will be given, including general comments on areas for
improvement, list of suitable careers, and suitability for
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 careers of the candidate’s choice. Parents will also be
counselled if they so desire.
3. Information will be provided on the avenues, openings,
courses, and type of work in each of these careers.
4. Subsequent follow up can be done if necessary after you take
steps towards your goal. Future career counselling and
consultation is free of cost.
Aptitude tests are part of pre-employment psychometric
assessments to determine if you are intelligently fit for a job.
Almost 75% of the world’s top employers use psychometric tests
as part of their recruitment process for high ranking jobs.
Knowing that you are likely going to face one of these during a
job interview
There are many different kinds of aptitude tests, since
there are many different skills. In general, These tests are
supplied by special assessment companies and one of the most
well-known companies are SHL, but they are only one of many
different examples. Each test provider has a particular method
and style of testing. However, all these companies provide similar
test types and below follows an overview of the most common
aptitude test categories:
Logical Reasoning
As the name indicates, this test gives an idea of your
ability to come to a logical conclusion when presented with a
problem. These problems are often illogical or contradictory and
you are not expected to solve them based upon your knowledge
but to rely solely on what is actually in front of you. For this type,
tests with syllogisms are often used.
Non verbal Reasoning
Measures your ability to discover patterns in abstract
data and to extrapolate these logical patterns in order to make
the right choice. Abstract reasoning is considered the best gauge
of one’s ability to solve problems in new situations, independent
of experience or acquired knowledge. This type of intelligence is
also known as fluid intelligence, and includes deductive
reasoning and inductive reasoning.
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Spatial Reasoning
As a rule, this kind of test is only given if you are required
to have good spatial awareness - architects, pilots, designers, etc.
and you are required to think in three dimensions. During these
tests your ability to manipulate two dimensional objects into
three dimensional objects is assessed.
Verbal Reasoning
This type of test gives an indication of your ability to
analyse and understand written information, as it is important
for employers to know how well you can communicate. Analogy
tests are often used for this.
Numerical Reasoning
The evaluation of your elementary arithmetic skills are
an integral part of nearly every assessment or psychometric test.
This provides employers with an indication of your ability to
work with numbers. As a rule, this is done through series of
numbers and simple mental arithmetic tests. There are also tests
that include tables and graphs that must be interpreted, and tests
that assess your ability analyse trends, costs and your general
accuracy with regard to numbers and figures

4.4. CASE STUDY

A case study is about a person, group, or situation that
has been studied over time. If the case study for instance, is about
a group, it describes the behavior of the group as a whole, not
behavior of each individual in the group.
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 Case studies can be produced by following a
formal research method. These case studies are likely to appear
in formal research venues, as journals and professional
conferences, rather than popular works. The resulting body of
'case study research' has long had a prominent place in many
disciplines and professions, ranging from psychology,
anthropology, sociology, and political science to education,
clinical science, social work, and administrative science.
In doing case study research, the "case" being studied
may be an individual, organization, event, or action, existing in a
specific time and place. For instance, clinical science has
produced both well-known case studies of individuals and also
case studies of clinical practices. However, when "case" is used in
an abstract sense, as in a claim, a proposition, or an argument,
such a case can be the subject of many research methods, not just
case study research.
One approach sees the case study defined as a research
strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon
within its real-life context. Case-study research can mean single
and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence,
relies on multiple sources of evidence, and benefits from the
prior development of theoretical propositions. As such, case
study research should not be confused with qualitative research,
as case studies can be based on any mix of quantitative and
qualitative data. Similarly, single-subject research might be taken
as case studies of a sort, except that the repeated trials in single-
subject research permit the use of experimental designs that
would not be possible in typical case studies. At the same time,
the repeated trials can provide a statistical framework for
making inferences from quantitative data.
CASE SELECTION AND STRUCTURE
An average, or typical case, is often not the richest in
information. In clarifying lines of history and causation it is more
useful to select subjects that offer an interesting, unusual or
particularly revealing set of circumstances. A case selection that
is based on representativeness will seldom be able to produce

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these kinds of insights. When selecting a subject for a case study,
researchers will therefore use information-oriented sampling, as
opposed to random sampling. Outlier cases (that is, those which
are extreme, deviant or atypical) reveal more information than
the potentially representative case. Alternatively, a case may be
selected as a key case, chosen because of the inherent interest of
the case or the circumstances surrounding it. Alternatively it may
be chosen because of a researchers' in-depth local knowledge;
where researchers have this local knowledge they are in a
position to "soak and poke" as Fenno puts it, and thereby to offer
reasoned lines of explanation based on this rich knowledge of
setting and circumstances.
Three types of cases may thus be distinguished for selection:
1. Key cases
2. Outlier cases
3. Local knowledge cases
Whatever the frame of reference for the choice of the
subject of the case study (key, outlier, local knowledge), there is a
distinction to be made between thesubjestorical unity through
which the theoretical focus of the study is being viewed. The
object is that theoretical focus – the analytical frame. Thus, for
example, if a researcher were interested in US resistance to
communist expansion as a theoretical focus, then the Korean War
might be taken to be the subject, the lens, the case study through
which the theoretical focus, the object, could be viewed and
explicated.
Beyond decisions about case selection and the subject
and object of the study, decisions need to be made about
purpose, approach and process in the case study. Thomas thus
proposes a typology for the case study wherein purposes are first
identified (evaluative or exploratory), then approaches are
delineated (theory-testing, theory-building or illustrative), then
processes are decided upon, with a principal choice being
between whether the study is to be single or multiple, and
choices also about whether the study is to be retrospective,
snapshot or diachronic, and whether it is nested, parallel or
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sequential. It is thus possible to take many routes through this
typology, with, for example, an exploratory, theory-building,
multiple, nested study, or an evaluative, theory-testing, single,
retrospective study. The typology thus offers many permutations
for case-study structure.
A closely related study in medicine is the case report,
which identifies a specific case as treated and/or examined by
the authors as presented in a novel form. These are, to a
differentiable degree, similar to the case study in that many
contain reviews of the relevant literature of the topic discussed in
the thorough examination of an array of cases published to fit the
criterion of the report being presented. These case reports can be
thought of as brief case studies with a principal discussion of the
new, presented case at hand that presents a novel interest.
Don W. Stacks identifies three types of case study as used
in public-relations research:
1. Linear,
2. Process-oriented,
3. Grounded.
Under the more generalized category of case study exist
several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use
depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator.
These types of case study include the following:
 Illustrative Case Studies. These are primarily descriptive
studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an
event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies
serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give
readers a common language about the topic in question.
 Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies. These are condensed
case studies performed before implementing a large scale
investigation. Their basic function is to help identify
questions and select types of measurement prior to the main
investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that
initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released
prematurely as conclusions.

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 Cumulative Case Studies. These serve to aggregate
information from several sites collected at different times.
The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies
will allow for greater generalization without additional cost
or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.
 Critical Instance Case Studies. These examine one or more
sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique
interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call
into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal
assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and
effect questions.
4.5. OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the important techniques of
collecting information about the individual. In guidance and
counselling, observation is the most commonly employed of all
individual techniques. Rousseuu wrote, “Watch nature long and
observe your pupil carefully before you say a word to him.”
Behaviour is a reflection of personality. It must be observed very
carefully, intelligently and scientifically as observation of
behaviour has been recognized as basic to other techniques. For
reliable and dependable observation, however, observation must
be organized or planned, directed, specific, systematic, scientific,
objective, reliable, qualitative, and quantitative.
Two important types of observation are:
 Natural Observation: In natural observation, we observe the
specific behavioural characteristics of children or adults in
natural setting. Subjects do not become conscious of the fact
that someone is observing their behaviour. The teacher can
observe the behaviour of the students on the playground or
in any other social situation when students may not become
conscious of his presence. In child clinic, one way screen is
used to observe the behaviour of deviant children, the
observer can observe the behaviour of children but they can
not see the observer.
 Participant Observation: It is that type of observation in
which the observer becomes the part of the group which he
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 wants to observe. He establishes perfect rapport with the
group of children or adolescents so that they may not become
conscious of his presence and may not hide their actual
behaviour.
Requisites of Good Observation
Observation should have four characteristics:
 Proper Planning : Specific activities or units of behaviour i.e.
single or group to be observed must be clearly defined. The
time of each observation period, number of observations and
interval between periods should be decided. The instruments
to be used for recording should be decided. Proper tools for
recording observation should be obtained and used.
 Proper Execution : an expert execution demands cultivated
skills and resourcefulness on the part of the investigators.
The proper physical position for observing involves focusing
attention on the units of behaviour specific activities,
observing discreetly the length area, number of periods and
intervals decided upon, and proper handling of the recording
instrument used for observation.
 Recording of Observation: It can be done in either of the two
methods
a) The first method is to record the observation
simultaneously. It avoids time gap, but makes the
students conscious and are also difficult at times.
b) Facts may be recorded soon after the observation is over.
It may not be accurate due to time gap while it has the
merit of not distracting the mind of the student. As it is
difficult to record the minute details so check lists, or
rating scales or score cards, blank form of tallying
frequencies are generally used.
Interpretation: Results should be interpreted cautiously and
judiciously after taking into account various limitations of
planning, sampling or procedure.

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Merits of Systematic Observation
Observational studies are particularly very important and
yield significant results on developmental characteristics of
children. It has the following advantages:
1. Being a record of actual behaviour of the child, it is more
reliable, valid, objective and scientific.
2. It is economical as it needs no laboratory and costly
apparatus
3. It is flexible and can be used in gathering data in many
situations.
4. It can be applied to observe the behaviour of children of all
ages. Of course, the younger the child, the easier it is to
observe him. This method has been found very useful with
shy children.
5. It can be applied to observe the behaviour of individuals as
well as of a group.
6. This method can be used with little training and almost all
teachers can use it for understanding the behaviour of
problem children, backward children, delinquent children,
gifted children and other types of children.
7. It is not restricted to a test situation but it is applied to the
naturally occurring situations of life. Hence, the method of
observation has wide applications for studying individuals in
normal non-testing situations. No doubt, observation is a
scientific technique of collecting data whose results can be
verified and relied upon to locate
Limitations of Observation
1. It is very difficult to get trained observers. Untrained
observers may gather superfluous and irrelevant data.
2. It is subjective. Observer may become lenient i.e., he may give
concessions and allowances at one time and may be strict at
another time.
3. Sometimes artificiality comes in the behaviour e.g. crocodile
tears or behaviour of hippocrats.

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4. Sometimes we have to wait for long time for the occurrence
of events. For example, for observing the behaviour of an
angry child, we have to wait when he will become angry.
5. Some personal problems and experiences can not be
observed i.e. sex experiences.
6. With the help of observation, we can observe the external
behaviour of the individual. Internal behaviour of the
individual can not be studied.
7. Record may not be written with hundred per cent accuracy as
the observation is recorded after the actions of the observer.
There is some time lag.
8. Observation is subject to two kinds of errors, sampling error
and observer’s error. The first error occurs because of
inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The
observer’s error may be due to the knowledge and
background of the situation to be observed. Sometimes the
observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence he
may commit error.
4.6. INTERVIEW
Interview is one of the most important techniques used to
collect data in guidance and counselling. It is called “conversation
with a purpose.” It is face to face relationship between the
interviewer and the interviewee. Various types of interviews are
used to understand the individual. These are:
 Diagnostic Interview: Here the purpose is to secure
information about the individual.
 Administrative Interview: A student misbehaves and
principal calls him and warns him. Here the purpose is to self
explanation, to warn, to punish or to modify behaviour
 Employment Interview: Here the purpose is to determine the
fitness of candidate for a particular job.
 Admission Interview: Here the purpose is to determine the
fitness of a candidate for a particular course.
 Informative Interview: Here the purpose is to impart
information to the interviewee.

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 Research Interview: Here the purpose is to discover facts and
figures for the purpose of research.
 CounsellingInterview: Here the purpose is to help the
individual (counsellee) to solve the problems.
Functions of Counselling Interview
 To have a face to face contact with the interviewee and to
assist him
 To collect information from the interviewee
 To impart information to the interviewee
 To motivate the interviewee and enable him to take interest
in himself
 To help the interviewee in solving educational, vocational
and psychological problems and making adjustments
 Steps in Counselling Interview In order to make the interview
meaningful and effective, the following steps are followed :
1. Preparation and establishment of rapport
2. Unfolding the problem
3. Joint working on the Problem
4. Closing of the Interview
5. Evaluation and
6. Follow up
Interview provides a choice to the client and the
counsellor to exchange ideas and attitudes through conversation.
Kinds of Interview
1. Structured Interview- follows a predetermined plan of
questioning which make use a list of questions/checklist of
general topics as a guide. This is used in employment
situations where the employer requires specific information
of an employee’s evaluation, work experiences, special
abilities and reasons for leaving his former positions.
Advantages: Ensures that essential topics will be covered
and lessened the probability that an unskilled interviewer
will ignore many important areas of inquiry. Easier to
compare interviews and rate interviewees when it covers the
same topic.
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2. Unstructured Interview- when the interviewer is free to
develop the conversation along the lines that seem most
suitable for him.
Advantages:
Its flexibility is desirable in clinical situations/vocational
guidance sessions when the interviewer wishes to encourage
the person to talk as freely as possible about his needs and
desires.
Purposes of Interview
1. To obtain information whereby attitudes, opinion and
techniques of business associatesare sought which can be
acquired through the school records, questionnaire
technique,and exchange of personal use
2. To give information not found in books like interpretation of
school regulations, collegerequirements and curricula.
3. For employment interview to get the best applicant, and the
candidate to seek the kind ofjob he feels qualified.
4. For adjustment interview which is the most difficult form of
guidance and counseling where the counselee has to solve a
problem.
Advantages of Interview
• It is the most flexible and dynamic way of understanding the
individual as a whole
 It is natural like conversation
 It can be used for variety of purposes
 It helps the counsellee to understand himself and solve his
problems
 It can be practiced on illiterate persons
 Interview is relatively easy to conduct.
Limitations of Interview
The following are the limitations of the Counselling Interview:
 It is subjective
 It is time consuming
 It needs experts which are generally not available
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 It is placed in an artificial situation
 Depression may take place during the interview and may
spoil our results
 Sometimes it is difficult to interpret the results of the
interview
4.7. DEALING WITH PROBLEMS LIKE - AGGRESSION, LYING,
DEPRESSION, ALCOHOLISM, DRUG ADDICTION AND
LEARNING PROBLEMS
4.7.1. AGGRESSION
Emotional outbursts, temper tantrums, yelling, lashing
out.Severe misbehavior like these needs to be dealt with
differently than typical rule breaking.How you respond goes a
long way toward gaining control of the incident, keeping it from
affecting other students, and lessening the chances of it
happening again.
An Ineffective Response
Like parents who rush wide-eyed whenever a child falls
and scrapes his knee, it’s a mistake to be in a hurry to intervene
when students lose their cool.The inclination to jump in and fix
the problem can make matters worse. In response to an angry,
verbally aggressive student, here is what you should never do:
Enforce a consequence.
You must hold students who act out in anger accountable
without a doubt but not right away. You risk escalating the
problem if you immediately try to pull them aside or put them in
time-out.
Get angry
Aggression on aggression is an explosive mix. Never yell,
scold, or attempt to use the power of your authority to stop
emotionally charged students.
Touch the student.
It’s common for teachers to place a hand on a student’s
shoulder in an attempt to calm. But you don’t know what
students are thinking in any given moment or what they’re
capable of. It’s best to keep your distance.
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Talk with the student.
Angry students are not open to conversation. So during
and up to a couple of hours after the outburst, leave them alone.
An Effective Response.
When a student acts out in anger in the classroom, here is
what you should do:
Stay calm.
Keeping your emotions in check is the first step to gaining
control of any situation.
Observe.
Stand firmly where you can observe the student in
question and show the class you’re in control, but far enough
away to keep an eye on all of your students.
Shield.
Your other students must not talk to or otherwise involve
themselves with the angry student. Your first priority is to keep
them safe, calm, and uninvolved.
Nothing.
Often, it’s best not to say or do anything. If the angry
student stops the behavior, simply continue on with what you
were doing - for now - allowing the student time to cool off.
Calm the student.
Rarely, you might have to use calming language and
reassurance to settle the student down. Say, “Take it easy… I
know you’re frustrated… We’ll talk about it later…” or words to
that effect.
Wait.
Don’t speak to the angry student until he or she is in a
calm emotional state. Continue with your day until you know the
student is ready to listen.
Document.
As soon as you are able, document the student’s behavior.
Write down everything said or done and interview all students

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near or involved in the incident. Make a copy for your records
may important.
Contact parents.
Severe misbehavior must be reported to parents.
However, resist the urge to offer opinions or conclusions. Just
give the facts. You do your job and let parents do - or not do -
heirs.
Hold accountable.
After the student returns to a calm frame of mind, which
could take a couple of hours, briefly explain how he or she will be
held accountable.
Provide a stiff consequence.
Acting out in anger should result in an immediate
escalation of consequences. A full day, in-class separation from
the rest of the students is a good place to start.
Take care of it yourself.
Unless the behavior is physically aggressive, I’m not in
favor of getting the principal involved. Involving administration
weakens your authority and your ability to manage classroom.
4.7.2. LYING
This is a common situation, one so many teachers find
themselves stuck in every day. It’s frustrating. It’s stressful. It
puts you at odds with your students and turns you into the ogre
you never wanted to be.The good news is that it’s entirely
avoidable. All of it the lying, the denying, the arguing, and the
stress it’s all avoidable using the following three steps:
1. Know the truth.
You should only approach a student to give a consequence
when you know the truth. This underscores the importance of
letting misbehavior play out, of eliminating any plausible
deniability, of leaving no doubt who is responsible and what
rule was broken.
If you’re unsure, then get to the bottom of it first before
confronting the student. This step alone will save you a

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 mountain of headaches. Still, like the teacher above, it isn’t
always enough to avoid a confrontation. The next two steps
are crucial.
2. Enforce.
With the truth on your side, there is no reason for debate.
There is no reason to ask why. There is no reason to allow the
student to lie to you or deny their involvement. Simply
approach and say, “You have a warning (or time-out) because
you broke rule number three.”
Most often, that’s all you need to say. However, if you’re
uncertain they know what misbehavior you’re referring to,
then you can add, “You were kicking Darren while getting
science materials.”
3. Move on.
After delivering your consequence, turn on your heel and
walk away. Nothing else needs to be said, and waiting for a
response is an invitation to argue. Because you’ve taught,
modeled, and practiced your classroom management
plan thoroughly, the student knows exactly what this means.
They know you have them dead to rights. They know that in
your classroom, rules that protect learning and enjoyment
are sacred and nonnegotiable. They know that arguing,
denying, or complaining is fruitless.The only thing left for
them to do is take responsibility.
Avoidance is the Key
Many teachers contact us wanting to know how to
respond when students lie, yell,throw tantrums, refuse to go to
time-out, or engage in other aggressively willful behaviors, and
we gladly cover these topics.But the trick is to avoid them from
happening to begin with. The three-step strategy above is a
perfect example.
By calmly even matter-of-factly delivering your
consequences with truth on your side, and then walking away,
you avoid the behaviors students have used since time
immemorial to sidestep accountability.

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Strategies to Help Students with Depression
 Give frequent feedback on academic, social, and behavioral
performance.
 Teach the student how to set goals and self-monitor.
 Teach problem-solving skills.
 Coach the student in ways to organize, plan, and execute
tasks demanded daily or weekly in school.
 Develop modifications and accommodations to respond to
the student's fluctuations in mood, ability to concentrate, or
side effects of medication. Assign one individual to serve as a
primary contact and coordinate interventions.
 Give the student opportunities to engage in social
interactions.
 Frequently monitor whether the student has suicidal
thoughts.
 Develop a home - school communication system to share
information on the student's academic, social, and emotional
behavior and any developments concerning medication or
side effects
4.7.4. ALCHOLISM AND DRUG ADDICTION
DRUG ABUSE
Schools across the country take a strong stance on drug
and alcohol use, however even with all of their efforts; there are
various types of drugs that are available to high school and
college students. The abuse of illicit substances has a major
impact on school performance in children and teens. Grades will
often suffer due to lack of energy and focus, poor concentration,
and loss of drive. Students using alcohol or drugs also often lose
interest in extra curricular activities and other healthy social
interactions. Ultimately drug and alcohol abuse can lead to not
only truancy, but to the addicted student dropping out of school
all together.
Different types of drugs tend to have different adverse
affects on school performance. For instance, marijuana use can
lead to short term memory loss, and issues with logical thinking;
leading to decreased academic performance. Drugs such as
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anabolic steroids, which are sometimes taken by athletes, might
temporarily boost a student’s athletic performance. Ultimately,
the temporary boost will give way to a host of anger issues and
emotional problems in addition to a host of negative side effects
that are physical.
One of the most commonly abused substances that
negatively affects school performance is alcohol. Alcohol abuse
has been tied to many different issues in school including lower
grades, truancy, and an increase in the rate of drop outs. High
school students who abuse alcohol are much more likely to drop
out of school than their counterparts who abstain from alcohol. A
previous survey has shown that as alcohol use by students
increases, their grade point average decreases. Students who
abused alcohol also scored lower on state tests, and were far
more likely to skip class or behave disobediently at school.
Causes of using drugs:
 Students engage in drug abuse in an attempt to cope with the
opposite sex.
 Most students abuse drugs in order to gain absolute self
confidence amongst fellow students in class.
 Drug abuse among students results from influence from
friends and peer group pressure
 Students who abuse drugs are sure to suffer from mental,
psychological and emotional problems.
 Teenagers and young adults get involved with alcohol and
drugs for many reasons. Some examples include:
 Curiosity: They want to know what it feels like to get high or
be drunk.
 Peer pressure: Their friends are doing it.
 Acceptance: Their parents or role models are doing it.
 Defiance: They want to rebel against societal rules.
 Risk-taking behaviors: They need to send out a call for help.
 Thrill-seeking activities: They want to experience something
other than numbness.

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 Boredom: They feel they have done everything else exciting.
 Independence: They want to make their own decisions.
 Pleasure: They want to feel good.
Teens give in to peer pressure for many reasons, including:
 Fear of rejection
 Not wanting to be made fun of
 Not wanting to lose a friend
 Not wanting to hurt someone's feelings
 The desire to appear grown up
 The desire to appear in control
 Not having a clear picture of what they desire
 Not understanding how to avoid or handle a situation
Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention (School-based)
 School-based drug and alcohol prevention programs occur
during the school day, or on school campuses. Because drug
and alcohol use is highly influenced by the attitudes and
perceived norms of peers, school-based approaches that are
open to every student in the school are needed, in addition to
approaches that target drug-using teens.
 Effective approaches to school-based drug and alcohol
prevention include teaching students how to resist peer
influences, improving generic life skills, involving families,
and providing opportunities to become involved in positive
experiences with others in the school and community.
 Effective programs for elementary school students address
issues such as self-control, emotional awareness,
communication skills, and social problem-solving skills; and
effective programs for older students seek to build
communication skills; self-efficacy and assertiveness, and
drug resistance skills .

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SMOKING AND CHEWING
Factors associated with youth tobacco use include the
following:
 Social and physical environments
 The way mass media show tobacco use as a normal
activity can promote smoking among young people.
 Youth are more likely to use tobacco if they see that
tobacco use is acceptable or normal among their peers.
 High school athletes are more likely to use smokeless
tobacco than their peers who are non-athletes.
 Parental smoking may promote smoking among young
people.
 Biological and genetic factors
 There is evidence that youth may be sensitive to nicotine
and that teens can feel dependent on nicotine sooner than
adults.
 Genetic factors may make quitting smoking more difficult
for young people.
 A mother’s smoking during pregnancy may increase the
likelihood that her offspring will become regular
smokers.
 Mental health: There is a strong relationship between youth
smoking and depression, anxiety, and stress.
 Personal perceptions: Expectations of positive outcomes
from smoking, such as coping with stress and controlling
weight, are related to youth tobacco use.
 Other influences that affect youth tobacco use include:
 Lower socioeconomic status, including lower income or
education
 Lack of skills to resist influences to tobacco use
 Lack of support or involvement from parents
 Accessibility, availability, and price of tobacco products
 Low levels of academic achievement
 Low self-image or self-esteem
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  Exposure to tobacco advertising
 National, state, and local program activities have been
shown to reduce and prevent youth tobacco use when
implemented together. They include the following:
 Higher costs for tobacco products (for example, through
increased taxes)
 Prohibiting smoking in indoor areas of worksites and
public place
 Raising the minimum age of sale for tobacco products to
21 years, which has recently emerged as a potential
strategy for reducing youth tobacco use
 TV and radio commercials, posters, and other media
messages targeted toward youth to counter tobacco
product advertisements
 Community programs and school and college policies and
interventions that encourage tobacco-free environments
and lifestyles
 Community programs that reduce tobacco advertising,
promotions, and availability of tobacco products
 Some social and environmental factors have been found
to be related to lower smoking levels among youth.
Among these are:
 Religious participation
 Racial/ethnic pride and strong racial identity
 Higher academic achievement and aspirations
Chewing tobacco is a type of smokeless tobacco product
consumed by placing a portion of the tobacco between the cheek
and gum or upper lip teeth and chewing. Unlike dipping tobacco,
it is not ground and must be manually crushed with the teeth to
release flavour and nicotine. Unwanted juices are then
expectorated. Oral and spit tobacco increases the risk
for leukoplakia, a precursor to oral cancer.Chewing tobacco has
been known to cause cancer, particularly of the mouth and
throat. According to International Agency for Research on

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Cancer, "Some health scientists have suggested that smokeless
tobacco should be used in smoking cessation programs and have
made implicit or explicit claims that its use would partly reduce
the exposure of smokers to carcinogens and the risk for cancer.
These claims, however, are not supported by the available
evidence."
4.7.5. LEARNING PROBLEMS
Research continues to confirm that can teach students
with learning disabilities to “learn how to learn.” We can put
them into a position to compete and hold their own.
Some intervention practices that produce large outcomes are:
 direct instruction;
 learning strategy instruction; and
 using a sequential, simultaneous structured multi-sensory
approach.
 Teachers who apply those kinds of intervention:
 break learning into small steps;
 administer probes;
 supply regular, quality feedback;
 use diagrams, graphics and pictures to augment what they
say in words;
 provide ample independent, well-designed intensive practice;
 model instructional practices that they want students to
follow;
 provide prompts of strategies to use; and
 engage students in process type questions like “How is the
strategy working? Where else might you apply it?”
Scaffolding is also something that seems to make a real
difference. Start out with the teacher using heavily mediated
instruction, known as explicit instruction, then slowly begin to let
the students acquire the skill, moving towards the goal of student
mediated instruction.Success for the student with learning
disabilities requires a focus on individual achievement, individual

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progress, and individual learning. This requires specific, directed,
individualized, intensive remedial instruction for students who
are struggling.
Whether the student is in the general education
classroom or learning in a special class setting, focus the
activities on assessing individual students to monitor their
progress through the curriculum. Concerns for the individual
must take precedence over concerns for the group or the
curriculum or for the organization and management of the
general education classroom content.

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Chapter – 5
ORGANIZATION OF GUIDANCE
AND COUNSELING SERVICES

5.1. GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING PROGRAMME

Career Guidance and Counseling Program
It is a comprehensive, developmental program designed
to assist individuals in making and implementing informed
educational and occupational choices. A career guidance and
counseling program develops an individual's competencies in
self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and
career planning.
Career guidance and counseling programs help
individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and experience
necessary to identify options, explore alternatives and succeed in
society. These programs better prepare individuals for the
changing workplace of the 21st century by:
 teaching labor market changes and complexity of the
workplace
 broadening knowledge, skills, and abilities
 improving decision making skills
 increasing self-esteem and motivation
 building interpersonal effectiveness
 maximizing career opportunities
 improving employment marketability and opportunities
 promoting effective job placement
 strengthening employer relations
Benefits from Career Guidance and Counseling Programs
Everyone benefits - youth and adults, male and female,
disabled, disadvantaged, minorities, limited English proficient,

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incarcerated, dropouts, single parents, displaced homemakers,
teachers, administrators, parents and employers.
Career Guidance and Counseling Programs offered
elementary, junior and senior high schools, community
colleges, technical institutes, universities, career resource
centers, correctional facilities, community-based organizations,
human services agencies, community and business organizations,
skill clinics, employment and placement services.
The Key Components of Successful Career Guidance and
Counseling Programs
 A planned sequence of activities and experiences to achieve
specific competencies such as self-appraisal, decision making,
goal setting, and career planning
 Accountability (outcome oriented) and program
improvement (based on results of process/outcome
evaluations)
 Qualified leadership
 Effective management needed to support comprehensive
career guidance programs
 A team approach where certified counselors are central to
the program
 Adequate facilities, materials, resources
 Strong professional development activities so counselors can
regularly update their professional knowledge and skills
 Different approaches to deliver the program such as
outreach, assessment, counseling, curriculum, program and
job placement, follow-up, consultation, referral
The purpose of the school counseling program is to
impart specific skills and learning opportunities in a proactive,
preventive manner, ensuring all students can achieve school
success through academic, career and personal/social
development experiences. The comprehensive school guidance
and counseling program targets four main areas of development:

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1. Academic - learning to learn
2. Career - learning to work
3. Personal/Social - learning to live
4. Community Involvement - learning to contribute
The Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling program will:
Address the needs of all students.
1. Be an integral part of the instructional program and total
educational experience.
2. Include structured activities based upon the needs of each
student, including preventative, developmental, and
remedial services.
3. Provide accountability and continuous improvement
through annual review of student progress and program and
staff evaluation.
4. Include appropriate professional development for all staff to
maintain a quality program.
5. Depend upon the support and collaboration of
administrators, teachers and other school personnel,
student and the community.
6. Be coordinated by licensed school counselors.
There are many benefits of a Comprehensive Guidance
and Counseling Program for the entire community including
students, parents, teachers, counselors, administrators and
businesses and industry.
The benefits to students include:
1. Students are prepared for the challenges of the future when
their academic, career, personal/social development and
community participation are supported
2. Students are taught the skills for a lifetime of learning, career
self management and social interaction
3. Students educational programs are related to next steps and
future success
4. Students knowledge of our changing world is broadened
5. Students career exploration and planning is facilitated
6. Students are assured equitable access
7. Each individual student receives advocacy.
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The benefits to parents include:
1. Their children are prepared for the challenges of the future
2. Their child’s long range planning and learning is a developed
system
3. Their child’s academics are tied to the next step
4. Parents are provided with support in advocating for their
child’s academic, career, and personal development.
5. There are increased opportunities for parent/school
interaction.
6. Parent access to school and community is facilitated.
The benefits to teachers include:
1. The academic success of each student is supported
2. Teachers guidance role is clearly defined
3. An interdisciplinary team effort is provided to address
student needs and educational goals.
4. Consultation is provided to assist teachers in their guidance
role.
The benefit to school counselors include:
1. Provision of program content to each student is ensured
2. The role of the school counselor as a student advocate is
enhanced
3. A clearly defined role and function is provided
4. Critical counseling functions are focused on
5. A tool for program management and accountability is
provided.
6. The academic mission of the school is ensured.
The benefits to administrators include:
1. School counseling is integrated with the academic mission of
the school
2. Program structure is provided with specific content
3. The school counselors role is defined through enhancing
learning and development for each student
4. A means of evaluating school guidance and counseling
programs is provided.

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Benefits to the community include:
1. Community awareness of student support systems necessary
for success is created.
2. Economic development is enhanced through quality
preparation of students for the world of work
3. An increased opportunity for collaboration and participation
of community members with the school program is provided.
4. The community is educated to the needs of the school and
vice versa.
Benefits for business and industry include:
1. A future workforce with decision-making skills, pre-
employment skills, increased worker maturity, and a career
self-management skill is provided.
2. There are increased opportunities for business and industry
to participate actively in the total school program.
3. An increased opportunity for collaboration among
counselors, business and industry, and communities is
provided.
5.2. ESSENTIAL ACTIVITIES OF A GOOD GUIDANCE
PROGRAMME
The major aim of Guidance Counseling Services is to
encourage students’ academic, social, emotional and personal
development. To reach this aim, guidance counseling services
help students get to know themselves better and find effective
solutions to their daily problems. They also help students
improve themselves in all areas and be full-functioning
individuals. Counselors monitor students’ development and
according to their needs they give students necessary support
such as helping them to understand themselves and their needs,
to solve their problems, to make realistic decisions, to improve
their abilities and skills, and to adjust themselves and their
environment in a healthy way.
While implementing guidance counseling services,
showing respect to individual differences is essential. Continuity
and willingness are vital in guidance, and also confidentiality is
essential in psychological counseling. In the guidance and
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counseling services, the student and his/her needs are in the
center. While supporting him, counselors cooperate with the
administrators, teachers, parents and the other staff members if
it’s necessary.
Working with the teachers and administrators is another
service which is given by the counselors. Preparing handouts,
trainings for the faculty or contacting outside experts to get
consultation and trainings; preparing handouts/trainings for the
parents about parenting related topics or inviting outside experts
to do the trainings can be defined under these services.
The programs that the Guidance and Counseling Services run are
as follow:
 Orientation Program
 Growth and Development Program
 How to Cope with Bullying
 How to Cope with Peer Pressure
 How Can I Improve My Organizational Skills?
 Strategies for Effective Learning
 Transition to Upper Grades/Divisions
 Career Guidance
 Social Skills Program
5.3. ROLE OF GUIDANCE PERSONNEL
The Guidance Personnel
1. Guidance Director
He/she has the overall authority for leading the personnel
under his/her administration. He reviews the guidance and
counseling program they offer each year. To be a guidance
director, one should possess the following: strong work ethic,
excellent organizational skills, flexibility, ease and experience
with computers and willingness to coordinate efforts with
others.
2. Guidance Counselor
A guidance counselor assists people with personal, family,
educational, mental health and career decisions and
problems. He provides options that will help the client to

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 resolve his/her problems. Its overall function is to talk to
students, provide options, listen to problems, help the
students to develop coping skills and learn to solve problems
and become a good decision maker on their own.
Counseling services includes:
 Individual Counseling
 Group Counseling
 Group Guidance
 Student Appraisal
 Referral
 Consultation
 Coordination
Common Problems of Students Bring to Counseling Sessions
 Conflict with others
 Conflict with self
 Lack of information about self
 Lack of information about the environment
 Lack of skill
Attitude and skills of the counselor are very important to the
quality of the counseling relationship. The qualities of an
effective counselor are the following:
 Intellectual competence
 Energy
 Flexibility
 Support
 Good Will
 Self-awareness
3. Psychometrician
The one who develops a test is called psychometrician, while
the one that conducts testing services is called a
psychometrist. A psychometrician has the following
responsibilities;
 Identifies and selects tests
 Sets the schedule of testing services
 Administers, corrects and interprets test results
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  Provides counselors with test results
 Encodes and makes summaries of test results
 Prepares testing materials
 Keeps test materials and test results
4. Researcher
He designs, formulates and conducts research projects. He
manages, collects and analyzes information and organizes
data which are presented in oral and written form. The
researcher has the following functions:
 Applying a variety of research techniques to gather
relevant information, including document analysis,
surveys, case studies and interviews;
 Preparing and reporting findings and disseminating
results, both orally and in writing; and
 Offering research based briefings and advice, which may
involve writing action plans.
5. Guidance Secretary
He/she organized things for people in the office. He/she may
also be called as executive secretary or administrative
assistant. The following are the functions of the guidance
secretary:
 Makes appointments;
 Put files in order;
 Write letters and answers the phone;
 Schedule travel plans;
 Make sure that the information that leaves the office is
right;
 Some make reports and train others
Auxiliary Personnel
1. Psychologist
Study the human mind and behavior
Psychologist’s Areas of Specialization
a. Clinical Psychologist
Aim to reduce psychological distress and enhance and
promote psychological well-being.

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 b. Counseling Psychologist
Assess and evaluate individuals’ problems, through the
use of case history, interview, and observation and
provide individual or group counseling services to assist
individuals in achieving more effective personal, social,
educational and vocational development and adjustment.
c. School Psychologist
Provide a broad range of skills to address students’ needs
in a variety of areas.
Expert in special education and have large role in the
eligibility process for special education
d. Developmental Psychologist
Explore the influence nature vs. nurture
2. Psychiatrist
Assess and treat mental illnesses through a combination of
psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, hospitalization, and
medication.
3. Social Worker
Works with people who have socially excluded or who are
experiencing crisis and their role is to provide support to
enable service users to help themselves.
5.4. COUNSELLOR AND PSYCHOLOGIST
A mental health provider is a professional who has
received training and credentials to provide services to either
ameliorate mental distress or to improve mental health and
prevent mental disorders. Although there are a variety of mental
health providers, the four main kinds are social workers,
counsellors, clinical psychologists, and psychiatrists. Because of
this variety of professional help available, it is reasonable to ask
yourself which one is best for you. The answer to this question is
that, in most situations, which type of professional you consult is
not critically important. The reason is that there is considerable
overlap among the types of mental health professions with
respect to training, types of problems handled, and treatment
approaches utilized. Hence all four kinds of mental health

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professions are competent to recognize and treat the most
common mental problems e.g. mild depression.
Counsellors
Counsellors generally have received training similar to
clinical psychologists but with emphasis on helping people cope
with more normal life problems. For example, counsellors may
help individuals cope with stressful life situations arising out of
normal developmental changes e.g. helping individuals make
educational and career decisions. However there is a trend
towards counsellors becoming more involved in helping
individuals with more serious mental health problems including
the same conditions addressed by clinical psychologists e.g.
depression, anxiety. Counsellors help people to explore feelings
and emotions that are often related to their experiences. This
allows clients to reflect on what is happening to them and
consider alternative ways of doing things.
Counsellors work in a confidential setting and listen
attentively to their clients. They offer them the time, empathy
and respect they need to express their feelings and perhaps
understand themselves from a different perspective.The aim is
reduce a clients confusion and enable them to cope with
challenges, or to make positive changes in their life where
necessary.Counsellors do not give advice, but help clients to
make their own choices within the framework of an agreed
counselling contract.
There is no clear distinction between the terms
counselling and psychotherapy, and both can encompass a range
of talking therapies.
Responsibilities
There are various models of counselling, each with its
own theoretical basis. Differences in approach can relate to the
individual practitioner's interests and training, the setting in
which the counselling consultation takes place, or the
predominant client group.

125
Counsellors working in particular fields (e.g. relationship
guidance, addiction, sexual abuse or health) tend to specialise in
the models most used in those areas.
Work carried out across most areas of counselling includes:
 establishing a relationship of trust and respect with clients;
 agreeing a counselling contract to determine what will be
covered in sessions (including confidentiality issues);
 encouraging clients to talk about issues they feel they cannot
normally share with others;
 actively listening to client concerns and empathising with
their position;
 accepting without bias the issues raised by clients;
 helping clients towards a deeper understanding of their
concerns;
 challenging any inconsistencies in what clients say or do;
 helping clients to make decisions and choices regarding
possible ways forward;
 referring clients to other sources of help, as appropriate;
 attending supervision and training courses;
 undertaking personal therapy (mandatory for accreditation);
 liaising, as necessary, with other agencies and individuals to
help make changes based on the issues raised by clients;
 working to agreed targets in relation to client contact;
 undertaking group as well as individual therapy on
occasions;
 Keeping records and using reporting tools.
Skills
 a non-judgemental outlook and a willingness to work
with all kinds of people;
 excellent observation and listening skills;
 patience, tolerance and sensitivity;
 an understanding of your own attitudes and responses;
 a belief that all clients are able to make positive changes;
 an appreciation of confidentiality issues.

126
PSYCHOLOGISTS
Psychologists are mental health professionals who
observe human behavior to offer interpretations of mental
thought processes. Some work specifically with patient research,
while others collaborate as part of the mental health-care process
to diagnose and treat patients.
Assessment
Psychologists routinely use tests and assessment to aid in
diagnosing a mental health condition for a patient. These tests
help get a basic understanding of the connections between
someone's thoughts and feelings and the subsequent behaviors
causing problems. Depending on the reason a patient makes an
appointment, tests may be used t evaluate intelligence, cognitive
abilities, vocational qualities, personality and neuropsychological
functioning.
Short-Term Help
Some people turn to psychologists for help getting
through traumatic life experiences. The death of a close family
member or friend, for instance, may motivate people to find grief
counseling. Psychologists can help people sort through their
feelings as the go through the stages of grief. Getting a new job,
moving or relationship struggles are other common short-term
challenges that cause people to meet with clinical psychologists.
Ongoing Care
Clinical psychologists also offer long-term counsel for
people suffering from more chronic mental health disorders,
such as depression, anxiety or substance abuse. Diagnosing the
patient's condition and then treating it with the appropriate
therapeutic methods are common practice. Psychologists
commonly meet with patients once a week or every two weeks to
review progress and discuss challenges.
Goal Setting
Typically, one of the first things a psychologist does with
a new patient is help him to set goals for treatment. Someone
combating substance abuse may have a variety of goals, for

127
instance, including staying clean or sober for a certain amount of
time, ending relationships with problematic people and getting
or keeping a job. Staying up-to-date on current research and
therapeutic practices helps the psychologist to assist patients in
setting manageable goals and working toward them.
Therapy
The primary treatment offered by psychologists is
therapy. Patients requiring medicinal treatment go to a
psychiatrist and those requiring more extensive care are referred
to mental health facilities or substance abuse programs.
Psychotherapy includes individual, couples, family and group
sessions. With children or in family scenarios, the psychologist
wants to including everyone involved in the patient's daily life to
get their support and aid in modifying lifestyle and behavior.
Psychologist Job Duties
 Specific job duties for psychologists vary according to their
specialty. Counseling psychologists work at schools, hospitals
or individual practices. They lead group or individual
counseling sessions. Their job involves talking to people and
fostering positive mental health and personal growth.
 Developmental psychologists research changes in behavioral
patterns over a person's life; some focus in on particular time
periods, like infancy or adolescence. Developmental
psychologists aim to correct behavioral disorders caused by
improper development.
 Forensic psychologists work with law-enforcement
personnel and act as experts in various legal cases. Particular
tasks include assessing competency, working with child
witnesses and performing psychological evaluations.
 Research psychologists study the causes of particular
behavioral patterns. They perform various lab tests on
animals and humans and conduct trials with carefully
controlled sample groups. They aim to learn how memory,
thought and perception actually work.
 Industrial-organizational psychologists work with businesses
to maintain a high-quality work environment. Duties include
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 talking with employees to help them with any problems,
screening applicants and training new hires.
 Clinical psychologists work to prevent, diagnose and treat
mental disorders. These psychologists typically have their
own offices and perform diagnostic exams on patients. They
also work alongside doctors to determine the best course of
treatment for particular patients.
 School psychologists work with parents, teachers and
students to foster learning, address school-related problems
and promote a safe educational environment. A key role of
school psychologists is to evaluate a student's special needs
and accommodate them accordingly.
 Social psychologists examine behavioral trends in society.
Their research is used to give advice on leadership, group
behavior and attitude control. They also use their findings to
influence system design and advertisements.

129
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