FVC Shambuu Campus

Sector: Information and Communication Technology

Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
What is Server?
Server is a dedicated computer that provide resources to Network users or Client computers.
Network Configuration
In general, all networks have certain components, functions, and features in common, these
include:
Servers Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
Clients Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
Media the wires that make the physical connections.
Shared data Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
Shared printers and other peripherals Additional resources provided by servers.
Resources any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available for use
by members of the network.

Advantages of server-based network.

Strong central security.
Ability to share expensive equipment.
Optimized dedicated servers, which are faster than peers at sharing resources on the network.
Easy manageability of a large number of users.
Centralized – resources and data security are controlled through the server.
Scalability – any or all elements can be replaced individually aneed increase.
Flexibility – new technology can be easily integrated into system.
Interoper ability: all components(client/network/server)work
together.
Accessibility – server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of server-Based
Maintenance – large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operations.
Dependence- when a server goes down, operations will cease across the network.
Server may fail- incase the server failed, the entire network goes down .
Expensive dedicated hardware server computer
Expensive network operating system software and client licenses
A dedicated network administrator
Types of Server:
File and Printer server
Mail server
Communication server
Directory service server
Application server

Page 1
 Fax server
Backup Server
2.Peer-to-Peer Networking:
Peer-to-Peer (or P2P) network is a simpler network in which each workstation has equivalent
capabilities and responsibilities. In other word a pure peer-to-peer file transfer network does
not have the notion of clients or servers, but only equal peer nodes that simultaneously
function as both "clients" and "servers“.
Peer-to-Peer computer network is a network that relies on computing power at the
edges of a connection, there is no hierarchy among the computers.
The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network
Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
Less initial capital – no need for a dedicated server.
No need for system administration (administrator)
Setup – an operating system (such as windows XP) already in place may only need to be
configured for peer-to-peer operations.
The way security established – users can set their own security and shared resources can exist
on any computer rather than a centralized server only

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

Decentralized – no central repository for the files and application.
Security – does not provide the security available on a client/server network.
Where are 10 users or fewer
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP )
The arp is used to resolve an IP address to the MAC address.
The arp is a command-line utility that can be used to diagnose address resolution problems.
Hosts on TCP/IP networks use IP addresses to communicate to
eachother. IP addresses are further resolved to their MAC addresses in order to deliver IP
packets to the correct host.
These MAC addresses are temporarily stored on the local host in the ARP cache.
The ARP cache is a table that maps recently resolved IP addresses and their corresponding
MAC addresses.
It is periodically refreshed with newer entries, and older entries are deleted. Whenever a host
needs to send a packet to another host, it first
checks its local ARP cache before sending a broadcast message on the local network.
There are two types of entries in the ARP cache: dynamic and static. The dynamic
entries :are created automatically as the local host resolves IP addresses.
The static entries :are added manually using the arp–s command.
You can check the ARP cache of the local computer any time by using the arp–a command
the arp –g command.
Netstat:
The netstat utility is used to display the protocol statistics and current active TCP/IP
connections on the local host.
When used without using any parameters, this utility displays all
inbound and outbound TCP/IP connections
Nbtstat:
The nbtstat utility is used in a Windows network to resolve connectivity problems.
Nbtstat displays the current NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics and the
currently active connections.
The nbtstat utility is exclusive to Windows operating systems.
It is used to display the NetBIOS over TCP/IP connection statistics.
In case there is a problem with NetBIOS name resolution, the nbtstat utility comes in handy
to diagnose it.
ipconfig
The ipconfig utility is used in Windows operating systems to display the TCP/IP
configuration ofthe local host.
It is commonly used with the /all parameter to display the configuration of all network
adapters installed on the system.
ifconfig
The ifconfig command is the Unix/Linux and MAC OS X equivalent of the Windows
ipconfigcommand.
Unlike the limited features of ipconfig, this command has much more advanceddiagnostic
features.
Typing ifconfig help at a Unix host command prompt gets you allthe
parameters and other information about how this command couldbe used.
winipcfg
The winipcfg command was used on Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows Me
computers to display the current TCP/IP configuration settings. Unlike other TCP/IP utilities,
this is a graphicalutility that displays all information in a window.
The output of the winipcfg command includes the following
information:
The MAC address of the network adapter.
The IP address and the subnet mask assigned to thecomputer.
The IP address of the default gateway.
 The IP address of the configured DHCP server.
The IP addresses of the primary and secondary WINS servers.
Information about when the current lease was obtained and when it is due to expire.
The output of the winipcfg command can be analyzed to correctly diagnose a connectivity
problem on Windows
95/98/Me computers. For example, if the computer is not able to connect to any other
computer on a remote
network, the IP address of the default gateway might be incorrect, or it may not be online.
Similarly, if the computer
is not able to connect to any other computer on the local Network segment, the local
computer might have an
incorrect IP address or subnet mask. If the computer is not able to browse the network, the
WINS IP addresses may
be incorrect.
nslookup
The nslookup utility is used to diagnose problems related to the DNS services. In other
words, it is used to resolve
name resolution problems. This utility can be used to perform name resolution queries
against a specified DNS
server or to display information about currently configured DNS servers on a local host.
Unlike other commands discussed in this section, the nslookup command can be executed in
either interactive mode or non interactive mode.

1.IEEE802.1 it is the high level interface &MAC bridges

2.IEEE802.2 it is the logical link coterol (LLC)
3.IEEE802.3 it is the CSMA/CD
4. IEEE802.4 it is the token bus
5.IEEE802.5 it is the token ring
6.IEEE802.6 it is the MAC
7.IEEE802.7 it is the broad band LAN
8.IEEE802.8 it is the fiber optic cable
9 .IEEE802.9 it is the integrated data& notes Network
10.IEEE802.10 it is the security
11.IEEE802.11 it is the wireless Network
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
APIPA can be used if you have a small network that does not have a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which is used for dynamic IP addresses.
A unique IP address is assigned to the network adapter using the LINKLOCAL IP address
space. The address always starts with 169.254 and is in the format 169.254.x.x. Note that if
an APIPA is in use, and a DHCP server is brought up on the network, the computer will
detect this and will use the address that is assigned by the DHCP service instead.

2. Dynamic IP address
A dynamic IP address is assigned by a DHCP server. This allows a server to assign IP
addresses and configuration information to clients.
Some examples of the information that is distributed include IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, domain name system (DNS) server address, and Windows Internet Naming Service
(WINS) server address.
As the dynamic portion of the name suggests, this address is assigned to the computer for a
configurable length of time, known as a lease.
When the lease expires, the workstation must again request an IP address from the DHCP
server.
It may or may not get the same address that it had previously.
Although servers and workstations can both be configured to use this method of addressing,
it is generally used for workstations rather than servers.
3.Static IP address
Using a static IP address is the most common decision for a server configuration.
By static, we mean that the address will not change unless you change the configuration of
the server.
This point is important because clients and resources that need to access the server must
know the address to be able to connect to it.
If the IP address changed regularly, connecting to it would be difficult.
LAN technologies
Ethernet networking and cabling technologies are defined in IEEE 802.3 standards. There are
several variations in
this standard, depending on speed, length, topology, and cabling used in implementing
networks.
10Mbps Ethernet.
The 10 Mbps standards include 10Base2, 10BaseT, and 10BaseFL. All of these standards
define a maximum data transfer speed of 10Mbps. This speed is now considered obsolete for
most networks. It is unlikely that you will encounter any 10Mbps networks in your career.
The following are different variations of
10Mbps networks.
10Base2
This standard defines use of RG-58 coaxial cabling with a maximum segment length of 185
meters. The
network can achieve a maximum speed of 10 Mbps. The segments are typically wired in
physical bus topology.
10BaseT
The 10BaseT Ethernet standard defines use of CAT 3, 4, or 5 UTP cables with a maximum
of 100 meters for each cable length.
All computers (nodes) are connected to a central device known as the hub or the switch.
It is typically wired in a physical star topology.
10BaseFL
The 10BaseFL Ethernet standard uses fiber optic cables in order to increase the cable
segment lengthsto 2000meters.
100 Mbps Ethernet. Most of the modern networks support 100 Mbps speeds, which provide
better
bandwidth for demanding applications.
100BaseTX
100BaseTX networks use two pairs or UTP CAT 5 cable. The length of cable segments can
be up
to 100 meters.
100BaseT4
100BaseT4 networks use four pairs of CAT 3, 4, or 5 type cables. The length of cable
segments can
be up to 100 meters.
100BaseFX
100BaseFX networks use multimode or single-mode fiber optic cables and provide up to 100
Mbps
of data transfer rates. The length of cable segment can be up to 412 meters for multimode
and up to
10,000 meters for single mode cable.
1000 Mbps Ethernet. The 1000 Mbps (equal to 1 Gigabit) Ethernet networks are also known
as GigabitEthernet.
These networks use either copper-based or fiber optic cabling. These networks are
implemented
mainly as a backbone for large networks.
1000BaseX
Gigabit standards include 1000BaseLX, 1000BaseSX, and 1000BaseCX. The 1000BaseLX
and
1000BaseSX use multimode or single-mode fiber optic cables. The 1000BaseCX standard
specifies
use of shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.
1000BaseT
This standard uses four pairs of CAT 5 UTP cable. Each pair of the CAT 5 cable can achieve
maximum data transfer speeds of up to 25 Mbps, making it an overall 1000 Mbps.
Networking protocols
Networking protocols provide ways for computers to communicate with each other through
thenetworking media.
The Transmission ControlProtocol/InternetProtocol (TCP/IP) is a set of several protocols.
It is the most widely used protocol suite in private networks as well as on the Internet.
Unlike the AppleTalk and IPX/SPX protocols, TCP/IP is not proprietary to any organization
but is a public protocol suite. Needless to say,it is a fully
routable protocol. The routing functionality is provided by a number of routing protocols
such as RIP and OSPF.
The TCP/IP protocol suite is supported by all major network and desktop operating
systems.
Some of the well known protocols and their functions are discussed later in this section. The
following are some of the main
configuration settings on a typical computer:

IP address.

An IP address is a unique address used to identify a computer or a host on the network.

This address ismade up of 32-bit numbers written in dotted decimal notation in the w.x.y.z
format. Each eight bits are known as an
octet or a byte. A part of the IP address is known as the network address or network ID and
the rest of it is known as the host address or host ID. These parts are based on the class of IP
addresses used on the network.
All computerson a particular network must have the same number as the network address,
while the host address must be unique on the entire network.

Subnet mask.

Every IP address is accompanied by a subnet mask. It is used to help identify the part of the
network
where the host is located. Like the IP address, the subnet mask is a 32-bit binary number that
distinguishes the network ID from the host ID.

Default gateway.
A default gateway allows computers on a network segment to communicate with computers
on
another segment. The default gateway for all computers on a particular segment is the IP
address of the router
interface that is connected to the local segment. If a computer is not configured with the IP
address of a default
gateway, it cannot communicate with computers on a different network segment.
DNS address.
The IP address of a DNS server is configured on TCP/IP hosts so that all name resolution
queries are sent to the designated DNS server. Most network and desktop operating systems
allow you to configure multiple
DNS servers.

WINS address.

The IP address of a WINS server is configured to resolve NetBIOS name resolution queries.
Aswith the DNS address, you can configure more than one WINS server address on a
TCP/IP host.
The servers andworkstations use a 48-bit hexadecimal address that defaults to the MAC
address of the network interface card.
Thenode address is appended to the network address to create a unique node address in the
internetwork.

NetBEUI/NetBIOS.

NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface. It is an old Microsoft networking
protocol used in small networks. This protocol provides services at the transport and network
layer of the OSI model. It is not a routable protocol and as such, cannot be used on large
routed networks. The computers using the
NetBEUI protocol use Network Basic Input Output System (NetBIOS) naming conventions.
NetBIOS computer names consist of a maximum of 15 characters such as Server1 or
Workstation1.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

SMTP is a connection-oriented application layer protocol that is used to

transport messages between remote email servers. It uses TCP at the transport layer and
hence guarantees delivery of data.

Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4).

Like POP3, IMAP4 is also used to retrieve email from mail servers. The advantage of using
IMAP4 over POP3 is that it provides a secure authentication mechanism.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).

ICMP works at the network layer to provide error checking and
reporting functions. It is a connection-less protocol and uses IP for providing best-effort
delivery. It is used in network management and maintenance systems. For example, PING is
a troubleshooting utility that uses the ICMP protocol.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
ARP works at the network layer. It is used to resolve IP addresses to MACaddresses.
Upper-layer protocols use ARP to correctly deliver data packets to the destination host. ARP
maintains a
mapping of IP addresses and MAC addresses in the system memory called the ARP cache. If
the ARP cache does
not have an entry for a requested IP address, it broadcasts the IP address on the local network
to find out which host
has the specified IP address.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

HTTP is an application layer protocol that allows text, images, and

multimedia to be downloaded from web sites. It is also a connection-oriented protocol that
uses TCP at the transportlayer.
HTTP works with a uniform resource locator (URL) to connect to the desired web site. An
example of a URL
is http://www.oreilly.com.
HTTP Secure (HTTPS). HTTPS is the secure version of the HTTP protocol that allows
servers and clients to be
authenticated before the communication session starts. This protocol is also an application
layer protocol and uses
TCP at the transport layer. It is commonly used for online banking and other e-commerce
functions. It uses a secure socket layer (SSL) to encrypt the network traffic between the web
server and the web client. A web site using SSL has a URL starting with https://.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
SSL is an encryption protocol popularly used for Internet based transactions such as online
banking.
This protocol is based on public key encryption mechanisms.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) is the successor of SSL but can be scaled down to SSL 3.0
mode for backward-compatibility.
SSL provides end-to-end security for Internet communications by using encryption. In
typical implementations, only the server component is
required to use public keys for authentication. For end-to-end security, a Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI) is required.
Both the server and the client must be SSL-enabled to communicate over a secure channel.

Telnet

Telnet is an application layer protocol that allows connections to remote hosts.

Administrators use this protocol to connect remotely to network devices and run commands
in order to configure or maintain them.
Telnet is also a connection-oriented protocol and uses TCP at the transport layer.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

FTP works at the application layer to provide file transfers between remotecomputers.
FTP uses TCP as its transport protocol. FTP is a client/server application that authenticates
users before
allowing access to servers that host the FTP service.
Most FTP servers allow anontymous logons that enable
multiple users to connect to the server and download files.
FTP is commonly used on the Internet for file
downloads. One of the major limitations of the FTP protocol is security. The authentication
method uses clear text
usernames and passwords, which is a serious security concern.
Domain Name System. (DNS)

The DNS service is used to translate fully qualified domain names(FQDN) to their respective
IP addresses.
Large corporate networks and all hosts on the Internet use FQDN notation to identify
computers on the network.
A fully qualified domain name can consist of a maximum of 63 characters including the
dots. An example of a fully qualified domain name is www.us.books.oreilly.com. DNS
servers on a network run the DNS service and are responsible for resolving DNS queries for
their clients.
They can do it either
by themselves or by having the queries resolved though referring to another DNS server.
DNS clients are configured to use one or more DNS servers when configuring their TCP/IP
properties.

Windows Internet Naming System (WINS).

A WINS server is used to translate NetBIOS computer names to IP

addresses. NetBIOS names consist of a maximum of 15 characters. These servers are used
only on Windows networks. The WINS server maintains a mapping of NetBIOS names to IP
addresses.

When a Windows client needs to resolve a computer name to its IP address, it sends a name
resolution query to the WINS server. This helps limit the amount of broadcast traffic
generated by a broadcast method of name resolution. Windows clients can be
configured to use one or more WINS servers.
Protocol Function
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP

is a client/server application used for file transfers between remote computers.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
TFTP is also used to transfer files between two remote computers. It is faster but less
reliable than FTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is used to transport messages between remote email servers.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP allows text, images, and multimedia to be downloaded from web sites.
HTTP Secure (HTTPS) HTTPS is the secure version of the HTTP protocol that authenticates
web servers and clients before the communication session starts.
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is used to download or retrieve email messages from mail
servers running the SMTP protocol.
Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4)
IMAP4 is also used to securely retrieve email from mail servers.
Telnet
Telnet allows connections to remote hosts such as network devices for administrative and
maintenance purposes.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
It is provides error checking and reporting functions.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ARP is used to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses.
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) NNTP provides newsgroup services such as
postingandrtrievingmessageson discussion forums.

Ping
Ping is probably the most basic TCP/IP command-line tool. Its main purpose is to determine whether you
can reach another computer from your computer. It uses the ICMP protocol to send mandatory
ECHO_REQUEST datagrams to the specified host computer. When the reply is received back from the host,
the Ping command displays how long it took to receive the response.
You can specify the host to ping using an IP address, as in this example:
C:\>ping 192.168.168.10
Pinging 192.168.168.10 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 192.168.168.10: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 192.168.168.10: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 192.168.168.10: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 192.168.168.10: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Ping statistics for 192.168.168.10:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
Route
The Route command displays or modifies the computer’s routing table. For a typical computer that has a
single network interface and is connected to a LAN that has a router, the routing table is pretty simple and
isn’t often the source of network problems. Still, if you’re having trouble accessing other computers or other
networks, you can use the Route command to make sure that a bad entry in the computer’s routing table isn’t
the culprit.
C:\>route print
===========================================================================
Interface List
0x1 ........................... MS TCP Loopback interface
0x2 ...00 50 ba 84 39 11 ...... D-Link DFE-530TX+ PCI Adapter
===========================================================================
===========================================================================
Active Routes:
Network Destination Netmask Gateway Interface Metric
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.100 20
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1
192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.100 192.168.1.100 20
192.168.1.100 255.255.255.255 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 20
192.168.1.255 255.255.255.255 192.168.1.100 192.168.1.100 20
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 192.168.1.100 192.168.1.100 1
Default Gateway: 192.168.1.1
===========================================================================
Persistent Routes:
Tracert
The Tracert command (spelled traceroute in UNIX/Linux implementations) is one of the key diagnostic tools
for TCP/IP. It displays a list of all the routers that a packet must go through to get from the computer where
Tracert is run to any other computer on the Internet. Each one of these routers is called a hop, presumably
because the original designers of the IP protocol played a lot of hopscotch when they were young. If you’re
unable to connect to another computer, you can use tracert to find out exactly where the problem is
occurring.

IP
IP, which stands for Internet Protocol, is a Network layer protocol that is responsible for delivering packets
to network devices. The IP protocol uses logical IP addresses to refer to individual devices rather than
physical (MAC) addresses. A protocol called ARP (for Address Resolution Protocol) handles the task of
converting IP addresses to MAC addresses.
TCP
TCP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol, is a connection-oriented Transport layer protocol.
TCP lets a device reliably send a packet to another device on the same network or on a different network.
TCP ensures that each packet is delivered if at all possible. It does so by establishing a connection with the
receiving device and then sending the packets. If a packet doesn’t arrive, TCP resends the packet. The
connection is closed only after the packet has been successfully delivered or an unrecoverable error
condition has occurred.
IPX/SPX:
IPX stands for Internetwork Package Exchange. It’s a Network layer protocol that’s analogous to IP.
SPX stands for Sequenced Package Exchange. It’s a Transport layer protocol that’s analogous to TCP.
✦ Unlike TCP/IP, IPX/SPX is not a standard protocol established by a standards group, such as IEEE.
Instead, IPX/SPX is a proprietary standard developed and owned by Novell.
UDP
The User Datagram Protocol (or UDP) is a connectionless Transport layer protocol that is used when the
overhead of a connection is not required.
After UDP has placed a packet on the network (via the IP protocol), it forgets about it. UDP doesn’t
guarantee that the packet actually arrives at its destination. Most applications that use UDP simply wait for
any replies expected as a result of packets sent via UDP. If a reply doesn’t arrive within a certain period of
time, the application either sends the packet again or gives up.
Probably the best-known Application layer protocol that uses UDP is DNS, the Domain Name System.
When an application needs to access a domain name such as www.wiley.com, DNS sends a UDP packet to a
DNS server to look up the domain. When the server finds the domain, it returns the domain’s IPaddress in
another UDP packet. (Actually, the process is much more complicated than that.
TCP/IP Diagnostic Commands
Arp: Displays address resolution information used by the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Hostname: Displays your computer’s host name.
Ipconfig: Displays current TCP/IP settings.
Nbtstat: Displays the status of NetBIOS over TCP/IP connections.
Netstat: Displays statistics for TCP/IP.
Nslookup: Displays DNS information.
Ping: Verifies that a specified computer can be reached.
Route: Displays the PC’s routing tables.
Tracert: Displays the route from your computer to a specified host.
Renewing an IP lease
If you’re having an IP configuration problem, you can often solve it by renewing the computer’s IP lease. To
do that, use the /renew switch, like this:
C:\>ipconfig /renew
Windows IP Configuration
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix. :
IP Address . . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.100
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.1
Releasing an IP lease
You can release an IP lease by using the IPConfig command with the
/release parameter, like this:
C:\>ipconfig /release
Windows IP Configuration
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix . :
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 0.0.0.0
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 0.0.0.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . :
Nbtstat
Nbtstat is a Windows-only command that can help solve problems with NetBIOS name resolution. (Nbt
stands for NetBIOS over TCP/IP.) You can use any of the switches listed in Table 6-1 to specify what
Nbtstat output you want to display. For example, you can use the -a switch to display the cached name table
for a specified computer, like this:
C:\>nbtstat -a doug
Local Area Connection:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.168.21] Scope Id: []
NetBIOS Remote Machine Name Table
Name Type Status
---------------------------------------------DOUG <00> UNIQUE Registered
DOUG <20> UNIQUE Registered
MMADOMAIN <00> GROUP Registered
MMADOMAIN <1E> GROUP Registered
DOUG <01> UNIQUE Registered
MAC Address = 00-02-B3-98-40-D1
Netstat
The Netstat command displays a variety of statistics about a computer’s active TCP/IP connections. It’s a
useful tool to use when you’re having trou-ble with TCP/IP applications, such as FTP, HTTP, and so on.
Displaying connections If you run netstat without specifying any parameters, you get a list of active
connections, something like this:
C:\>netstat
Active Connections
Proto Local Address Foreign Address State
TCP Doug: 1463 192.168.168.10:1053 ESTABLISHED
TCP Doug: 1582 192.168.168.9:netbios-ssn ESTABLISHED
TCP Doug: 3630 192.168.168.30:9100 SYN_SENT
TCP Doug: 3716 192.168.168.10:4678 ESTABLISHED
TCP Doug: 3940 192.168.168.10:netbios-ssn ESTABLISHED

Nslookup
The Nslookup command is a powerful tool for diagnosing DNS problems. You know you’re experiencing a
DNS problem when you can access a resource by specifying its IP address but not its DNS name. For
example, if you can get to www.ebay.com by typing 66.135.192.87 in your browser’s address bar, but not by
typing www.ebay.com, you have a DNS problem.
Looking up an IP address
The simplest use of Nslookup is to look up the IP address for a given DNS name. For example, how did I
know that 66.135.192.87 was the IP address for ebay.com? I used Nslookup to find out:
C:\>nslookup ebay.com
Server: ns1.orng.twtelecom.net
Address: 168.215.210.50
Non-authoritative answer:
Name: ebay.com
Address: 66.135.192.87

If you select Custom Configuration, the Configure Your Server Wizard can configure
the following roles:

■ File Server Provides convenient, centralized access to files and directories for individual users,
departments, and entire organizations. Choosing this option allows you to manage user disk space by
enabling and configuring disk quota management and to provide improved file system search performance
by enabling the Indexing service.

■ Print Server Provides centralized and managed access to printing devices by serving shared printers and
printer drivers to client computers. Choosing this option starts the Add Printer Wizard to install printers and
their associated Windows printer drivers. It also installs Internet Information Services (IIS 6.0) and
configures Internet Printing Protocol (IPP) and installs the Web-based printer administration tools.
■ Application Server (IIS, ASP.NET) Provides infrastructure components required to support the hosting of
Web applications. This role installs and configures IIS 6.0 as well as ASP.NET and COM+.

■ Mail Server: (POP3, SMTP) Installs POP3 and SMTP so that the server can act as an e-mail server for
POP3 clients.

■ Terminal Server:- Provides applications and server resources, such as printers and storage, to multiple
users as if those applications and resources were installed on their own computers. Users connect with the
Terminal Services or Remote Desktop clients. Unlike Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003 provides
Remote Desktop for Administration automatically. Terminal Server roles are required only when hosting
applications for users on a terminal server.

■ Remote Access/VPN Server: - Provides multiple-protocol routing and remote access services for dial-in,
local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). Virtual private network (VPN) connections
allow remote sites and users to connect securely to the network using standard Internet connections.

■ Domain Controller(Active Directory):- Provides directory services to clients in the network. This option
configures a domain controller for a new or existing domain and installs DNS. Choosing this option runs the
Active Directory Installation Wizard.

■ DNSServer:- Provides host name resolution by translating host names to IP addresses (forward lookups)
and IP addresses to host names (reverse lookups). Choosing this option installs the DNS service, and then
starts the Configure A DNS Server Wizard.

■ DHCP Server: - Provides automatic IP addressing services to clients configured to use dynamic IP
addressing. Choosing this option installs DHCP services and then starts the New Scope Wizard to define one
or more IP address scopes in the network.

■ Streaming Media Server: - Provides Windows Media Services (WMS). WMS enables the server to
stream multimedia content over an intranet or the Internet. Content can be stored and delivered on demand or
delivered in real time. Choosing this option installs WMS.

■ WINS Server: Provides computer name resolution by translating NetBIOS names to IP addresses. It is not
necessary to install Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) unless you are supporting legacy operating
systems, such as Windows 95 or Windows NT. Operating systems such as Windows 2000 and Windows XP
do not require WINS, although legacy applications on those platforms may very well require NetBIOS name
resolution. Choosing this option installs WINS.

OSI LAYERS

The Physical Layer

The bottom layer of the OSI model is the Physical layer. It addresses the physical characteristics of the
network, such as the types of cables used to connect devices, the types of connectors used, how long the
cables can be, and so on. For example, the Ethernet standard for 10BaseT cable specifies the electrical
characteristics of the twisted-pair cables, the size and shape of the connectors, the maximum length of the
cables, and so on. The star, bus, ring, and mesh network topologies described in Book I, Chapter 1 apply to
the Physical layer.
The Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer is the lowest layer at which meaning is assigned to the bits that are transmitted over the
network. Data link protocols address things such as the size of each packet of data to be sent, a means of
addressing each packet so that it’s delivered to the intended recipient, and a way to ensure that two or more
nodes don’t try to transmit data on the network at the same time.
The Data Link layer also provides basic error detection and correction to ensure that the data sent is the same
as the data received. If an uncorrectable error occurs, the data link standard must specify how the node is to
be informed of the error so that it can retransmit the data.
At the Data Link layer, each device on the network has an address known as the Media Access Control
address, or MAC address. This address is actually hard-wired into every network device by the
manufacturer. MAC addresses are unique; no two network devices made by any manufacturer anywhere in
the world can have the same MAC address. You can see the MAC address for a computer’s network adapter
by opening a command window and running the ipconfig /all command, as shown in the MAC address of the
network card is 00-06-25-AE-BA-F4. (The ipconfig command refers to the MAC address as the physical
address.)
Network layer
The Network layer is where data is addressed, packaged, and routed among networks. Several important
Internet protocols operate at the Network layer:
✦ Internet Protocol (IP): A routable protocol that uses IP addresses to deliver packets to network devices. IP
is an intentionally unreliable protocol, so it doesn’t guarantee delivery of information.
✦ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Resolves IP addresses to hardware MAC addresses.
✦ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Sends and receives diagnostic messages. ICMP is the basis of
the ubiquitous Ping command.
✦ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): Used to multicast messages to multiple IP addresses at
once.
Transport layer
The Transport layer is where sessions are established and data packets are exchanged between hosts. Two
core protocols are found at this layer:
✦ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable connection-oriented transmission between two
hosts. TCP establishes a session between hosts, and then ensures delivery of packets between the hosts.
✦ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Provides connectionless, unreliable, one-to-one or one-to-many delivery.
The Session Layer
The Session layer establishes conversations known as sessions between net-worked devices. A session is an
exchange of connection-oriented transmissions between two network devices. Each of these transmissions is
handled by the Transport layer protocol. The session itself is managed by the Session layer protocol.
A single session can include many exchanges of data between the two computers involved in the session.
After a session between two computers has been established, it is maintained until the computers agree to
terminate the session.

The session layer allows three types of transmission modes:

✦ Simplex: In this mode, data flows in only one direction.
✦ Half-duplex: In this mode, data flows in both directions, but only in one direction at a time.
✦ Full-duplex: In this mode, data flows in both directions at the same time
The Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer is responsible for how data is represented to applications. Most computers including
Windows, UNIX, and Macintosh computers — use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) to represent data. However, some computers (such as IBM main-frame computers) use a different
code, known as Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). ASCII and EBCDIC are not compatible with each other. To
exchange information between a mainframe computer and a Windows computer, the Presentation layer must
convert the data from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice versa.

Application layer
The Application layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to the Session, Presentation, and Application layers
of the OSI Reference Model. A few of the most popular Application layer protocols are:
✦ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The core protocol of the World Wide Web.
✦ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol that enables a client to send and receive complete files from a
server.
✦ Telnet: The protocol that lets you connect to another computer on the Internet in a terminal emulation
mode.
✦ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): One of several key protocols that are used to provide e-mail
services.
✦ Domain Name System (DNS): The protocol that allows you to refer to other host computers by using
names rather than numbers.
Networks and hosts
IP stands for Internet Protocol, and its primary purpose is to enable communications between networks. As a
result, a 32-bit IP address actually consists of two parts:
✦ The network ID (or network address): Identifies the network on which a host computer can be found.
✦ The host ID (or host address): Identifies a specific device on the network indicated by the network ID.

IP ADDRESSING and SUBNETTING

An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It designates the specific
location of a device on the network. An IP address is a software address, not a hardware address—the latter
is hard-coded on a Network Interface Card (NIC) and used for finding hosts on a local network. IP
addressing was designed to allow hosts on one network to communicate with hosts on a different network,
regardless of the type of LANs the hosts are participating in.

5.1 IP Terminology
Terms to understand the IP (Internet Protocol):
Bit: A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
Byte: A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used. In this manual, assume a byte is 8 bits.
Octet: An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number. In this manual, the terms byte
and octet are completely interchangeable.
Networkaddress: This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a remote network—for example,
10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
Broadcastaddress: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all nodes on a
network is called the broadcastaddress.
Examples: 255.255.255.255, which is all networks, all nodes;
172.16.255.255, which is all subnets and hosts on network 172.16.0.0;
10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all subnets and hosts on network 10.0.0.0.

5.2 The Hierarchical IP Addressing Scheme

An IP address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four sections, referred to as
octetsor bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits). You can depict an IP address using one of three methods:
 Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
 Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
All these examples represent the same IP address. Hexadecimal isn’t used as often as dotted-decimal or
binary when IP addressing is discussed, but we still might find an IP address stored in hexadecimal in some
programs.
Note: The Windows Registry is a good example of a program that stores a machine’s IP address in hex.
The 32-bit IP address is a structured or hierarchical address, as opposed to a flat or nonhierarchical address.
Although either type of addressing scheme could have been used, hierarchical addressing was chosen for a
good reason.
Advantage of 32-bit IP address:
It can handle a large number of addresses, namely 4.3 billion (a 32-bit address space with two possible
values for each position—either 0 or 1—gives you 232, or 4,294,967,296).

5.3 Network Addressing

The network address (also called the network number) uniquely identifies each network. Every machine on
the same network shares that network address as part of its IP address.
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56, 172.16 is the network address.
The node address is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This part of the address
must be unique because it identifies a particular machine—an individual— as opposed to a network, which is
a group. This number can also be referred to as a host address.
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the node address.
The designers of the Internet decided to create classes of networks based on network size.
 For the small number of networks possessing a very large number of nodes, they created the
rankClass Anetwork.
 At the other extreme is theClass Cnetwork, which is reserved for the numerous networks with a
small number of nodes.
 The class distinction for networks between very large and very small is predictably called theClass
Bnetwork.
Subdividing an IP address into a network and node address is determined by the class designation of one’s
network.
Figure 5.1 summarizes the three classes of networks.

5.3.1 Network Address Range: Class A

The designers of the IP address scheme said that the first bit of the first byte in a Class A network address
must always be off, or 0. This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127, inclusive.

Consider the following network address: 0xxxxxxx

If we turn the other 7 bits all off and then turn them all on, we’ll find the Class A range of network
Addresses:
00000000 = 0
01111111 = 127
So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can’t be less or more.

5.3.2 Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network, the first bit of the first byte must always be turned on, but the second bit must always
be turned off. If you turn the other 6 bits all off and then all on, you will find the range for a Class B
network:
10000000 = 128
10111111 = 191
A Class B network is defined when the first byte is configured from 128 to 191.

5.3.3 Network Address Range: Class C

For Class C networks, the first 2 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but the third bit can never be on.
Following the same process as the previous classes, convert from binary to decimal to find the range. The
range for a Class C network:
11000000 = 192
11011111 = 223
So, an IP address that starts at 192 and goes to 223, is a Class C IP address.

5.3.4 Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E

The addresses between 224 and 255 are reserved for Class D and E networks. Class D (224–239) is used for
multicast addresses and Class E (240–255) for scientific purposes.

5.3.5 Network Addresses: Special Purpose

Some IP addresses are reserved for special purposes, so network administrators can’t ever assign these
addresses to nodes. Table 2.7 lists the members of this exclusive little club and the reasons why they’re
included in it.

Class A Valid Host IDs

Here’s an example of how to figure out the valid host IDs in a Class A network address:
 All host bits off is the network address: 10.0.0.0.
 All host bits on is the broadcast address: 10.255.255.255.
The valid hosts are the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast address:
10.0.0.1 through 10.255.255.254. Notice that 0s and 255s can be valid host IDs. All you need to
remember when trying to find valid host addresses is that the host bits can’t all be turned off or all
be on at the same time.
Class B Addresses
In a Class B network address, the first two bytes are assigned to the network address and the
remaining two bytes are used for node addresses.
The format is: network.network.node.node
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56,
  the network address is 172.16,
 The node address is 30.56.
With a network address being two bytes (8 bits each), there would be 216 unique
combinations.The Internet designers decided that all Class B network addresses should start
with the binary digit 1, then 0. This leaves 14 bit positions to manipulate, therefore 16,384 (that
is, 214) unique Class B network addresses.
A Class B address uses two bytes for node addresses. This is 216 minus the two reserved
patterns (all 0s and all 1s), for a total of 65,534 possible node addresses for each Class B network.
Class B Valid Host IDs
Here’s an example of how to find the valid hosts in a Class B network:
 All host bits turned off is the network address: 172.16.0.0.
 All host bits turned on is the broadcast address: 172.16.255.255.
The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast address:
172.16.0.1 through 172.16.255.254.
Class C Addresses
The first three bytes of a Class C network address are dedicated to the network portion of the
address, with only one measly byte remaining for the node address.
The format is network.network.network.node
Example: In the IP address 192.168.100.102, the network address is 192.168.100, and the node
address is 102.
In a Class C network address, the first three bit positions are always the binary 110. The
calculation is: 3 bytes, or 24 bits, minus 3 reserved positions, leaves 21 positions. Hence, there are
221, or 2,097,152, possible Class C networks.
Each unique Class C network has one byte to use for node addresses. This leads to 28 or 256,
minus the two reserved patterns of all 0s and all 1s, for a total of 254 node addresses for each
Class C network.
Class C Valid Host IDs
Here’s an example of how to find a valid host ID in a Class C network:
 All host bits turned off is the network ID: 192.168.100.0.
 All host bits turned on is the broadcast address: 192.168.100.255.
The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast address:
192.168.100.1 through 192.168.100.254.
 5.4 Subnetting
In section 5.3, we learned how to define and find the valid host ranges used in a Class A, Class B,
and Class C network address by turning the host bits all off and then all on. In this case,we were
only defining one network.
What happens if we wanted to take one network address and create six networks from it?
Answer: We apply the concept of subnetting.
Subnetting is taking one larger network and breaks it into a bunch of smaller networks.
Advantages of Subnetting:
 Reduced network traffic: With routers, most traffic will stay on the local network; only
packets destined for other networks will pass through the router. Routers create broadcast
domains. The more broadcast domains we create, the smaller the broadcast domains and
the less network traffic on each network segment.
 Optimized network performance: This is a result of reduced network traffic.
 Simplified management It’s easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group of
smaller connected networks than within one gigantic network.
 Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances: Because WAN links are
considerably slower and more expensive than LAN links, a single large network that spans
long distances can create problems in every area listed above. Connecting multiple smaller
networks makes the system more efficient.

How to Create Subnets

To create subnetworks, we take bits from the host portion of the IP address and reserve them to define the
subnet address. This means fewer bits for hosts, so the more subnets, the fewer bits available for defining
hosts.
Before we move on to designing and creating a subnet mask, we need to understand about classful routing
and classlessrouting.
Classful routing means that all hosts (all nodes) in the network use the exact same subnet mask.
To create subnetworks,follow these steps:
1. Determine the number of required network IDs:
 One for each subnet
 One for each wide area network connection
2. Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
 One for each TCP/IP host
  One for each router interface
3. Based on the above requirements, create the following:
 One subnet mask for your entire network
 A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
 A range of host IDs for each subnet

Subnet Masks

A subnet maskis a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network ID portion
of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
For the subnet address scheme to work, every machine on the network must know which part of the host
address will be used as the subnet address. This is accomplished by assigning a subnet mask to each
machine. The network administrator creates a 32-bit subnet mask composed of 1s and 0s. The 1s in the
subnet mask represent the positions that refer to the network or subnet addresses.
Not all networks need subnets, meaning they use the default subnet mask. This is basically the same as
saying that a network doesn’t have a subnet address. Table 3.1 shows the default subnet masks for Classes A,
B, and C. These default masks cannot change. In other words, we can’t make a Class B subnet mask read
255.0.0.0. If we try, the host will read that address as invalid and usually won’t even let you type it in. For a
Class A network, we can’t change the first byte in a subnet mask; it must read 255.0.0.0 at a minimum.
Similarly, we cannot assign 255.255.255.255, as this is all 1s—a broadcast address. A Class B address must
start with 255.255.0.0, and a Class C has to start with 255.255.255.0.
Subnetting Class C Addresses
There are many different ways to subnet a network. The right way is the way that works best for us. In a
Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts. Remember that subnet bits start at the left
and go to the right, without skipping bits. We use the following methods.
The Binary Method:
Example: Use the subnet 255.255.255.192.
192 = 11000000
The 1s represent the subnet bits, and the 0s represent the host bits available in each subnet.192 provide 2 bits
for subnetting and 6 bits for defining the hosts in each subnet.
What are the subnets? Since we now use ip subnet-zero, we can get four subnets, instead of the two that were
available without the ip subnet-zero command.
00000000 = 0 (all host bits off)
01000000 = 64 (all host bits off)
10000000 = 128 (all host bits off)
11000000 = 192 (all host bits off)
The valid hosts would be defined as the numbers between the subnets, minus the all-host-bits-off and all-
host-bits-on numbers.
To find the hosts, first we find our subnet:
 turn all the host bits off, then turn all the host bits on to find broadcast address for the subnet.
 The valid hosts must be between those two numbers.
The above example used only 2 subnet bits.
Exercise: Do for 3, 4, or 5 subnet bits using the binary method.
Subnetting a Class C Address (The Fast Way):
To determine the number of subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the mask
provides, we have to consider the following
 How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
 How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
 What are the valid subnets?
 What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
 What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
 How many subnets? 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits, or the 1s. Example: In
11000000, the number of ones gives us 22 subnets. In this example, there are 4 subnets.
  How many hosts per subnet? 2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of unmasked bits, or
the 0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of zeros gives us 2 6 – 2 hosts. In this example, there are
62 hosts per subnet. We need to subtract two for the subnet address and the broadcast address, which
are not valid hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An example would
be 256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in blocks of 64
until we reach the subnet mask value and these are our subnets.0, 64, 128, 192.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? Since we counted our subnets in the last section as 0,
64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the number right before the next subnet. For example,
the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast
address of 127 because the next subnet is 128, etc. And remember, the broadcast of the last subnet (the
subnet with the same interesting octets as the mask) is always 255 for Class C.
 What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting all the 0s and all
1s. For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast address, then 65–126 is the valid
host range—it’s always the numbers between the subnet address and the broadcast address.
Example1:
Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.192 (/26)
192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
Now, let’s answer the important things:
 How many subnets? Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer would be 22=4 subnets.
 How many hosts per subnet? We have 6 host bits off (11000000), so the equation would be 26 – 2 =
62 hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 192 = 64. Remember, we start at zero and count in our block size,
so our subnets are 0, 64, 128, and 192.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of the next subnet is
all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address.
 What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address. The
easiest way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address and the broadcast address. This way,
the valid hosts are obvious. The following table shows the 0, 64, 128, and 192 subnets, the valid host
ranges of each, and the broadcast address of each subnet:
Exercises:
1. Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.224 (/27)
2. Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.240 (/28)
3. Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.248 (/29)
4. Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.248 (/29)
i. How many subnets?
ii. How many host per subnet?
iii. What are valid subnets?
iv. What are valid hosts?
Hint: use the following summary table

5.4.1 Subnetting Class A Addresses

Class A subnetting is not performed any differently from Classes B and C, but there are 24 bits to play with
instead of the 16 in a Class B address and the 8 in a Class C address.
List of all the Class A subnets:
255.128.0.0 (/9) 255.255.240.0 (/20)
255.192.0.0 (/10) 255.255.248.0 (/21)
255.224.0.0 (/11) 255.255.252.0 (/22)
255.240.0.0 (/12) 255.255.254.0 (/23)
255.248.0.0 (/13) 255.255.255.0 (/24)
255.252.0.0 (/14) 255.255.255.128 (/25)
255.254.0.0 (/15) 255.255.255.192 (/26)
255.255.0.0 (/16) 255.255.255.224 (/27)
255.255.128.0 (/17) 255.255.255.240 (/28)
255.255.192.0 (/18) 255.255.255.248 (/29)
255.255.224.0 (/19) 255.255.255.252 (/30)
We must leave at least 2 bits for defining hosts.
Examples:
When we look at an IP address and a subnet mask, we must be able to distinguish the bits used for subnets
from the bits used for determining hosts.
Example 1: 255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for subnetting since we must leave 2
bits for host addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask with a Class A address is using 8 subnet bits.
 Subnets? 28 = 256.
 Hosts? 216 – 2 = 65,534.
 Valid subnets? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. (all in the second octet). The subnets would be 10.0.0.0,
10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up to 10.255.0.0.
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?
The following table shows the first two and last two subnets, valid host range, and broadcast addresses for
the private Class A 10.0.0.0 network:

Example 2: 255.255.240.0 (/20)

 255.255.240.0 gives us 12 bits of subnetting and leaves us 12 bits for host addressing.
 Subnets? 212 = 4096.
 Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
 Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 16. The subnets in the second octet are a block size of 1 and the subnets
in the third octet are 0, 16, 32, etc.
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?
The following table shows some examples of the host ranges—the first three and the
last subnets:

Example 3: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

Using the second, third, and fourth octets for subnetting:
 Subnets? 218 = 262,144.
 Hosts? 26 – 2 = 62.
 Valid subnets? In the second and third octet, the block size is 1 and in the fourth octet the block size
is 64.
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?
Line Printer Remote (LPR)

LPR provides client connectivity to printers in network operating systems

such as Unix, Linux, and Windows.
Some Relevant Terms
MDF Main Distribution Frame
IDF Intermediate Distribution Frame
Broadband Refers to a higher speed always on internet connectionNarrowband Refers to
speeds of up to 128kbps
Dial up Refers to having to dial up the internet every time onegoes online.
Always On Refers to the nature of broadband, being ‘always on’ means a
dial up is not required.
Download speed The speed at which data is delivered to a school modem
from the internet
Upload speed The speed at which data is sent to the internet from a
school modem.
ISP Internet Service Provider
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (64kbps singlechannel or 128kbps dual channel)
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network (refers to anordinary telephone line)
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber LoopMbps Megabits per second (1,000,000 bits per
second)Kbps Kilobits per second (1,000 bits per second)
Ethernet is a standard for transferring data over networks.USB Universal Serial Bus
Modem A simple device used to access the internet
Router A more technically advanced device used to access the
Networking Components and Devices

To complete our examination of networking on a physical level, this chapter looks at the
network devices used to create networks.
• Hubs
 • Switches
• Bridges
• Repeaters
• Routers
• Gateways
• Wireless access points (WAPs)
• Modems
• Network interface cards (NICs)
• Transceivers
• Firewalls
Hub
• Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low cost.
• Small hubs with four or five ports (often referred to as workgroup hubs) provide
everything needed to create a small network.
• Most hubs are referred to as either active or passive.
• Active regenerate a signal before forwarding it to all the ports on the device and
requires a power supply.
• Passive hubs, which today are seen only on older networks, do not need power and
they don't regenerate the data signal
The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected devices and forward it
to all the other ports on the hub. The method of sending data to all systems regardless of the
intended recipient is referred to as broadcasting.

Switch
• On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub. Despite their similar appearance,
switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far more desirable for today's
network environments.
• As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair cable.
Multiple switches are often interconnected to create larger networks.

Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to the port
on which the destination system is connected.
• It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into
every NIC. By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the
switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link gramatically.

• Collisions occur on the network when two devices attempt to transmit at the same
time. Such collisions cause the performance of the network to degrade. By channeling
data only to the connections that should receive it, switches reduce the number of
collisions that occur on the network.
 • Switches can also further improve performance over the performance of hubs by using
a mechanism called full-duplex. On a standard network connection, the communication
between the system and the hub is said to be half-duplex.
Switching Methods
Cut-through
• the switch begins to forward the packet as soon as it is received.
• No error checking is performed on the packet,
• so the packet is moved through quickly.
• the switch can propagate errors
• 30 times faster than store-and-forward switching
Store-and-forward
• the switch waits to receive the entire packet before beginning to forward it.
• also performs basic error checking.
Fragment-free
• works by reading only the part of the packet that enables it to identify fragments
of a transmission.
• On some managed switches, you can select the switching method you
want to use.
Working with Hubs and Switches
• Hubs and switches have two types of ports: medium dependent interface (MDI) or
uplink port and medium dependent interface crossed (MDI-X).
• Uplink port allows you to connect two hubs and switches to create larger networks.
Bridges
• Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.
• Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount of
traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
• Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages the traffic flow
between them. Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges.
• A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC
address written into each frame of data.
• If the bridge believes the destination address is on a network other than that from
which the data was received, it can forward the data to the other networks to which it
is connected.
• If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from passing.
Bridges "learn" the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by "listening" to
network traffic and recording the network from which the traffic originates.
• The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing unnecessary
traffic from crossing onto other network segments, a bridge can dramatically reduce
the amount of network traffic on a segment.
Repeater
• Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals going long distances.
 • A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it transmits it on other
ports.
• Because the repeater does not check on the contents of the data it receives or
retransmits, frames that are corrupted by noise and other factors can also be repeated.
• The development of the hub replaced the repeater for all practical purposes, because it
performs the same functions, and can include additional features.
Routers
• Routers are network devices that literally route data around the network.
• By examining data as it arrives, the router can determine the destination address for the
data; then, by using tables of defined routes, the router determines the best way for the
data to continue its journey.
• Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC address to
determine the destination of the data, routers use the software-configured network
address to make decisions.
• This approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches, and it also
makes them more complex because they have to work harder to determine the
information.
• A router is used to provide connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links and
route information between two LAN segments.
• The figure below shows a router with two LAN ports (marked AUI 0 and AUI 1) and
two WAN ports (marked Serial 0 and Serial 1). This router is capable of routing data
between two LAN segments and two WAN segments.
• Gateways
• The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that can
perform the function of translating data from one format to another.
• Actually, the term gateway refers more to a network role than a network device.
• For example, a router that can route data from an IPX network to an IP network is,
technically, a gateway.
• Another example of a gateway involves the Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
gateway, which converts the data format used on a PC to that used on an IBM
mainframe or minicomputer. A system that acts as an SNA gateway sits between the
client PC and the mainframe and translates requests and replies from both directions.
• The definition of gateways is vague, it's because there is no definite answer. The
function of a gateway is very specific, but how the gateway functionality is
implemented is not.
• Gateways can reside on servers, microcomputers, connectivity devices (such as
routers), or
mainframes.
• They are almost always designed for one category of gateway functions. In addition,
they transmit data more slowly than bridges or routers (which are not acting as
gateways) because of the complex translations they conduct.
 • At a slower speed, gateways have the potential to cause extreme network congestion. In certa
situations, however, only a gateway will suffice.
During your networking career, you will most likely hear gateways discussed in the context o
Internet connections and e-mail systems.
• Popular types of gateways, including e-mail gateways, are described in the following
list:
• E-mail gateway—A gateway that translates messages from one type of e-mail system
to another.
• For example, an e-mail gateway allows networks that use Send mail
server software to exchange mail with networks that use Microsoft
Exchange Server software.
• Internet gateway—A gateway that allows and manages access between LANs and th
Internet.
An Internet gateway can restrict the kind of access LAN users have to the
Internet, and vice versa.
• LAN gateway—A gateway that allows segments of a LAN running different
protocols
or different network models to communicate with each other. A router, a single
port
on a router, or even a server may act as a LAN gateway. The LAN gateway
category
might also include remote access servers that allow dial-up connectivity to a
LAN.
• Voice/data gateway—A gateway that connects the part of a network that
handles data traffic with the part of a network that handles voice traffic.
Voice applications have drastically different requirements than data
applications. For example, before a voice
signal can be transmitted over a data network, it needs to be digitized and
compressed.
When it reaches a voice receiver, such as a telephone, it has to be uncompressed
and
regenerated as recognizable speech, without delays. All these functions require
specialized protocols and processes. A voice/data gateway can translate between
these unique
network segments and traditional data network segments.
• Firewall—A gateway that selectively blocks or filters traffic between
networks. As with any other type of gateway, firewalls may be devices
optimized for performing their
tasks or computers installed with software necessary to accomplish those tasks.
Because firewalls are integral to network security, they are discussed in detail in
Modems
• Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.
 • Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals from a computer
into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.
• Modems provide a relatively slow method of communication. In fact, the fastest
modem available on the market today has a maximum speed of 56Kbps.
• available as
• internal devices that plug into PCI/ISA slots
• external devices that plug into serial or USB ports;
• PCMCIA cards designed for use in laptops .
WAN Technology Options
• Dial-up
• Leased Line
• ISDN
• DSL
• X.25 technology
• Frame relay and virtual circuit
• ATM Technology
• Cable Modem
• Microwave Point-to-Point Link
• VSAT

IP ADDRESSING and SUBNETTING

An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It
designates the specific location of a device on the network. An IP address is a software
address, not a hardware address—the latter is hard-coded on a Network Interface Card (NIC)
and used for finding hosts on a local network. IP addressing was designed to allow hosts on
one network to communicate with hosts on a different network, regardless of the type of
LANs the hosts are participating in.

• IP Terminology
Terms to understand the IP (Internet Protocol):
Bit: A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
Byte: A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used. In this manual, assume a
byte is 8 bits.
Octet: An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number. In this manual,
the terms byte and octet are completely interchangeable.
Networkaddress: This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a remote
network—for example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
Broadcastaddress: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all
nodes on a network is called the broadcastaddress.
Examples: 255.255.255.255, which is all networks, all nodes;
172.16.255.255, which is all subnets and hosts on network 172.16.0.0;
10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all subnets and hosts on network 10.0.0.0.
 • The Hierarchical IP Addressing Scheme

An IP address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four sections,
referred to as octetsor bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits). You can depict an IP address
using one of three methods:
• Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
• Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
• Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
All these examples represent the same IP address. Hexadecimal isn’t used as often as dotted-
decimal or binary when IP addressing is discussed, but we still might find an IP address
stored in hexadecimal in some programs.
Note: The Windows Registry is a good example of a program that stores a machine’s IP
address in hex.
The 32-bit IP address is a structured or hierarchical address, as opposed to a flat or
nonhierarchical address. Although either type of addressing scheme could have been used,
hierarchical addressing was chosen for a good reason.
Advantage of 32-bit IP address:
It can handle a large number of addresses, namely 4.3 billion (a 32-bit address space with
two possible values for each position—either 0 or 1—gives you 232, or 4,294,967,296).

• Network Addressing

The network address (also called the network number) uniquely identifies each network.
Every machine on the same network shares that network address as part of its IP address.
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56, 172.16 is the network address.
The node address is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This
part of the address must be unique because it identifies a particular machine—an individual
— as opposed to a network, which is a group. This number can also be referred to as a host
address.
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the node address.
The designers of the Internet decided to create classes of networks based on network size.
• For the small number of networks possessing a very large number of nodes, they
created the rankClassAnetwork.
• At the other extreme is theClassCnetwork, which is reserved for the numerous
networks with a small number of nodes.
• The class distinction for networks between very large and very small is predictably
called theClassBnetwork.
Subdividing an IP address into a network and node address is determined by the class
designation of one’s network.
Figure 5.1 summarizes the three classes of networks.
 • Network Address Range: Class A

The designers of the IP address scheme said that the first bit of the first byte in a Class A
network address must always be off, or 0. This means a Class A address must be between 0
and 127, inclusive.

Consider the following network address: 0xxxxxxx

If we turn the other 7 bits all off and then turn them all on, we’ll find the Class A range of
network Addresses:
00000000 = 0
01111111 = 127
So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can’t be less or
more.

• Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network, the first bit of the first byte must always be turned on, but the second
bit must always be turned off. If you turn the other 6 bits all off and then all on, you will find
the range for a Class B network:
10000000 = 128
10111111 = 191
A Class B network is defined when the first byte is configured from 128 to 191.

• Network Address Range: Class C

For Class C networks, the first 2 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but the third bit
can never be on. Following the same process as the previous classes, convert from binary to
decimal to find the range. The range for a Class C network:
11000000 = 192
11011111 = 223
So, an IP address that starts at 192 and goes to 223, is a Class C IP address.
 • Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E
The addresses between 224 and 255 are reserved for Class D and E networks. Class D (224–
239) is used for multicast addresses and Class E (240–255) for scientific purposes.

• Network Addresses: Special Purpose

Some IP addresses are reserved for special purposes, so network administrators can’t ever
assign these addresses to nodes. Table 2.7 lists the members of this exclusive little club and
the reasons why they’re included in it.

Class A Valid Host IDs

Here’s an example of how to figure out the valid host IDs in a Class A network address:
• All host bits off is the network address: 10.0.0.0.
• All host bits on is the broadcast address: 10.255.255.255.
The valid hosts are the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast address:
10.0.0.1 through 10.255.255.254. Notice that 0s and 255s can be valid host IDs. All you need
to remember when trying to find valid host addresses is that the host bits can’t all be turned
off or all be on at the same time.
Class B Addresses
In a Class B network address, the first two bytes are assigned to the network address and the
remaining two bytes are used for node addresses.
The format is: network.network.node.node
Example: In the IP address 172.16.30.56,
• the network address is 172.16,
• The node address is 30.56.
 With a network address being two bytes (8 bits each), there would be 216 unique
combinations.The Internet designers decided that all Class B network addresses should
start with the binary digit 1, then 0. This leaves 14 bit positions to manipulate, therefore
16,384 (that is, 214) unique Class B network addresses.
A Class B address uses two bytes for node addresses. This is 216 minus the two reserved
patterns (all 0s and all 1s), for a total of 65,534 possible node addresses for each Class B
network.
Class B Valid Host IDs
Here’s an example of how to find the valid hosts in a Class B network:
• All host bits turned off is the network address: 172.16.0.0.
• All host bits turned on is the broadcast address: 172.16.255.255.
• The format is network.network.Host.node
•
The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast
address: 172.16.0.1 through 172.16.255.254.
Class C Addresses
The first three bytes of a Class C network address are dedicated to the network portion of the
address, with only one measly byte remaining for the node address.
The format is network.network.network.node
Example: In the IP address 192.168.100.102, the network address is 192.168.100, and the
node address is 102.
In a Class C network address, the first three bit positions are always the binary 110. The
calculation is: 3 bytes, or 24 bits, minus 3 reserved positions, leaves 21 positions. Hence,
there are 221, or 2,097,152, possible Class C networks.
Each unique Class C network has one byte to use for node addresses. This leads to 28 or 256,
minus the two reserved patterns of all 0s and all 1s, for a total of 254 node addresses for each
Class C network.
Class C Valid Host IDs
Here’s an example of how to find a valid host ID in a Class C network:
• All host bits turned off is the network ID: 192.168.100.0.
• All host bits turned on is the broadcast address: 192.168.100.255.
The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast
address: 192.168.100.1 through 192.168.100.254.

• Subnetting
In section 5.3, we learned how to define and find the valid host ranges used in a Class A,
Class B, and Class C network address by turning the host bits all off and then all on. In this
case,we were only defining one network.
What happens if we wanted to take one network address and create six networks from it?
Answer: We apply the concept of subnetting.
Subnetting is taking one larger network and breaks it into a bunch of smaller networks.
Advantages of Subnetting:
• Reduced network traffic: With routers, most traffic will stay on the local network;
only packets destined for other networks will pass through the router. Routers create
broadcast domains. The more broadcast domains we create, the smaller the broadcast
domains and the less network traffic on each network segment.
• Optimized network performance: This is a result of reduced network traffic.
• Simplified management It’s easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group
of smaller connected networks than within one gigantic network.
• Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances: Because WAN links are
considerably slower and more expensive than LAN links, a single large network that
spans long distances can create problems in every area listed above. Connecting
multiple smaller networks makes the system more efficient.

• How to Create Subnets

To create subnetworks, we take bits from the host portion of the IP address and reserve them
to define the subnet address. This means fewer bits for hosts, so the more subnets, the fewer
bits available for defining hosts.
Before we move on to designing and creating a subnet mask, we need to understand about
classful routing and classlessrouting.
Classful routing means that all hosts (all nodes) in the network use the exact same subnet
mask.
To create subnetworks,follow these steps:
1. Determine the number of required network IDs:
• One for each subnet
• One for each wide area network connection
2. Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
• One for each TCP/IP host
• One for each router interface
3. Based on the above requirements, create the following:
• One subnet mask for your entire network
• A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
• A range of host IDs for each subnet

• Subnet Masks

A subnet maskis a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the
network ID portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
For the subnet address scheme to work, every machine on the network must know which part
of the host address will be used as the subnet address. This is accomplished by assigning a
subnet mask to each machine. The network administrator creates a 32-bit subnet mask
composed of 1s and 0s. The 1s in the subnet mask represent the positions that refer to the
network or subnet addresses.
Not all networks need subnets, meaning they use the default subnet mask. This is basically
the same as saying that a network doesn’t have a subnet address. Table 3.1 shows the default
subnet masks for Classes A, B, and C. These default masks cannot change. In other words,
we can’t make a Class B subnet mask read 255.0.0.0. If we try, the host will read that address
as invalid and usually won’t even let you type it in. For a Class A network, we can’t change
the first byte in a subnet mask; it must read 255.0.0.0 at a minimum. Similarly, we cannot
assign 255.255.255.255, as this is all 1s—a broadcast address. A Class B address must start
with 255.255.0.0, and a Class C has to start with 255.255.255.0.

• Subnetting Class C Addresses

There are many different ways to subnet a network. The right way is the way that works best
for us. In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts. Remember that
subnet bits start at the left and go to the right, without skipping bits. We use the following
methods.
The Binary Method:
Example: Use the subnet 255.255.255.192.
192 = 11000000
The 1s represent the subnet bits, and the 0s represent the host bits available in each
subnet.192 provide 2 bits for subnetting and 6 bits for defining the hosts in each subnet.
What are the subnets? Since we now use ip subnet-zero, we can get four subnets, instead of
the two that were available without the ip subnet-zero command.
00000000 = 0 (all host bits off)
01000000 = 64 (all host bits off)
10000000 = 128 (all host bits off)
11000000 = 192 (all host bits off)
The valid hosts would be defined as the numbers between the subnets, minus the all-host-
bits-off and all-host-bits-on numbers.
To find the hosts, first we find our subnet:
• turn all the host bits off, then turn all the host bits on to find broadcast address for the
subnet.
 • The valid hosts must be between those two numbers.
The above example used only 2 subnet bits.
Exercise: Do for 3, 4, or 5 subnet bits using the binary method.
Subnetting a Class C Address (The Fast Way):
To determine the number of subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the
mask provides, we have to consider the following
• How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
• How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
• What are the valid subnets?
• What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
• What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
• How many subnets? 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits, or the 1s.
Example: In 11000000, the number of ones gives us 2 2 subnets. In this example, there
are 4 subnets.
• How many hosts per subnet? 2 y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of
unmasked bits, or the 0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of zeros gives us 2 6 – 2
hosts. In this example, there are 62 hosts per subnet. We need to subtract two for the
subnet address and the broadcast address, which are not valid hosts.
• What are the valid subnets? 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An
example would be 256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start
counting at zero in blocks of 64 until we reach the subnet mask value and these are our
subnets.0, 64, 128, 192.
• What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? Since we counted our subnets in the last
section as 0, 64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the number right before
the next subnet. For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the
next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127 because the next subnet
is 128, etc. And remember, the broadcast of the last subnet (the subnet with the same
interesting octets as the mask) is always 255 for Class C.
• What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting all
the 0s and all 1s. For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast
address, then 65–126 is the valid host range—it’s always the numbers between the
subnet address and the broadcast address.
Example1:
Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.192 (/26)
192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
Now, let’s answer the important things:
• How many subnets? Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer would be 22=4
subnets.
• How many hosts per subnet? We have 6 host bits off (11000000), so the equation
would be 26 – 2 = 62 hosts.
 • What are the valid subnets? 256 – 192 = 64. Remember, we start at zero and count in
our block size, so our subnets are 0, 64, 128, and 192.
• What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of
the next subnet is all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address.
• What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast
address. The easiest way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address and the
broadcast address. This way, the valid hosts are obvious. The following table shows
the 0, 64, 128, and 192 subnets, the valid host ranges of each, and the broadcast
address of each subnet:

Exercises:
• Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.224 (/27)
• Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.240 (/28)
• Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.248 (/29)
• Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.248 (/29)
• How many subnets?
• How many host per subnet?
• What are valid subnets?
• What are valid hosts?
Hint: use the following summary table

• Subnetting Class A Addresses

Class A subnetting is not performed any differently from Classes B and C, but there are 24
bits to play with instead of the 16 in a Class B address and the 8 in a Class C address.
List of all the Class A subnets:
255.128.0.0 (/9) 255.255.240.0 (/20)
255.192.0.0 (/10) 255.255.248.0 (/21)
255.224.0.0 (/11) 255.255.252.0 (/22)
255.240.0.0 (/12) 255.255.254.0 (/23)
255.248.0.0 (/13) 255.255.255.0 (/24)
255.252.0.0 (/14) 255.255.255.128 (/25)
255.254.0.0 (/15) 255.255.255.192 (/26)
255.255.0.0 (/16) 255.255.255.224 (/27)
255.255.128.0 (/17) 255.255.255.240 (/28)
255.255.192.0 (/18) 255.255.255.248 (/29)
255.255.224.0 (/19) 255.255.255.252 (/30)
We must leave at least 2 bits for defining hosts.
Examples:
When we look at an IP address and a subnet mask, we must be able to distinguish the bits
used for subnets from the bits used for determining hosts.
Example 1: 255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for subnetting since
we must leave 2 bits for host addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask with a Class A address is
using 8 subnet bits.
• Subnets? 28 = 256.
• Hosts? 216 – 2 = 65,534.
• Valid subnets? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. (all in the second octet). The subnets
would be 10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up to 10.255.0.0.
• Broadcast address for each subnet?
• Valid hosts?
The following table shows the first two and last two subnets, valid host range, and broadcast
addresses for the private Class A 10.0.0.0 network:

Example 2: 255.255.240.0 (/20)

• 255.255.240.0 gives us 12 bits of subnetting and leaves us 12 bits for host addressing.
• Subnets? 212 = 4096.
 • Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
• Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 16. The subnets in the second octet are a block size of 1
and the subnets in the third octet are 0, 16, 32, etc.
• Broadcast address for each subnet?
• Valid hosts?
The following table shows some examples of the host ranges—the first three and the
last subnets:

Example 3: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

Using the second, third, and fourth octets for subnetting:
• Subnets? 218 = 262,144.
• Hosts? 26 – 2 = 62.
• Valid subnets? In the second and third octet, the block size is 1 and in the fourth octet
the block size is 64.
• Broadcast address for each subnet?
• Valid hosts?

Part I – Multiple-Choice Questions

1.Which of the following is behavior of good team members?
A. Do not take turns
B. Do not respect the opinions of others in the team
C. Keep individual information about development
D. Share responsibilities
Answer: D
Some of the characteristics of a highly effective team, according to scientific research Emotional
intelligence of each team member.
 A good mix of introverts and extroverts.
 They share the same stories.
 They make time for humour (the ability to appreciate).
 They communicate proactively. Great leadership.

2. You are the network administrator for a small window 2003. One of your users has come to you because he
cannot remember the password he uses to log onto your windows server 2003 domain. Which utility should you
use to change a user’s password?
 A. The set pass utility
B. Password Administrator
C. Password Manager
D. The Active Directory Users and Computers Utility
Answer: D
To set up and manage domain user accounts, you use the Active Directory Users and Computers utility.
Right click the user whose password you want to change and select Reset password.
3. You are a network administrator in your office. You have 255.255.255.224 subnet mask. What is the maximum
number of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts on a local subnet that uses this subnet?
A. 15 B.30
C. 16
D. 14

Answer: B
Usable subnet mask is 255.255.255.254 minus the given IP address 255.255.255.224 is
equal to 30 or Convert IP address 224 to binary number is equal to 11100000 see the
table, how to convert. A /27 (255.255.255.224) is 3 bits on and 5 bits off. That means to
know the maximum usable IP address 2n – n. The 5 bitsoff 25-2= 32-2 =30.This provides 8
subnets, each with 30 hosts. Does it matter if this mask is used with a Class A, B, or C
network address? Not at all. The number of host bits would never change.
4. All of the following are results of Kaizen implementation in workplaces except?
A. High waiting time
B. Efficient space utilization
C. Improvement in product quality
D. Safety in workplaces
Answer: A

5.A type of maintenance that has regular schedule?

A. Breakdown Maintenance
B. Predictive Maintenance
C. Proactive Maintenance
D. Preventive Maintenance
Answer: D
Maintenance may be classified into four categories: (Some authors prefer three categories- scheduled and
preventive maintenances are merged)
 CorrectiveorBreakdownmaintenance: itimplies that repairs are made after the equipment is failed
and cannot perform its normal function anymore
 Scheduledmaintenance: itis a stitch-in-time procedure and incorporates, inspection, lubrication,
repair and overhaul of equipments
 PreventiveMaintenance (PM): Principle “Prevention is better than cure” Procedure - Stitch-in-time.
It locates weak spots of machinery and equipments; it provides them periodic/scheduledinspections
and minor repairs to reduce the danger of unanticipated breakdowns.
 In predictivemaintenance, machinery conditions are periodically monitored and this enables the
maintenance crews to take timely actions, such as machine adjustment, repair or overhaul
6.What does the 10Base T refers?
A. Transmit data at 100 Mbps with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.
B. Transmit signals at 10 Mbps with a distance limit of 200 meters per segment.
C. Transmit signals at 10 Mbps with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.
D. Transmit data at 1 Gbps with a distance limitation of 220 meters per segment.
Answer: C
10Base-T is the Ethernet wiring standard for 10 Mbps (megabits per second) for a maximum distance of
approximately 100 meters per segment over unshielded twisted pair cables terminated with RJ-45 connectors.
The 10 refers to the transmission speed of 10 Mbps.

7.A computer cannot communicate with any of the computer on a different network segment. It has no problem
connecting to other computer that is located on its own network segment. The IP address parameter that is possibly
incorrectly on the computer?
A. DNS server
B. Default gateway
C. IP address
D. Subnet Mask
Answer: B
If the IP address of the default gateway is incorrectly configured, the computer will not be able to
communicate with any other computers located on different network segments. If the default gateway is
configured correctly, you will need to check the IP address and the subnet mask. A default gateway allows
computers on a network segment to communicate with computers on another segment. The default gateway
for all computers on a particular segment is the IP address of the router interface that is connected to the local
segment. If a computer is not configured with the IP address of a default gateway, it cannot communicate
with computers on a different network segment.
8.One of the options below is correct steps in conducting ICT Training?
A. Identifying training needs - Planning - Implementation
B. Implementation - Planning - Identifying training needs
C. Planning - Implementation - Identifying training needs
D. Planning - Identifying training needs - Implementation
Answer: D
9.There are one thousand employees in the entire company at present and the company is experiencing growth.
Additionally, some of the information that will be sent over the network is confidential. Which network Types would
be most appropriate in this situation?
A. Peer to Peer
B. Stand alone Computer
C. Workstation
D. Server Based
Answer: D
Server Based: Is designed to support a large number of users usually more than 10 users and it uses
servers. If security is an issue, a server based network might be a better choice.
10. Which of the following statements are associated with a bus LAN network?
A.Uses a single backbone computer to connect all network devices.
B. Uses dedicated server.
C. All devices connect to a central device.
D. Uses a dual ring configuration.
Answer: A
In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable called a backboneusing T-connectors. Both
ends of the backbone use terminators in order to prevent reflection of signals. If the terminator is missing or
is deliberately removed, the data transmissions are disrupted.

11.What command would be used to establish network connectivity?

A. IPCONFIG/all
B. IPCONFIG/registerdns
C. IPCONFIG/release
 D. IPCONFIG/renew
Answer: D
12. Subnet
Subnet Mask IP Address Network Address Node Address
255.0.0.0 192.168.10.100 192 168.10.100
255.255.0.0 192.168.10.100 192.168 10.100
255.255.255.0 192.168.10.100 192.168.10 100
From the above table computer with subnet mask 255.0.0.0 IP address 192.168.10.100 and Node address 168.10.100.
What is the Network address?
A. 192.168.10
B. 0.0.0.0
C. 192.168 D.192
Answer: D
Network Class Network Host address/ Node Address Example

Class A Octet 1 Octet 2, 3, 4 92.168.1.5 (92 is Network and 168.1.5 Host)

Class B Octet 1, 2 Octet 3, 4 191.168.1.5(191.168 is Network and 1.5 Host)

Class C Octet 1, 2, 3 Octet 4 192.168.1.5(192.168 .1is Network and 5 Host)

13. In the following figure each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This
configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the
traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite pluses, these networks are expensive to
install because they use a lot of cabling. Which topology the following figure shows?

A. Hybrid
B. Mesh
C. Star
D. Bus
Answer: B
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each computer is
connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths
throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install because
they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a
hybrid topology.
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14.You have just created an active directory user on a windows 2003 domain controller. The security requirements for this
user specify that the user should not be able to logon to the computer between 12:01 AM and 4:00 AM because this is when
your company runs automated backups for the computer. You want to specify that the user account can logon only during
specified hours. Which users properties dialog box tab should you use to configure logon hours? A.The profile tab
B. The general tab
C. You cannot restrict logon hours for an active directory user account
D. The account tab
Answer: D
If you create an Active Directory account, you can limit logon hours by clicking the logon Hours button in
the Account tab of the user properties dialog box.

15. At which layer of the OSI are 1s and 0s converted to a digital signal?
A. Transport
B. Data link
C. Network D.Physical
Answer: D
Physical Layer of OSI Model
 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
 Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media used to transmit the data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic standards
 Device example: Hub, Repeater
 Used to transmit data Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
Data Link Layer of OSI Model
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
 Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames across routers
 Requires MAC address or physical address
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 Device example: Switch, Bridge
 Two sub layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC) Network Layer of
OSI Model
 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the other, called end-to-end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router, Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to
move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer of OSI Model
 Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can be sent to lower-level
layers for data transmission
 Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols and applications can use
 Puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ), so they can be reassembled in correct order at destination
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without assurance of delivery
 Uses port addressing
Session Layer of OSI Model
 Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
 Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination, and restart or recovery procedures

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16. Whichof thefollowingare firewall-related constraints relating to Remote Assistance?

A.NATcannot be used.
B. Internet connection sharing is not possible.
C. Port 3389 must be open.
D. You cannot use Remote Assistance across a virtual Network (VPN).
Answer: C
When enabled, Remote Desktop for Administration opens Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) port 3389 and listens
for connection requests. This port is a significant target and is often sought during port scans. Most open ports link to
applications that must be attacked in complex ways to permit administrator level access to a computer but this service
is designed to actually provide it, which makes it a prime target for attackers. There are several best practices that
should be followed to maximize the security of this component.

17.Thebest method which is used to repair your system partition or make minor changes to windows to get the
operating system functional.A.Directory services restore mode
B. Last known good configuration
C. Recovery console
D. Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)
Answer: C
 The Last Known Good Configuration option loads the last used system configuration that allows
you to return the system to the previous working configuration. Windows saves two types of configurations
in theRegistry: Default and Last Known Good. The Default configuration is saved to the registry when you
shut down the system. The Last Known Good Configuration is saved when you log on to the system.
 The Recovery Console is useful in resolving system startup problems when the Safe Modes and Last
Known Good Configurations do not work. The Recovery Console allows you to repair critical system files
that might have been corrupted copying original files from the Windows XP/2000 Professional setup
CDROM.
• This is useful in resolving system startup problems.
• It allows you to repair critical system files.
• You can also enable or disable services that may be causing startup problems.
• Recovery Console can be started from the Windows setup CD-ROM or it can be installed as one of the
Advanced Boot Options.
Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). The ERD is used on Windows NT and Windows 2000 desktops to repair a system
that fails to start. The most common use of an ERD is to restore critical Windows startup files like NTLDR,
NTDETECT.COM, NTBOOTDD.SYS, and BOOT.INI. In brief, the ERD can be used for the following purposes:
• To inspect and repair the system startup environment.
• To inspect and repair the boot sector of a disk.
• To verify startup files and replace any missing or corrupt files.
18.Which of the following versions of windows server 2003 require product activation?
A. Windows server 2003, Enterprise Edition, Evaluation version
B. Windows server 2003, standard Edition, volume license version
C. Windows server 2003, standard Edition, normal version
D. Windows server 2003, Enterprise Edition, open license version
Answer: D
1. Enterprise Edition ------ Not require product activation
2. Evaluation version -----
3. Standard Edition-------- Not require product activation
4. Volume license version- require product activation
5. Normal version----------

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6. open license version----

19. Which one of the following is a private IP address?
A. 172.33.194.30
B. 168.172.19.39
C. 127.0.0.1
D. 172.20.14.36
20. To Answer: D

Public and private IP addresses

 Public IP addresses (or registered IP addresses) are those addresses of those networks that are
accessible from outside the organization. For example, if any host is connected to a network, it is using a
public IP address. If an organization needs to connect its network to the Internet, it will need to obtain a
public IP address from its Internet Service Provider. Typically, web servers, email servers, DNS servers,
FTP servers, and VPN servers are connected directly to the Internet and use public IP addresses.
 Private IP addresses (or unregistered IP addresses), on the other hand, are used when an
organization’s computer network is private. In other words, it is not connected to the Internet or if it is, it is
located behind a proxy server or a firewall. Access to private networks is usually restricted to users inside
the organization. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has set aside a range of IP addresses in
each of A, B, and C addresses classes that can be used by private organizations for their internal IP
addressing.
decide what type of network resource model is not needed?
A.The need of the network designer
B. How much will it cost?
C. How much security does the company require?
D. What is the size of the organization?
Answer: A
The type of network you choose to implement will depend on factors such as the: Size of the organization
 Level of security required
 Types of business
 Level of administrative support available
 Amount of network traffic
 Needs of the network users Network budget/cost
21.Where would you configure workstations to boot from the USB drive first and hard drive only if there is not a
bootable USB device attached?
A. Configured in workstations BIOS
B. NTLDR
C. Boot.ini
D. C:\windows\TEMP\1st.txt
Answer: A
Boot order is configured in the BIOS of the workstation and not in a windows-related file.
22.Which layer 1 device can be used to enlarge the area covered by a single LAN segment?
A. NIC
B. RJ-45 transceiver
C. Repeater

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D. Switch
Answer: C
Hub, Repeater, Router and Switch repeat the packet. But only hub and Repeater do not segment the network.
Repeaters and Hubs are contained in layer one of the OSI model
(Physical layer) while a switch lies in layer two and a router is in layer 3.
23. A user has forgotten his or her password and attempts to logon several times with an incorrect password.
Eventually, the user receives a logon message indicating that the account is either disabled or locked out. The message
suggests that the user contact an administrator. What must you do?
A. Unlock the user object
B. Rename the user object
C. Delete the user object and recreate it.
D. Enable the user object
Answer: A
Unlock the user object or Reset the password for user object. Although the logon message text on Windows 2000
and other previous operating system versions indicates that the account is disabled, the account is actually locked.
Windows Server 2003 displays an accurate message that the account is, in fact, locked out. However, you can
recognize the problem by examining what caused the message: a user forgot his or her password. You must unlock the
account and reset the password.
24. The flow of information across persons of work units at the same hierarchical level is called?
A. Vertical communication
B. Down ward communication
C. Upward communication D.Lateral communication
Answer: D
Lateral communication towards or from the side or sides of Horizontal communication
25. ____ is the protocol used for communication between a web server and a web browser. By default, it uses port 80.
A. HTML
B. SMTP
C. HTTP
D. IMAP
Answer: C
Usually, HTTP takes place through TCP/IP sockets. A browser is an HTTP client because it sends requests to
an HTTP server (Web server), which then sends responses back to the client. The standard (and default) port for
HTTP servers to listen on is 80, though they can use any port.
26. Which of the following is categorized as richest channel in conveying information effectively?
A. Face to face communication
B. Posted notices and bulletins
C. Telephone D.E-mail
Answer: A
Feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst feedback to
messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even conveyed through other
media such as the Internet.

27. You are the administrator for your company’s domain. You need to subdivide groups in your organization with in
active directory. If you want to separate sales from marketing department what could you use as a system of
organizing this subdivision?
A. Build a container in subnet group
B. Use user and groups
C. Create site and subnet grouping

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D. Creating organizational units.

Answer: D
Organizational units(OUs) are Active Directory containers that you use to organize objects within a domain. OUs can
be assigned group policies and can be used to delegate administrative tasks to users or groups. Administrators
implement group policies that can be applied to the entire domain, or they implement smaller administrative units
called organizational units (OUs).
28. Whichofthefollowingis not market promotional tool?
A. Seminars
B. Advertising
C. Supply/Demand
D. Networking and referrals
Answer: C
Market promotional tool
 Advertising
 Sales promotion
o

Public relations
Direct Marketing
29. One of following is type of account policies?
A. Password policy
B. User right assignment
C. Security options
D. Audit policy
Answer: B

30. One of the following is not function of firewalls.

A. Differential backup
B. Stetful inspection
C. Packet filter
D. Proxy firewall
Answer: A
Function of firewalls
 Packet Filtering
 Stateful Inspection Filtering
 Application-Layer Filtering
 Proxy Services
Reverse Proxy Services
31. Let say you are a network administrator in your office. You have an interface on a router with the IP address of
192.168.192.10/29. What is the broadcast address the hosts will use on this LAN?
A. 192.168.192.127
B. 192.168.192.63
C. 192.168.192.15
D. 192.168.192.31
Answer: D

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The Conversion of 10 to binary number is10100000 and 2n-1 is broadcast address 25-1=31 =>192.168.192.31

32. A _____ system to join two or more device and computers together to communicate and share resources.
A.Network
B. Resource
C. NIC
D. Modem
Answer: A
Networkisa group of two or more electronic devices, such as computers, PDAs, and smart phones that communicates with each
other to share data and resources.
33. The most effective way to migrate congestion on a LAN would be to ____________
A. Upgrade the network cards
B. Change the cabling to cat 6
C. Upgrade the CPUs in the routers
D. Replace the HUBs with switches
Answer: D
Replacing the hub with a switch would reduce collisions and retransmissions which would have the most
impact on reducing congestion.
34.Which topology the workstation goes down, it does not affect the entire network?
A.Star
B. Bus
C. Ring
D. Straight line
Answer: A
In star topology, failure of a single node or the connecting cable does not affect the entire network’s operation.

35.One of your printers is not working properly and you want to prevent users from sending print jobs to the logical
printer servicing that device. What should you do?
A. Remove the printer from active directory
B. Stop sharing the printer
C. Rename the share
D. Change the printer post
Answer: B
If you choose to stop sharing the printer, users will no longer be able to use the print device.
36.What type of profile will be most useful to maintain a locked-down desktop common to all sales representatives?
A.Local profile
B. The all users profile
C. Preconfigured roaming group profile
D. Local mandatory profile
Answer: C
37.While reviewing the security logs for your server, you notice that a user on the internet has attempted to access
your internal mail server. Although it appears that the user’s attempts were unsuccessful you are still very concerned
about the possibility that your systems may be compromised. Which of the following solutions are you most likely to
implement?
A. Afirewallsystemall the connection point to the internet
B. A more secure password policy
C. File-level encryption
D. Kerberos authentication

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Answer: C

38.One of the following is not an example of network resource.

A. Printer and other peripherals
B. Files and applications
C. Disk storage D.Hub
Answer: D
39.A user can determine the network settings on the client’s network interface cards as well as any that a DHCP
server has leased to your computer by typing the following command at a command prompt. A.Ping
B. IP
C. Ipconfig/all
D.Connect
Answer: C

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40. You want to ensure the highest level of security for your corporate intranet without the infrastructure of certificate
services. The goal is to provide Authentication that is transparent to users and to allow securing intranet recourses
with the group accounts existing in active directory. All users are within the corporate firewall. What Authentication
method should you choose?
A. Basic Authentication
B. Digest Authentication
C. Anonymous Access
D. Integrated windows Authentication
Answer: D
41.Whichclass the IP addressing provides 24 bits of network addressing and 8 bits of host addressing by default. The
most secure and strong password from the following list is:
A. Class A
B. Class B
C. Class C
D. Class D
Answer: C
42.Which one of the following is used only with domain controllers and enables you to restore directory services?
A.Directory services restore mode
B. Last Known good configuration
C. Debugging mode
D. Safe mode
Answer: A
43.Youhave just resolved a very complex network problem. During the process you made some configuration changes
on the network. The changes were successful and your client is now very happy with your performance.
What should be your next step?
A.Eliminate possibilities.
B. Enable Auditing on all networks to prevent problems in the feature.
C. Gather information.
D. Document your work.
Answer: D

44.Datafor your corporate intranet is currently stored on the D: drive of your IIS server. It is decided HR department
will serve information about the company benefit and policies from its server and that the URL to access the HR
information should be http://intranetcontoso.com.hr. what do you need to configure?
A. A new ftp site
B. Virtual directory
C. A new website
D. Virtual directory from file
Answer: D
45.What is the default subnet mask for class C network?
A. 255.0.0.0
B. 127.0.0.1
C. 255. 255.0.0
D. 255. 255. 255.0
Answer: D

46.You are troubleshooting a network using STP twisted pair and suspect that the maximum length has been
exceeded. What is the maximum length of STP twisted pair?
A. 25 meters
B. 1000 meters

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C. 10000 meters D.100 meters
Answer: D
47.Which of the following is the address of the router?
A. The default getaway
B. The subnet mask
C. The IP address
D. The TCP address
Answer: A

48.Eachcomputerisconnected to every other computer by separate cabling and network offers superior redundancy
and reliability.
A. Star topology
B. Mesh topology
C. Ring topology
D. Bus topology
Answer: B

49.Youhave been asked to install a network that will provide the network users with the greatest amount of fault
tolerance. Which of the following network topologies would you choose?A.Star
B. Ring
C. Bus
D. Mesh
Answer: D

50.Users are complaining that the performance of the network is not satisfactory. It takes a long time to pull files from
the server and under heavy loads; workstations can become disconnected from the server. The network is heavily used
and a new video conferencing application is about to be installed. The network is 100 Base-T systems crated with
Ethernet HUBs. Which of the following devises are you most likely to install to alleviate the performance problems?
A. Gateway
B. Router
C. Switch
D. Bridge
Answer: C
Replacing Ethernet hubs with switches can yield significant performance improvements. Of the devices listed, they
are also the only one that can be substituted for hubs. Router is incorrect as a router is used to separate networks, not
as a connectivity point for workstations. A bridge could be used to segregate the network and so improve
performance, but a switch is a more obvious choice in this example. A gateway is a device, system, or application that
translates data from one format to another.
51.Computersthat access shared resources for network users.
A. Server
B. Client
C. Peer to peer
D. Server based
Answer: B
52.When troubleshooting a network connectivity problem, you are able to ping your local loopback, the IP address of
your system and the IP address of another system on your network. However, you cannot ping the default gateway.
Which of the following is not a valid reason for this problem?
A. The default gateway is not operational
B. There is no default gateway present
C. The IP address of the default gateway is not configured correctly.
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D. Routing is disabled on your workstation.
Answer: C
53. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is
A. TCP/IP protocol used by dynamically bind a high level IP address to a low level physical hardware address
B. TCP/IP high level protocol for transferring files from one machine to another
C. Protocol that handles error and control message
D. Protocol used to monitor computers
Answer: A
54.A commercial organization with permanent connection to the internet that sells temporary connections to
subscribers.
A. MAN
B. ISP
C. LAN
D. WAN
Answer: B
55.Which of the following OSI layers is responsible for establishing connections between two devices?
A.Transport
B. Network
C. Session
D. Data-link
Answer: C
56.A user in the sales department calls you and complains that she is unable to log on to the server and use the
accounting software. All the members of the sales department have access to the application and the user has worked
with the software before. Two other users in the sales department claim they can access. The server with no difficulty.
Which of the following would be your next likely step in the troubleshooting process?
A. Verify the user’s logon information
B. Verify network settings on the workstation
C. Verify that the accounting software is running on the server
D. Check the user’s access permissions
Answer: D
57.Which of the following topologies allow for network expansion with the least Amount of disruption for the current
network users?
A. Ring
B. Hybrid
C. Star
D. Bus
Answer: C
On a star network, each network device uses a separate cable to make a point to point connection to a centralized device such as a
hub. With such a configuration, a new device can be added to the network by attaching the new device to the hub with its own
cable. This process does not disrupt the users who are currently on the network.
58.Whichof the following devices forwards data packets to all connected ports?
A. Switch
B. Hub
C. Bridge
A.Router
Answer: B
Hubs are inefficient devices that send data packets to all connected devices. Many of today’s networks are upgrading to switches that
pass data packets to the specific destination device. This method significantly increases network performance.
59.Framesfromone LAN can be transmitted to another LAN via the device.
A. Router

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B. Repeater
C. modemD.Bridge
Answer: D
Bridge is used for connecting to LAN segments to form a larger segment and dividing a large network segment into smaller segments. Bridges can
dynamically build lists of MAC addresses by analyzing data frames. These bridges are called learning bridges due to this advanced functionality.
60. Sustainableenergyprinciples and work practices may not
includeA.Switching off equipment when not in use.
B. Cleaning filters irregularly
C. Insulating rooms and buildings to reduce energy use
D. Recycling and reusing materials wherever practicable
Answer: B
61.Which of the following summation operation is performed on the bits to check an error detecting code?
A.Checksum
B. Attenuation
C. Codec
D. Code-decoder
Answer: A
Error Checking and Correction RAM automatically detects and corrects errors in memory, without the involvement of the motherboard
circuitry. The Error Checking and Correction mechanism generates checksums before storing data in memory. When the data is retrieved from
the memory, the checksum is calculated again to determine whether any of the data bits have been corrupted. ECC memory can generally detect
1-bit and 2-bit errors, but can only correct errors that are 1 bit per word.
62.A large network with 500 users notices that at specific times in the morning and afternoon network congestion ties
up their computers. What is the most likely cause?
A. Manyusersare logging on or off
B. A terminator is not grounded
C. The switch connecting the network goes down
D. Power fluctuations
Answer: A
63.Which of the following is used for modulation and demodulation?
A. Protocols
B. Multiplexer
C. Gateway
D. Modem
Answer: D
The term modem stands for modulator demodulator. It converts the digital signals from the computer into analog
signals that can travel on ordinary telephone lines and vice versa.
64. Which of the following definitions describe the loss of signal strength as a signal Travels through a particular
media?
A. chatter
B. crosstalk
C. attenuation
D. EMI
Answer: C Loss of signal as it travels to larger distances is known as
attenuation.

65. Which one of the following is Functions of physical layer?

A. Handles the discovery of destination systems and addressing
B. Provides the mechanism by which data can be passed from one network to another.
C. Provides error detection and correction
D. Defines the physical structure of the network and the topology.

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Knowledge assessment
Answer: D

66.Which of the following is not an example of business abuse?

A. Falsify records
B. Break confidentiality
C. Ignore safety rules
D. Better client satisfaction
Answer: D
67. One of the following is not included in SMART objectives?
A. Objectives should be sustainable
B. Objectives should be measurable
C. Objectives should be Achievable
D. Objectives should be Realistic

A
nswer: A
68.Sending a file from your personal computer primary memory or disk to another computer is called?
A.Hang on
B. Logging on
C. Uploading
D. Downloading
Answer: C
69.A communication network which is used by large organization over regional, national or global area is called
A. LAN
B. WAN
C. MAN
D. Intranet
Answer: B
A WAN typically connects separate LANs at different geographic locations. WANs are networks that cover very large
geographical area such as a country or the whole world.

70.Which of the following network device two dissimilar networks can be connected and it operate all layers of the
OSI model?
A. Router
B. Switch
C. Bridge
D. Gateway
Answer: D

71.Which one is the function network device amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it transmits it on other
ports? A.Switch/hub
B. Router
C. Bridge
D. Repeater
Answer: D
Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals going long distances. It amplifies the signal, there by extending the
usable length of the bus. A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it transmits it on other ports.
Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals going long distances. It amplifies the signal, there by extending the
usable length of the bus. A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it transmits it on other ports.
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Knowledge assessment
72.You are the network administrator for a small company. Your company has one windows server 2003 computer configured as a
domain controller and 25 clients running windows XP professional. You want to ensure that your server stays up to date through
windows automatic update. Where should your server to use windows automatic update?
A. Through the registry
B. Start – control panel – system and click the Automatic updates tab
C. Start – All programs – Accessories – system tools – windows update
D. Through the group policy
Answer: B
73. What subnet mask would correspond to a CIDR notation of /24?
A. 255. 255. 255.0
B. 255. 255. 255. 255
C. 255. 255.0.0
D. 255.0.0.0
Answer: A
Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) is a set of Internet protocol (IP) standards that is used to create unique
identifiers for networks and individual devices. The IP addresses allow particular information packets to be sent to
specific computers. That system is known as CIDR notation.

74.Which name must be unique for every system on the network?

A. The workgroup name
B. The computer name
C. The domain name
D. The user name

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Answer: B

75.Which of the following network components allow digital signal to be transmitted across an analogue link?
A.Router
B. Modem
C. Fiber optics
D.Firewall
Answer: B
76. You are network administrator for a medium-sized network. Your company develops applications that will be
used on windows server 2003 platforms. You run a test lab that has windows 2003 on member servers within several
workgroups. You hire a user named Hachalu to help you run and manage tests. You have just added Hachalu to the
server operators group on your windows 2003 domain. Which of the following tasks will Hachalu be able to complete
based on this group membership?
A. Create user and group
B. Delete users and group
C. Make users member of group
D. Create network printers
Answer: D
The server operator group members can administer domain servers. Administration tasks include creating, managing
and deleting shared resources, starting and stopping services, formatting hard disks, backing up and restoring file
system, and shutting down domain controllers.

77.Which of the following is not a benefit of an upgrade to a server-based network will provide?
A. Data will not secure
B. The network will be able to handle more users
C. Data backups will be easier to schedule and perform
D. Handle complex tasks
Answer: A
Benefit of a server-based network
 Have high Security
 Sharing resources
 Backup can be scheduled automatically
 Redundancy of data
 Hardware considerations (hardware sharing)
 It supports high Number of users
78.Which of the following is not part of a Fully Qualified Domain Name?
A. Host name
B. CPU type
C. Company name
D. Type of organization
Answer: B
79. When you try to turn computer on, you notice that the computer won’t activate. The monitor is blank and the fan
on the power supply is not active. Turning the switch off and then back on makes no difference. What is the most
likely cause of this problem?
A. Both the fan on the power supply and the video card are bad.
B. The computer is unplugged.
C. The BIOS on the motherboard needs to be upgraded.
D. The monitor is malfunctioning.
Answer:
80. Which one the following an example of verbal communication?

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Knowledge assessment
A. Body language
B. Sign and time language
C. Para language
D. Face to face communication
Answer: D
81.If a network user can’t access server because he/she forgets his/her username, what type of error is it?
A.Operator error
B. Power switch
C. Login procedure
D. Link error
Answer: A
82. Which one of the following is the correct syntax to ping the reach ability of network?
A. PING: 192.168.1.1
B. 192.168.1.1 PING
C. PING 192.168.1.1
D. PING\192.168.1.1
Answer: C

83.What is the output from the first stage of analysis?

A. A list of technical requirements
B. A list of key stakeholders
C. A list of business requirements
D. An opportunity or problem statement
Answer: D

84.You are the network administrator for a small company. Your network consists of one windows server 2003
server, which is configured as a domain controller, with 250 client computers. You want to make license management
as easy as possible. Which of the following utilities should you use to configure licensing?
A. Administrative tools- Licensing
B. Administrative tools- License manager
C. Control panel- License manager
D. Control panel- Licensing
Answer: B

85. You are a network Administrator in your company. You are given with the following IP
address. The network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255. 255. 255.224. Depending on
the above network address and subnet mask how many subnets you can
create?
A. 16
B. 32
C. 48 D.8
Answer: D
86. Convert IP address 224 = 11100000 3 bit on 2n =>23 = 8 subnets and 5 bit off 2n =>25 = 32 hosts
Which
layer organizes and synchronizes the exchange of data between application processes?
A.Application layer
B. Session layer
C. Physical layer
D. Transport layer

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Answer: B
 Session layer: The layer that provides the means necessary for cooperating presentation entities to organize
and synchronize their dialog and to manage their data exchange.
 Applicationlayer: The layer that provides means for the application processes toaccess the OSI environment.
 Presentationlayer: The layer that provides for the selection of a commonsyntax for representing data and
for transformation of application data into and from this common syntax.
 Transportlayer: The layer that provides a reliableend-to-end data transfer service across networks.
 Networklayer: The layer that provides for the entities in the transport layer the means for transferring blocks of data,
by routing and switching through the network between the open systems in which those entities reside.
 Datalinklayer: The layer that provides services to transfer data between network layer entities usually in
adjacent nodes.
 Physicallayer: The layer that provides the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to
establish, maintain and release physical connections for transfer of bits over a transmission medium.
87. Hachalu is a network administrator for a small company. He is managing a server called\sales and is assigning
NTFS permissions to the D:\Data folder for the managers group. He wants the managers group to be able to list
the content of the folder and read the data in the folder’s files. He does not want anyone from the group to change
or delete any of the data. Which NTFS permission should he apply?
A. Read
B. Modify
C. Write
D. Full Control
Answer: A
The Managers group should be assigned the most restrictive permission that will still allow the members to read the
data in the D:\Data folder, which is the NTFS Read permission.
88. Which of the following is the not limitations of DHCP?
A. DHCP does not detect IP addresses already in use on a network by non-DHCP clients.
B. DHCP server can communicate with clients across routers.
C. DHCP server does not communicate with other DHCP servers and cannot detect IP addresses leased by other
DHCP servers.
D. As with manually configured TCP/IP, incorrect values configured for a DHCP scope can cause unexpected.
Answer:
89. You are network administrator for a medium-sized network. Your company develops applications that will be
used on windows server 2003 platforms. You run a test lab that has windows 2003 on member servers within
several workgroups. You hire a user named leta to help you run and manage tests. You have just added leta to the
server operators group on your windows 2003 domain. Which of the following tasks will leta be able to complete
based on this group membership?
A. Create user and group
B. Delete users and group
C. Make users member of group
D. Create network printers
Answer: D
The server operator group members can administer domain servers. Administration tasks include creating, managing
and deleting shared resources, starting and stopping services, formatting hard disks, backing up and restoring file
system, and shutting down domain controllers.
90. Which of the following are types of flow control?
A. VLANS
B. Cut-through
C. Data
D. Buffering
Answer: D

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Three types of flow control are buffering, windowing & congestionavoidance:
 Buffering: If a device receives packets too quickly for it to handle then it can store them in a memory section
called a buffer and proceed them later.
 Windowing: a window is the quantity of data segments that the transmitting device is allowed to send without
receiving an acknowledgment for them. For example:With the window size of 1, the sending device sends 1
segment and the receiving device must reply with 1 ACK before the sending device can send the next
segment. This waiting takes some time.By increasing the window size to 3, the sending device will send up to
3 segments before waiting an ACK -> helps reduce the waiting time.
 Congestion avoidance: lower-priority traffic can be discarded when the network is overloaded -> minimize delays.
91. Which of the following connectors are commonly used with fiber cabling?
A. Rj-45
B. Rj-11
C. BNC D.SC
Answer: D
Fiber cable connectors are SC, ST, LC, MT-RJ
92. You are to backup a windows server 2003 file server evening. You perform a manual, normal backup. You will
then schedule a backup job to run every evening for the next two weeks. Which backup type will provide the simplest
recovery of lost data?
A. Incremental
B. Differential
C. Normal D.Daily
Answer: C

93.You are to back up a Windows Server 2003 file server every evening. You perform a manual, normal backup. You
will then schedule a backup job to run every evening for the next two weeks. Which backup type will complete the
fastest?
A. Normal
B. Differential
C. Incremental
D. Copy
Answer: C
94. As a computer technician which one of the following is the major problem of monitor?
A. Black screen and no power light
B. Slow down operation
C. No beep sound
D. Error code starts with one
Answer: A
Major problem of monitor:
• Screen, Icon or Font Size Too Small or Too Big
• Blank Screen or No Video
• Distorted Image or Video, Flickering, Fuzzy, Blurry, or Color Problems
• Brightness, Contrast, Horizontal Lines, Vertical Lines or Geometrical problems Bright or Dead
Pixel
95. What tool is used to enable remote desktop on a server?
A. Terminal services manager
B. Terminal services licensing
C. System properties in control panel
D. Terminal services configuration

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Answer: C

96.Sequencing, acknowledgements and flow control are characteristic of which OSI layer?
A.Layer 6
B. Layer 3
C. Layer 4
D. Layer 1
Answer: C
A reliable Transport layer connection uses acknowledgments to make sure all data is transmitted and received
reliably. A reliable connection is defined by a virtual circuit that uses acknowledgments, sequencing, and flow
control, which are characteristics of the Transport layer (layer 4).

97.You would like to test the restore procedures on your server, but would also like to avoid affecting the production
copies of the backed-up data. What is the best restore location to use?
A. Original location
B. Alternate location
C. Single folder
Answer: B

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Column A
[M]1. Writes a new boot sector
on the system partition.
[L]2. Uses a thin coax cable and
runs Ethernet media access up to
185 meters.
[E]3. Most telephones connect
[I]4. A protocol finds the
hardware address of a host from a
known IP address
[K]5. MAC address
Column B
[R]6. The physical laying out of
the network. A. Protoc
ol
[O]7. Diagnostic program built
into its BIOS B. Data
link
[D]8. It uses pulses of light layer
instead of electric voltage to C. UDP
transmit data [A]9. A set of D. Fiber-
rules that govern Optic
cabling
communications over a network.
E. RJ-11
[C] 10. Performs similar function
F. FAT
to TCP with less overhead and
G. SMTP
more speed, but with lower
reliability
H. Rj-45

[P] 11. Used to resolve host I. ARP

names to IP addresses J. NTFS
[S] 12. Responsibilities for K. Logica
establishing and maintaining a l
Addres
communications[J] 13. File s
system more secured L. Thinne
t
M. FIXBO
OT
N. SC
O. POST
P. Domain Name System
Q. BNC
R. Topology
S. Session Layer
T. Physical address

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Knowledge assessment

Column A system by
tracing all
[A]1. Moves packets between routers
computers on different networks
and routers between
operate at this layer two points

[D]2. Used to display [R ] 9.

Manages
information on the current state connections
of all the running IP processes on between
machines
your computer and sockets
operate at
[L]3. Class B IP Address this layer.
[O]4. Memory related error [F] 10. Is
[M]5. Broadcast IP address the
[K]6. Identifies devices on the operationa
physical layer and MAC addresses
l
are part of this layer
techniques
[E]7. Uses ICMP packets to show
you if you can simply reach a remote and
computer
activities
[G]8. Used to diagnoses that are
problems reaching a remote
used to fulfill requirements for G. TRAC
ERT
quality
H. 10.10.
[H ] 11.Class A IP Address 10.10
[N] 12. Common types of I. 127.0.
software problem 0.1
[Q] 13. Possible CPU problem J. Work
causes ethics
K. Data
link
layer
L. 172.16
.0.20
M. 255.
255.
255.25
5
N. Ntdete
ct.com
missin
g
O. Any
numbe
r
startin
g by 2
Column B
P. NBTS
TAT
A. Network layer
Q. Overh
B. 213.55.96.148 eating
C. NETSTAT R. Sessio
D. IPCONFIG n
Layer
E. PING
F. Quality Control

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Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level
III
Knowledge assessment

Column A [] 12.
Converts IP
[A]1. UTP cables connectors
address to
[N]2. Copperwiringused in Domain
small-to-large networks to Name

connect host devices to hubs [M] 13.Class

A IP address
and switches.
[J] 14.
[I]3. Extractthe personal Telephone
information or details from wire
the commuters connector
[E]4. Device responsible for
forwarding logically address
packets from their local sub Column B
network toward their A. Rj-45
ultimate destination B. Telnet
[P]5. A network security C. Switch
system designed to prevent D.Sc
unauthorized access to or E. Router
from private network F. Work
ethics
[C] 6. Device responsible for
filtering, flooding, and G. Hall.dll
sending frames files
missing
[D] 7. Fiber cables
H. None-
[H] 8. Sharing information
verbal
without using words
commu
[L] 9. Finds the hardware nication
address of a host from a
I. Spywar
known IP address
e
[F] 10. Group of moral
J. Rj-11
principles, standards of
K. RAM
behavior, or set of values
L. ARP
regarding proper conduct in
M. 10.105.
the workplace 1.100
[] 11.The standard terminal N. UTP
emulation protocol within cables

the TCP/IP protocol stack O. 192.168

.1.00
P. Firewall
Q. None volatile storage
systems

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Knowledge assessment

Column A Co

[E]1. A protocol that provides for the transfer of files between two systems A
[J] 2. A device that regenerates and retransmits signals on a network B
[D]3. A command that is used on a NetWare server to see details of Network C
interface configurations D
[C] 4. A period of time during which a computer system or network is unavailable. E
[M] 5. Layer Three device used for routing through different network F
[I] 6. Configured to allow certain types of traffic to pass while blocking others [K] G
7. Class A IP address used for huge number of clients H
[F] 8. A protocol that provides dynamic IP addressing to workstations on the network I
[N] 9. Spoken or written words to share information J
[B] 10. A physical address of a device on network K
[H] 11. A system used to translate domain names into IP address L
[A] 12. Electronic interference that is caused when to wires are too close to each other. M
[P] 13. Illegal unethical irresponsible Act done against an Employer N
[O] 14. A group of people with a high degree of interdependence geared towards O
the achievement of a goal P
[G] 15. A voluntary standard that manufacturs can adhere to, which aims to create Q
compatibility between wireless devices.
R
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Column A Column B
[L]1. Expansion card A. L1 and L2
[N]2. Cable B. Physical arrangemen
[D] 3. Readability C. Survey
[A]4. Cache memory D. Such as formatting a
[O]5. Information E. Workgroup
[J]6. Operational procedures F. Motherboard
[C]7. Questionnaires G. Understanding of doi
[G]8. Knowledge[Q]9. H. Memory
Developer I. Peer to peer, client- s
J. Written instruction
K. Transport
 L. PCI,
ISA,
AGP
M. Clarity
N. Fiber,
unshield
ed
Twisted
Pair
O. Informat
ion is
entered
and
store in
PC
P. Power
supply
Q. Writer
R. .
S. Router

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A
mb
o
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ET
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leg
e
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Information and
Communication
Technology
Occupation:
Hardware and
Network Servicing
Level III
Knowledge assessment

Column A Colum

[D]1. A period of time during which a computer system or network is Unavailable. A. NI

[B]2. Electronic interface that is caused when two wires are too close to each other. B. Cr
[K]3. Configured to allow certain types of traffic to pass while blocking others. C. M
[H]4. A protocol that provides dynamic IP addressing to workstations on the network. D. Do
[F]5. A command that is used on a NetWare server to see details of Network
E. Ad
interface configurations
F. CO
[N]6. An internet protocol that is used for the transfer of messages and attachments.
G. FT
[C]7. A six-octet number that uniquely identifies a host on a network
H. DH
[G]8. A protocol that provides for the transfer of files between two systems
I. W
J. DN
K. Fi
L. Re
M. Pa
N. SM
O. Proxy
Server
P. Telnet
Q. Ping
R. HTTPS
 Ambo TVET college
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Column A
[O] 1. Coaxial cable
[] 2. Sending a message to
remote computer
[K] 3. The degeneration of a
signal over distance on a
network cable
[] 4. Display protocol statistics
and current TCP/IP
connection= (netstat)
[] 5. Act of secretly
listening/intercepting someone
else’s private
communication/information
Column B
[] 6. Prevent the legal user of
A. FTP
the system from accessing or
B. Password
the resource,
C. Post
information/capabilities of the Office
system Protocol
Version
[] 7. IP address and Port
number D. Eavesdro
pping
[F] 8. Transfer files in servers
and clients computers E. Encrypti
on
[M] 9. It forwards packets
F. Simple
from one LAN to another LAN Mail
and it operate at network layer Transfer
Protocol
G. Tracert
H. Socket
Address
I. Transport
Layer
J. Denial of
Service
Attack

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K. Attenuation
L. Nbtstat
M. Router
N. Search engine
O. BNC connector
P. HTTP
Q. RJ-45 connector
R. PING
S. Bridge
T. Presentation layer
 FVC TVET college
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Page 26 Network Support

• Given a troubleshooting scenario, select the appropriate network utility from the following:
 Tracert/ Traceroute  Nbtstat
 Ping  Ipconfig/Ifconfig
 Arp  Winipcfg
 Netstat  Nslookup/Dig
Tracert/ Traceroute
The tracert or tracerouteutility is used to trace the route to from one host to another in a TCP/IP network.
All major operating systems include this utility in one form or another. The name of the utility might differ,
but the purpose is the same: to find out the path between two TCP/IP hosts. The output format of this utility
differs from one operating system to another. It uses the Internet ControlMessage Protocol (ICMP) echo
packets to trace the route to a specific destination host and reports back the results at every hop on the path.
The traceroute utility offers very useful information when diagnosing connectivity problems. It provides the
IP address of every router (hop) that it passes through and reports the time it takes from one hop to another.
This is helpful in diagnosing the exact location of the network bottleneck or congestion.

 Ping
The ping utility is used to test connectivity between two TCP/IP hosts. Like the tracert utility, it also uses
ICMP echo requests to the destination host. This utility is a part of the TCP/IP protocol suite and is installed
by default on all TCP/IP devices. Ping can quickly determine whether the host is connected or not and how
long it takes for the request to take the roundtrip. Aside from testing connectivity, the ping command can
also be used to test whether the name resolution is working.

arp
The arp is used to resolve an IP address to the MAC address. The arp is a command-line utility that can be
used to diagnose address resolution problems. Hosts on TCP/IP networks use IP addresses to communicate
to each other. IP addresses are further resolved to their MAC addresses in order to deliver IP packets to the
correct host. These MAC addresses are temporarily stored on the local host in the ARP cache. The ARP
cache is a table that maps recently resolved IP addresses and their corresponding MAC addresses. It is
periodically refreshed with newer entries, and older entries are deleted. Whenever a host needs to send a
packet to another host, it first checks its local ARP cache before sending a broadcast message on the local
network.
There are two types of entries in the ARP cache: dynamic and static. The dynamic entries are created
automatically as the local host resolves IP addresses. The static entries are added manually using the arp–s

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command. You can check the ARP cache of the local computer anytime by using the arp–a command the
arp –g command.
 Netstat: oThenetstatutility is used to display the protocol statistics and current active
TCP/IP connections on the local host.When used without using any parameters, this utility
displays all inbound and outbound TCP/IP connections Nbtstat: oThenbtstatutility is used
in a Windows network to resolve connectivity problems. nbtstatdisplays the current
NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics and the currently active connections.
oThenbtstatutility is exclusive to Windows operating systems. It is used to display the NetBIOS over
TCP/IP connection statistics. In case there is a problem with NetBIOS name resolution, the nbtstatutility
comes in handy to diagnose it.
 ipconfig oThe ipconfig utility is used in Windows operating systems to display the TCP/IP
configuration of the local host. It is commonly used with the /all parameter to display the
configuration of all network adapters installed on the system.
 ifconfig oThe ifconfig command is the Unix/Linux and MAC OS X equivalent of the
Windows ipconfig command. Unlike the limited features of ipconfig, this command has much
more advanced diagnostic features. Typing ifconfig help at a Unix host command prompt gets
you all the parameters and other information about how this command could be used.
 winipcfgoThewinipcfg command was used on Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows Me
computers to display the current TCP/IP configuration settings. Unlike other TCP/IP utilities,
this is a graphical utility that displays all information in a window.
The output of the winipcfgcommand includes the following information:
 The MAC address of the network adapter.
 The IP address and the subnet mask assigned to the computer.
 The IP address of the default gateway.
 The IP address of the configured DHCP server.
 The IP addresses of the primary and secondary WINS servers.
 Information about when the current lease was obtained and when it is due to expire.
The output of the winipcfgcommand can be analyzed to correctly diagnose a connectivity problem on
Windows 95/98/Me computers. For example, if the computer is not able to connect to any other computer
on a remote network, the IP address of the default gateway might be incorrect, or it may not be online.
Similarly, if the computer is not able to connect to any other computer on the local Network segment, the
local computer might have an incorrect IP address or subnet mask. If the computer is not able to browse the
network, the WINS IP addresses may be incorrect.

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nslookup

The nslookup utility is used to diagnose problems related to the DNS services. In other words, it is used to
resolve name resolution problems. This utility can be used to perform name resolution queries against a
specified DNS server or to display information about currently configured DNS servers on a local host.
Unlike other commands discussed in this section, the nslookup command can be executed in either
interactive mode or non interactive mode.

LAN technologies

Ethernet networking and cabling technologies are defined in IEEE 802.3 standards. There are several
variations in this standard, depending on speed, length, topology, and cabling used in implementing networks.

10Mbps Ethernet. The 10 Mbps standards include 10Base2, 10BaseT, and 10BaseFL. All of these
standards define a maximum data transfer speed of 10Mbps. This speed is now considered obsolete for
most networks. It is unlikely that you will encounter any 10Mbps networks in your career. The following
are different variations of 10Mbps networks.

10Base2
This standard defines use of RG-58 coaxial cabling with a maximum segment length of 185 meters. The
network can achieve a maximum speed of 10 Mbps. The segments are typically wired in physical bus
topology. 10BaseT
The 10BaseT Ethernet standard defines use of CAT 3, 4, or 5 UTP cables with a maximum of 100 meters
for each cable length. All computers (nodes) are connected to a central device known as the hub or the
switch. It is typically wired in a physical star topology.
10BaseFL
The 10BaseFL Ethernet standard uses fiber optic cables in order to increase the cable segment lengths to 2000
meters.

100 Mbps Ethernet. Most of the modern networks support 100 Mbps speeds, which provide better bandwidth
for demanding applications.

100BaseTX
100BaseTX networks use two pairs or UTP CAT 5 cable. The length of cable segments can be up to 100
meters. 100BaseT4
100BaseT4 networks use four pairs of CAT 3, 4, or 5 type cables. The length of cable segments can be up
to 100 meters. 100BaseFX
100BaseFX networks use multimode or single-mode fiber optic cables and provide up to 100 Mbps of data
transfer rates. The length of cable segment can be up to 412 meters for multimode and up to 10,000 meters
for single mode cable.

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1000MbpsEthernet. The 1000 Mbps (equal to 1 Gigabit) Ethernet networks are also known as Gigabit
Ethernet. These networks use either copper-based or fiber optic cabling. These networks are implemented
mainly as a backbone for large networks.

1000BaseX
Gigabit standards include 1000BaseLX, 1000BaseSX, and 1000BaseCX. The 1000BaseLX and
1000BaseSX use multimode or single-mode fiber optic cables. The 1000BaseCX standard specifies use of
shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.
1000BaseT
This standard uses four pairs of CAT 5 UTP cable. Each pair of the CAT 5 cable can achieve maximum data
transfer speeds of up to 25 Mbps, making it an overall 1000 Mbps.

Networking protocols

Networking protocols provide ways for computers to communicate with each other through the networking
media. TCP/IP. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of several
protocols. It is the most widely used protocol suite in private networks as well as on the Internet. Unlike the
AppleTalk and IPX/SPX protocols, TCP/IP is not proprietary to any organization but is a public protocol
suite. Needless to say,it is a fully routable protocol. The routing functionality is provided by a number of
routing protocols such as RIP and OSPF. The TCP/IP protocol suite is supported by all major network and
desktop operating systems. Some of the well known protocols and their functions are discussed later in this
section. The following are some of the main configuration settings on a typical computer:

IPaddress. An IP address is a unique address used to identify a computer or a host on the network. This
address is made up of 32-bit numbers written in dotted decimal notation in the w.x.y.zformat. Each eight bits
are known as an octet or a byte. A part of the IP address is known as the network address or networkID and
the rest of it is known as the host address or host ID. These parts are based on the class of IP addresses used
on the network. All computers on a particular network must have the same number as the network address,
while the host address must be unique on the entire network.

Subnet mask.Every IP address is accompanied by a subnet mask. It is used to help identify the part of the
network where the host is located. Like the IP address, the subnet mask is a 32-bit binary number that
distinguishes the network ID from the host ID.

Default gateway. A default gateway allows computers on a network segment to communicate with computers
on another segment. The default gateway for all computers on a particular segment is the IP address of the
router interface that is connected to the local segment. If a computer is not configured with the IP address of a
default gateway, it cannot communicate with computers on a different network segment.

DNS address. The IP address of a DNS server is configured on TCP/IP hosts so that all name resolution
queries are sent to the designated DNS server. Most network and desktop operating systems allow you to
configure multiple DNS servers.

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WINS address. The IP address of a WINS server is configured to resolve NetBIOS name resolution queries.
As
with the DNS address, you can configure more than one WINS server address on a TCP/IP host. The
servers and workstations use a 48-bit hexadecimal address that defaults to the MAC address of the network
interface card. The node address is appended to the network address to create a unique node address in the
internetwork.

NetBEUI/NetBIOS. NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface. It is an old Microsoft
networking protocol used in small networks. This protocol provides services at the transport and network
layer of the OSI model. It is not a routable protocol and as such, cannot be used on large routed networks.
The computers using the NetBEUI protocol use Network Basic Input Output System (NetBIOS) naming
conventions. NetBIOS computer names consist of a maximum of 15 characters such as Server1 or
Workstation1.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). SMTP is a connection-oriented application layer protocol that is
used to transport messages between remote email servers. It uses TCP at the transport layer and hence
guarantees delivery of data.

Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4). Like POP3, IMAP4 is also used to retrieve email from mail
servers. The advantage of using IMAP4 over POP3 is that it provides a secure authentication mechanism.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP works at the network layer to provide error checking
and reporting functions. It is a connection-less protocol and uses IP for providing best-effort delivery. It is
used in network management and maintenance systems. For example, PING is a troubleshooting utility that
uses the ICMP protocol.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). ARP works at the network layer. It is used to resolve IP addresses to
MAC addresses. Upper-layer protocols use ARP to correctly deliver data packets to the destination host.
ARP maintains a mapping of IP addresses and MAC addresses in the system memory called the ARP cache.
If the ARP cache does not have an entry for a requested IP address, it broadcasts the IP address on the local
network to find out which host has the specified IP address.

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is an application layer protocol that allows text, images,
and multimedia to be downloaded from web sites. It is also a connection-oriented protocol that uses TCP at
the transport layer. HTTP works with a uniform resource locator (URL) to connect to the desired web site.
An example of a URL is http://www.oreilly.com.

HTTP Secure (HTTPS). HTTPS is the secure version of the HTTP protocol that allows servers and clients
to be authenticated before the communication session starts. This protocol is also an application layer
protocol and uses TCP at the transport layer. It is commonly used for online banking and other e-commerce
functions. It uses a secure socket layer (SSL) to encrypt the network traffic between the web server and the
web client. A web site using SSL has a URL starting with https://.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL). SSL is an encryption protocol popularly used for Internet based transactions
such as online banking. This protocol is based on public key encryption mechanisms. Transport Layer
Security (TLS) is the successor of SSL but can be scaled down to SSL 3.0 mode for backward-
compatibility. SSL provides end-to-end security for Internet communications by using encryption. In
typical implementations, only the server component is required to use public keys for authentication. For
end-to-end security, a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is required. Both the server and the client must be
SSL-enabled to communicate over a secure channel.
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Telnet. Telnet is an application layer protocol that allows connections to remote hosts. Administrators use
this protocol to connect remotely to network devices and run commands in order to configure or maintain
them. Telnet is also a connection-oriented protocol and uses TCP at the transport layer.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP works at the application layer to provide file transfers between remote
computers. FTP uses TCP as its transport protocol. FTP is a client/server application that authenticates
users before allowing access to servers that host the FTP service. Most FTP servers allow anonymous
logons that enable multiple users to connect to the server and download files. FTP is commonly used on the
Internet for file downloads. One of the major limitations of the FTP protocol is security. The authentication
method uses clear text usernames and passwords, which is a serious security concern.

DNS. DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service is used to translate fully qualified domain
names (FQDN) to their respective IP addresses. Large corporate networks and all hosts on the Internet use
FQDN notation to identify computers on the network. A fully qualified domain name can consist of a
maximum of 63 characters including the dots. An example of a fully qualified domain name is
www.us.books.oreilly.com. DNS servers on a network run the DNS service and are responsible for resolving
DNS queries for their clients. They can do it either by themselves or by having the queries resolved though
referring to another DNS server. DNS clients are configured to use one or more DNS servers when
configuring their TCP/IP properties.

Windows Internet Naming System (WINS). A WINS server is used to translate NetBIOS computer
names to IP addresses. NetBIOS names consist of a maximum of 15 characters. These servers are used only
on Windows networks. The WINS server maintains a mapping of NetBIOS names to IP addresses. When a
Windows client needs to resolve a computer name to its IP address, it sends a name resolution query to the
WINS server. This helps limit the amount of broadcast traffic generated by a broadcast method of name
resolution. Windows clients can be configured to use one or more WINS servers.
Protocol Function
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP is a client/server application used for file transfers between remote computers.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) TFTP is also used to transfer files between two remote computers. It is faster
but less reliable than FTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) SMTP is used to transport messages between remote email servers.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) HTTP allows text, images, and multimedia to be downloaded from web sites.
HTTP Secure (HTTPS) HTTPS is the secure version of the HTTP protocol that authenticates web
servers and clients before the communication session starts.
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) POP3 is used to download or retrieve email messages from mail servers
running the SMTP protocol.
Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4) IMAP4 is also used to securely retrieve email from mail servers.
Telnet Telnet allows connections to remote hosts such as network devices for
administrative and maintenance purposes.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) ICMP provides error checking and reporting functions.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ARP is used to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses.
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) NNTP provides newsgroup services such as posting and retrieving messages
on discussion forums.
Line Printer Remote (LPR) LPR provides client connectivity to printers in network operating systems
such as Unix, Linux, and Windows.

Network Support
tracert/traceroute
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 This utility is used to trace the route from one host to another.
 It uses ICMP echo packets.
 If the network is congested, the output shows Request Timed Out.
 Windows operating systems use the commands: tracert <Hostname> or tracert <IPAddress>.
 Unix/Linux and MAC OS use the commands: traceroute <Hostname> or traceroute
<IPAddress>.
 NetWare uses the command: iptraceping
 This utility is used to test connectivity between two TCP/IP hosts.
 It can also test whether name resolution is working or not.
 A Request Timed Out error means that the echo request did not get a response.
 A Destination Host Unreachable error appears when the host is not found.
 An Unknown Host error means that the hostname could not be resolved.
 A TTL Expired error means that no response was received before the TTL value reduced to
zero.
arp
 The arp utility is used to resolve an IP address to the MAC address.
 Recently resolved MAC addresses are stored locally in the ARP cache.
 Dynamic entries are created automatically in the ARP cache.
 Static entries are added manually using the arp–s command.
netstat
 This utility displays the protocol statistics and current active TCP/IP connections.
 The output columns include protocol, local address and port number, foreign address and its
port number, and the state of the connection. nbtstat
 This utility is used only in Windows operating systems.
 It is used to display the NetBIOS over TCP/IP connection statistics.
 It is useful for diagnosing problems in Windows networks.
ipconfig
 This utility is used in Windows to display the TCP/IP configuration of the local host.
 When used with the /all parameter, it displays configuration of all network adapters.
 The ipconfig utility can also be used to release and renew IP configuration of a network
adapter.
ifconfig
 This command is the Unix/Linux and MAC OS X equivalent of Windows ipconfig.
 It is used to display the TCP/IP configuration.
winipcfg
 his utility is used in Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME.
 It displays current TCP/IP configuration settings.
nslookup
 This utility is used to diagnose name resolution problems.
 It can be executed in the interactive mode or in the non interactive mode.
 In the non interactive mode, it is run with one or two pieces of information. dig
 This command is used on Unix/Linux/MAC OS systems to perform DNS queries.
 Standard command parameters include the DNS server name, the name to be resolved, and the
type of query.
 The query section displays the type and class of the DNS query.
 The answer section displays the name of the host and its IP address for which the query is
being performed.
 The authority section displays information about authoritative DNS servers.
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Hardware & Network Servicing L-3 COC Based Note
November 2007E.cBy: 2BN

TCP/IP and OSI

TCP/IP is not actually a single protocol, but a set of protocols that operate at different levels. The levels
involved in TCP/IP do not exactly match those of the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, TCP/IP
specifies only four:
 Network interface layer, Internet layer, Transport layer and Application layer
Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model. The table below shows the
correspondence between OSI layers and TCP/IP layers.

OSI Layers

OSI
OSI Layers
Layer TCP/IPProtocols
TCP/IP Layers
7=Application Telnet DHCP
6=Presentation FTP SNMP
5=Session SMTP DNS
4=Transport TCP UDP
3=Network IP ARP RARP
2=Data link Hardware oriented
1=Physical Hardware oriented
Application
Presentation Application
Session
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data-link
Network interface
Physical

TCP/IP is an industry standard and is an open protocol. This means it is not controlled by a single company,
and is less subject to compatibility issues.
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1) Physical
— Physical interface between devices
— Characteristics
• Mechanical - interface specs
• Electrical - voltage levels for bits, transmission rate
2) Data Link
— Basic services: error detection and control, flow control at the link level (point to
point)
— Higher layers may assume error free transmission
— Later a sublayer is added to Data Link Layer
— MAC (Medium Access Control) sublayer
— to deal with broadcast networks
3) Network
— Transfer of information through communication network
— network related issues
— Network nodes (relays/routers) should perform switching and routing functions
— Qu’s (Quality of Service) and congestion control are also addressed in this layer
— Several other internetworking issues e.g. differences in addressing, max. Data length,
etc.
— Higher layers do not need to know about underlying networking technology
— Not needed on direct links
4) Transport
— End to end exchange of data
— In sequence, no losses, no duplicates
— If needed, upper layer data are split into smaller units
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• connection oriented
• reliable delivery of data
• ordering of delivery
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• connectionless service
• delivery is not guaranteed
5) Session
— Control of dialogues
• whose turn to talk?
• Dialogue discipline (full-duplex, half-duplex)
— Check pointing and recovery
6) Presentation
— Data formats
— Data compression
— Encryption
7) Application
— Support for various applications
—
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• Support for user applications
• A separate module for each different application
• e.g. HTTP, SMTP, telnet

Summary

The 7 layers of OSI (the higher the level, the more complex the task)

 Application: Relates to the services that support user applications (e.g. file transfer, databases, email)
 Presentation: Acts as a translator for different types of system (e.g. IBM, Apple, Sun) – translates
into commonly understood intermediate format
 Session: Allows 2 computers on different computers to run a session (highly structure dialogue used
for comms)
 Transport: Ensures that packets are sent error-free, in sequence, without loss or duplication
 Network:Responsible for adding addresses and determining the route to the destination computer
 Data-link: Controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the cable
 Physical: Transmits the bit stream on the cable – totally hardware oriented

o At what level do hardware networking devices operate?

 Repeater, Hub, NIC: Layer 1 Physical
 Switch, bridge: Layer 2 Data link
 Router: Layer 3 Network

Transport Layer Protocol (UDP and TCP)

TCP provides connection-oriented transmission through the use of predefined ports. A port is simply a number
that identifies the communicating application on each computer. Applications using TCP will acknowledge
received packets, and if a sent packet is not acknowledged it will be resent. Therefore TCP provides completely
reliable delivery. The Telnet and FTP applications both use TCP.

UDP provides connectionless transmission. There is no acknowledgement of received packets so UDP uses
best effort delivery. Because of the lack of acknowledgement packets there are fewer overheads in UDP
compared to TCP, so communication is more efficient, but less reliable. The DHCP and DNS protocols use
UDP.

ARP and RARP

Every network device (e.g. NIC, router, bridge, etc.) has a unique hardware address. This address is known as
the MAC (media access control) address. MAC addresses are different to IP addresses: they are a 48-bit binary
code and they never change – they are permanently assigned to the device at manufacturing time. IP addresses,
on the other hand, are assigned by software and so they can change during the lifetime of a device. In low-level
protocols, all addressing is performed using MAC addresses.

ARP stands for the address resolution protocol. It operates at the Network layer of OSI, and the Internet layer
of TCP/IP. ARP is responsible for translating from IP addresses to MAC addresses.

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RARP stands for the reverse address resolution protocol, and is responsible for translating from MAC
addresses to IP addresses. Because of the service provided by ARP and RARP, all protocols above them in the
OSI model are able to use IP addresses only when referring to network devices.

ICMP

ICMP is the Internet Message Control Protocol. ICMP is used to transmit status and error messages between
network stations. For example, whenever you type a URL into Internet Explorer and you get the message
“Page cannot be displayed”, it is an ICMP packet that is responsible.

DHCP

There are two ways of ensuring that all computers have unique addresses: static IP addressing and dynamic IP
addressing. In static IP addressing each computer is assigned a unique address by the network administrator. In
dynamic IP addressing the assignment of addresses is handled automatically by a program running on the
server. This program is responsible for ensuring that every computer has a unique address.

DHCP stands for the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and is the protocol used for requesting and
assigning dynamic IP addresses. A DHCP application will typically run on the network server

DNS

DNS stands for the Domain Name Service. DNS is the protocol used to obtain host name to IP address
translation information between computers on the network. Typically every network will have at least one
DNS server. Clients needing to know translations will contact the DNS server using the DNS protocol to
obtain the required information. On the Internet the name will consist of a sequence of words separated by
dots, for example www.yahoo.com or www.bbc.co.uk.

The DNS server will maintain a list of which IP address maps to which computer name, so that it can translate
between the two. The process of translating a computer name into an IP address is known as name resolution.

Domain Name Service Protocol (DNS) is used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of the
World Wide Web.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) It was developed as a network management tool for networks
running TCP/IP. Using SNMP, network administrators can administer servers and other network devices from
remote workstations.

SMTPis the standard protocol for transferring emails between hosts

SMTP is the protocol used to send email on the Internet. The user receiving the email will need to
use another protocol to access the incoming mail from the mail server. Two different protocols exist
for this purpose: the Post Office Protocol (POP3) and the newer alternative, Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP).
Receiving email can use either the Post Office Protocol (POP3) or the Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP)
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 Electronic mail (email) is
different part of the world

 The World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of browsing multimedia Internet content. The WWW uses the
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP), which in turn uses the TCP protocol to communicate

FTP

The file transport protocol (FTP) uses the TCP protocol as the underlying transport protocol. The purpose of
FTP is to safely and efficiently transport files over computer networks.

Telnet

The TELNET protocol is used for providing remote terminal access over a network. For example, using
TELNET a user can log in to another computer somewhere else on the network and take part in an interactive
session on that computer. TELNET also uses TCP as its underlying basis for communications.

Summary of Key Points

 The TCP/IP protocol UDP (User Datagram Protocol) provides connectionless best effort delivery
transmission.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides connection-oriented completely reliable delivery.
 The address resolution protocol (ARP) and the reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) are
responsible for translating between the 48-bit hardware MAC address and IP addresses.
 ICMP (Internet Message Control Protocol) is used to transmit status and error messages.
 Every computer on a network must have a unique address. If two computers have the same address an
address conflict occurs.
 There are two ways of assigning addresses to computers on a network: static and dynamic addressing.
 In static IP addressing, IP addresses are assigned manually by the network administrator. In dynamic
IP addressing they are leased automatically by the program running on the network server.
 The process of translating between computer names and IP addresses is called name resolution.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is the protocol used in assigning dynamic IP addresses.
 DNS (Domain Name Service) is the protocol used in translating between host names and IP addresses.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) can be used by network administrators to remotely
administer network devices.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used for transferring email messages.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used for simple file transfers.
 Telnet is used for running remote sessions over a network.
 Ping, tracert, ipconfig, route, nslookup and netstat are useful TCP/IP troubleshooting tools

TCP/IP Utilities

TCP/IP also provides a number of command-line utilities that can be useful when troubleshooting networks.
You can use any of these utilities at the DOS command prompt in Windows.
No Utilities Function

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1 Ping To test if your network connection is complete between two computers, you can use the Packet Internet Groper, better known as ping. The ping utility works by

sending a message to a remote computer. OR Indicates whether a remote host can be reached.

2 Tracert While the ping utility merely lets us know that the connection from A to B is complete, tracert informs us of the route and number of hops the packet of data took to
arrive at its destination.

3 Ipconfig This diagnostic command displays all current TCP/IP network-configuration values. This command is useful on systems running DHCP, allowing users to
determine which TCP/IP configuration values have been configured by DHCP.

4 ifcongif Provides information about the basic configuration of the interface. It is useful for detecting bad IP addresses, incorrect subnet masks, and Improper broadcast
addresses.

5 arp Provides information about Ethernet/IP address translation. It can be used to detect systems on the local network that are configured with the wrong IP address.

6 netstat Provides a variety of information. It is commonly used to display detailed statistics about each network interface, network sockets, and the network routing table.

7 Nslookup Provides information about the DNS name service. OR Nslookup is a utility that can be used to manually query the DNS database. It can be a useful troubleshooting
tool if the DNS server is not working correctly.

8 dig Provides information about name service.

9 ripquery Provides information about the contents of the RIP update packet being sent or received by your system.

10 Route The route command can be used to display and modify the routing table of a computer.

11 traceroute Tells you which route packets take going from your system to a remote system. Information about each hop is printed.

12 etherfind Analyses the individual packets exchanged between hosts on the network. It is most useful for analyzing protocol problems.

13 Nbtstat: (NetBIOS over TCP/IP) is a tool for troubleshooting NetBIOS names over TCP/IP. This tool is helpful when TCP/IP is having problems resolving NetBIOS names
to IP addresses. Type nbtstatat the command prompt to see a list of command-line
options for this command.

14 PathPing: is a combination of the Ping and Tracert tools, and it contains options not found in Ping and Tracert.PathPing pings a host computer and traces the route to that host.

15 (NetDiag.exe) NetDiagis a diagnostic tool that can help you locate networking problems and connectivity problems. The NetDiag tool performs a series of steps to test the

Network Connectivity functionality of the network components. It can provide a lot of information, and it is rather easy to use.

Tester

16 NetCap: is a network monitor capture utility that captures data frames, or packets, entering and leaving a computer.

Another useful software troubleshooting tool is ipconfig.

Peer-to-Peer Networks Vs Client/Server Networks

Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks

· Easy to set up · More difficult to set up

· Less expensive to install · More expensive to install

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·
· Can be implemented on a wide range of operating A variety of operating systems can be supported on the client
systems computers, but the server needs to run an operating system
that supports networking

· More time consuming to maintain the software being · Less time consuming to maintain the software being used
used (as computers must be managed individually) (as most of the maintenance is managed from the server)

· Very low levels of security supported or none at all. · High levels of security are supported,

· No limit to the number of computers that can be supported

· Ideal for networks with less than 10 computers
by the network

· Does not require a server · Requires a server running a server operating system

Data Transmission Modes

There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another

1. Simplex: In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction. The receiver receives
the signal from the transmitting device. In this mode the flow of information is Uni.-directional. Hence
it is rarely used for data communication.
2. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode the communication channel is used in both directions, but only in
one direction at a time. Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data.
3. Full-duplex: In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the same time. Use
of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around time required in half-duplex
arrangement is eliminated. Example of this mode of transmission is the telephone line.

Digital and Analog Transmission

 Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency in Hertz (Hz).

 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in binary form.
 A technique used to convert digital signal to analog form is known as modulation.
 The conversion of analog signal to its digital form, is known as demodulation.
 The device, which converts digital signal into analog, and the reverse, is known as modem.
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A
network medium (transmission medium) is a material on which data is transferring from one device to another device.
The network medium can be two types i.e.

 Wired (Line based) transmission medium &

 Wireless transmission medium

Wired transmission medium

This type of transmission medium uses wire or cable lines to connect the devices physically.Wired transmission
medium includes the different cabling types that are used to connect the computers physically.

The different types of cables include:

1. Twisted pair cable

2. Coaxial cable &
3. Fiber-optic cable

1. Twisted pair cable

 Twisted pair cable is the oldest, least expensive and most commonly used type of transmission medium.
 Twisted pair cable consists of strands of insulated copper wires that are twisted together in pair to form a cable.
 There are two types of twisted-pair cable:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair cable (UTP cable)
2. Shielded Twisted Pair cable (STP cable)

Unshielded Twisted Pair cable (UTP cable)

Unshielded Twisted Pair cables have not any protective sheath that covers the wires.
There are 6 standard categories of UTP:
Category 1- This refers to traditional telephone cable that can carry voice but not data transmissions.
Category 2- This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 mega bits per second (Mbps).
It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 3- This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps.
It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 4- This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps.
It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5- This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps.
It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5e (6)- Improved version of cat 5 category. The bandwidth is up to 250 Mbps.

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One potential problem with all types of cablings is crosstalk. Crosstalk is defined as the situation in which, signals
from one line interfering with signals from another line.
UTP is particularly sensitive to crosstalk.

Twisted Pair Cabling Components

As it is with telephone cabling, a twisted-pair cable network requires connectors and other hardware to ensure proper
installation.

Connection Hardware:

Twisted pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connecters to connect to a computer. These are similar to RJ-11 telephone
connectors.
Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look similar, there are crucial differences between them.
The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit in to the RJ-11 telephone jack. The RJ-45 connecter houses
eight cable connections, while the RJ-11 houses only four.
UTP Advantages:
 It is relatively inexpensive
 Easy to install
 It is a familiar technology
UTP Disadvantages:
 High quality UTP systems require specialized installation procedures
 UTP is potentially more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference (i.e. crosstalk) and attenuation (a
decrease in the strength of a transmitted signal) than other media
 Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security
 Not suitable for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP Cable)

Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to UTP except it contains a copper braid jacket to ‘shield’ the wires from
electrical interference. It can support transmissions over greater distances than UTP
STP provides better performance than UTP cables in environments with high noise levels - high levels of unwanted
electrical signals.

2. Coaxial cable
 In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulator, a braided metal
shielding, and outer cover.
 The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh that surrounds some types of cabling.
 Coaxial cable is more resistant to electromagnetic interference and attenuation than twisted pair cabling.
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There are two types of coaxial cable:

1. Thin coaxial cable (thinnet)

2. Thick coaxial cable (thicknet)
The type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.

Thinnet Cable:

 Thinnet coaxial cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters thick.
 Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of
network installation.
 Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters before the signal
starts to suffer attenuation.
Thicknet Cable:

 Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters in diameter.
 Thicknet cable’s copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable copper core.
 The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can carry signals
farther than thinnet cable.
 Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters
 Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as a
backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
 Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center
conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a liner bus network.

ThinnetVsThicknet Cable:

Thinnet cables are flexible, easy to install and relatively inexpensive. However, a thicknet cable does not bend easily
and is therefore, harder to install. In addition, thicknet cable is more expensive than thinnet cable, but will carry a
signal farther.

 Both thinnet and thicknet cables use a connection component, known as a BNC connector, to make the
connections between the cable and the computers.
 The origin of the acronym "BNC" is unclear, and there have been many names ascribed to these letters, from
"British Naval Connector" to "Bayonet Neill-Councelman." Because there is no consensus on the proper
name and because the technology industry universally refers to these simply as BNC-type connectors.
Coaxial cable advantages and Disadvantages

Coaxial cable advantages:

 It is less sensitive to electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cable

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 They can transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive cabling.
 Offer a familiar technology with reasonable data security
Coaxial cable Disadvantages:

 Due to its high metallic content, coax cable is usually more expensive than other cable types.

3. Fiber-optic Cable

Optical fiber of fiber optics cables are created by binding together hundreds to thousands of strands of smooth, very
thin (as human hair) glass or plastic fiber.

Fiber-optic Cable contains glass fibers rather than copper wire. Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form
of light pulses rather than electrical pulses.

Fiber-optic cable consists of pure silicon glass cylinders or strands surrounded by cladding. Signals are transmitted as
light pulses through the core of the optical fiber (i.e. through the strands).

Unlike copper cable, the signals on fiber-optic cable are not subject to the problems of attenuation, or crosstalk. This
greatly increases the potential transmission distance. In additionfiber-optic cable is more secure than copper wire.

Fiber-optic cable is generally more expensive than copper cable (i.e. twisted pair cable & coaxial cable).

Fiber-Optic Connection Hardware

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector.
Fiber-optic cable advantages and Disadvantages

Fiber-optic cable advantages Fiber-optic cable Disadvantages

 Fastest transmission rate  Most expensive

 Not susceptible to electrical interference  Relatively difficult to work with
 There is high security

Protocol Acronym Function

Transfer/Transmission Control ProtocolTCP / IP Backbone protocol. The most widely used protocol

Point To Point PPP Used to manage network communication over a modem

Internetwork package exchange IPX Standard protocol for Novell NOS

NetBIOS extended user interface NetBEUI Microsoft protocol that doesn’t support routing to other network. Running only Windows-based clients.

File transfer Protocol FTP used to send and received file from a remote host

Simple mail Transfer protocol SMTP Used to send Email over a network

Simple Network Management SNMP Used to remotely manage network devices

Protocol.

Hyper text transfer protocol HTTP Used for Internet to send document that encoded in HTML.
This protocol, the core of the World Wide Web, facilitates retrieval and transfer of hypertext (mixed media) documents.

Apple Talk Apple Talk Protocol suite to network Macintosh computer and a peer-to-peer network protocol

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OSI Model OSI Layers A way of illustrating how information functions travels through network of its 7 layers.

Telnet Telnet A remote terminal emulation protocol that enables clients to log on to remote hosts on the network.

Serial Line Internet Protocol SLIP/ PPP SLIP and PPP encapsulate the IP packets so that they can be sent over a dial up phone connection to an access provider’s modem.

Domain Name System. DNS Provides meaningful names like achilles.mycorp.com for computers to replace numerical addresses like 123.45.67.89.

Network Extending Devices

1) Repeater
o A Repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an extended network.
o It enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a single cable.

o Repeaters receive signals form one network segment and amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals
to another network segment.

2) Hub
 A Hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via a dedicated cable.

 Another name for hub is a concentrator.

 Hubs do not have any processing Power; it is just a box where you plug cables, and works in half-
duplex manner.

 They are cheap and are not intelligent.

 Physically similar to switches and logically similar to repeaters.

3) Bridges
o Bridges are data communication devices that operate at layer 2, (data-link layer).
o They use to connect two LAN segments.

o They forward frames, but do not forward noise or collisions.

o Bridges learn addresses by using source address to learn the location of computers.

o So they are intelligent devices. They understand frames.

o A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC address written into
each frame of data.

o Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges.

4) Switches
• Switches are communication devices operating at data-link layer.

• They are physically similar to hubs, but logically similar to bridges.

• They operate on frames; understand addresses and only forward when necessary.

• Usually work in full-duplex and higher cost than hubs.

• It looks at the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it to determine the correct port.

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• By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch decreases the
amount of traffic on each network link dramatically.

• Another name for switch is an intelligent hub.

5) Router

 Router is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay data form
one network to the other on its route from the source to the destination end system.

 Router is an intermediate system used to connect two networks they may or may not be similar.
 The basic requirement for a router is that it must have at least two network interfaces.
 If they are LAN interfaces, the router can manage and route the information between two LAN
segments.

 More commonly, a router is used to provide connectivity across wide area networks
 The router employs an internet protocol (IP) present in each router and each end systems of the
network.

 The router operates at layer 3 (network layer) of the OSI model.

6) Brouter

• Brouter– is the combination of router and a bridge.

• Used on networks that has both routable and non-routable protocols.

• Brouters operate at the data-link and network layers of the OSI model.

• A brouter is a device that can route traffic that can be routed and bridge anything that cannot be routed.

• As bridges have been replaced by the more flexible routers, brouters have also fallen out of favor.
7) Gateway

• Two dissimilar networks can be connected by means of a gateway.

• Unlike routers, a gateway converts the format of data sent between two networks.

• A router adds only addressing information to the data packet.

• A router that can route data from an IPX network to an IP network is, technically, a gateway.

• But a gateway has to identify the protocols used in the networks, and recognize the data format,
and convert the message format into suitable format to be accepted by the other network.

• Gateway provides good connectivity to different kinds of networks on the Internet.

• They operate at the layers above the network layer of the OSI model.

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Summary

 A repeater is a device that boosts a network signal. It is commonly used in the

bus topology to extend the usable length of the bus
 Hubs are used to centralize data traffic and localize failures. If one cable breaks,
it will not shut down the entire network
 Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid
 Active hubs also act as repeaters, amplifying the signal and passing it on to
every port on the hub
 Passive hubs provide no amplification, and require no power supply
 Hybrid hubs allow connections between networks with different types of cabling
 A bridge acts as the interface between 2 subnets, passing on signals that are
intended for a different subnet
 A switch is similar to a bridge, except that it has multiple ports
 A router is also similar to a bridge, except that it can link together networks that
use different network technologies
 Wireless networks use infrared, laser or radio waves to eliminate the need for
physical cabling
Topologies

• A network configuration is also called a network topology.

• It is the shape (or the physical connectivity) of the network or the layout of connected devices on a
network.
• The topology of the network can be viewed in two ways:
• Physical topology - defines the actual layout of the wire or media.
• The topology as seen from the layout of the cable, or the route followed by the electrical
signals.
• Logical topology - defines how the hosts access the media to send data.
• The connections between nodes as seen by data traveling from one node to another - reflects
the network’s function, use, or implementation without regard to the physical interconnection
of network elements.
• The nodes that one may find on a network can include:
• Servers: computers used to store the shared information and have all the other computers
reference that information over a network.
• Clients: computers on a network that use, but do not provide, network resources.
• Peers: computers on a network that both use and provide network resources.
• Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types.

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Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus
 Use of cable is economical.
• Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
Media is inexpensive and easy to work with. Problems are difficult to isolate.
•
 System is simple and reliable. Cable break can affect many users.

 Bus is easy to extend.

Ring
 System provides equal access for all computers.
• Failure of one computer can affect the rest of the network.

 Performance is even despite many users.

• Problems are hard to isolate.
Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
•
Star
 Modifying system and adding new computers is easy. If the centralized point fails, the network fails.

 Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.

Mesh System provides increased redundancy and reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting. System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.

• Integrated services digital network (ISDN) was intended to be a world wide public
telecommunication network to replace existing public telecommunication networks and deliver a wide
variety of services.
• ISDN has standardized user interfaces, implemented a set of digital switches and paths supporting a
broad range of traffic types and providing a value added processing service
• ISDN is multiple networks, but integrated to provide user with single, uniform accessibility and world
wide interconnection.
• Attenuation: is the decrease in the strength of a signal.
• Distortion: is the unwanted modification of signals.

Glossary

Active Directory (DC - Domain Controller): Active Directory is a database that keeps track of all the user
accounts and passwords in your organization. It allows you to store your user accounts and passwords in one
protected location, improving your organization's security.

Active Directory is subdivided into one or more domains. A domain is a security boundary. Each domain is
hosted by a server computer called a domain controller (DC). A domain controller manages all of the user
accounts and passwords for a domain.

Mail server: is an application that receives incoming e-mail from local users (people within the same domain)
and remote senders and forwards outgoing e-mail for delivery. A computer dedicated to running such
applications is also called a mail server. Microsoft Exchange, qmail, Exim and sendmail are among the
more common mail server programs.

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A
file server is a computer attached to a network that has the primary purpose of providing a location for shared
disk access, i.e. shared storage of computer files (such as documents, sound files, photographs, movies,
images, databases, etc.)

Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication services
such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups.Internet websites
now provide personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
Intranet:An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only within that
organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate information for
employees.
1000Base-T Also referred to as Gigabit Ethernet, an Ethernetstandard capable of 1 gigabit per second (Gbps),
or 1,000 Mbps,
Over twisted-pair wiring.
100Base-T Also called Fast Ethernet, an Ethernet standardthat has a capacity of 100 Mbps over twisted-pair
wiring.
10Base-T An Ethernet standard with a capacity of 10 Mbps overtwisted-pair wiring.
Active Directory The directory service used by modern Windowsdomains. Active Directory holds all user and
group accounts as well asinformation about network resources, policies, and other objects.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) A protocol used by computersto resolve IP addresses to physical (or
MAC) network addresses, sothat traffic can be forwarded appropriately on a network.

AppleTalk AppleTalk is a networkingprotocol developed by Apple Computer, Inc.for communication

between Apple Macintoshcomputers.
Automatic Private IP Addressing(APIPA) A service that automatically assignsIP addresses to network
clients when no DHCPserver is available. APIPA is used by the client to assign an IPaddress in the range of
169.254.0.1 to169.254.255.254. This particular range ofaddresses was set aside for use by the InternetAssigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) for useonly on private, internal networks.

cookie A small text file that Web serversplace on a user’s computer to later identify theindividual on
subsequent Web site visits; oftenused to customize the browser’s return experience.Although cookies facilitate
personalizedsettings for each Web site, they are also apotential source of personal information theft,unsolicited
e-mail (or spam), and undesiredtracking of Internet use. Internet Explorer 6contains cookie management
features that canhelp control cookie usage and protect privacy.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) A broadbandInternet access method that runs overstandard copper telephone
wiring using differentchannels to transmit and receive data atmuch higher speeds than a traditional analogdial-
up modem.
ADSL which divides the phone line into threechannels. One channel is used for voice,whereas the other two
channels are used fordata transmission and reception. SymmetricDSL (SDSL) is a variant that provides
equalupload and download speeds.

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DNS server A DNS server resolves DomainName System requests sent by remote clients.DNS servers
maintain databases of localhost-name-to-IP address mappings and canalso communicate with remote DNS
serversto resolve remote addresses.

Internet Information Server (IIS) Afull-featured software suite that enables thecreation and hosting of Web,
FTP, and SMTP
services. The version included in Windows Professional allows up to 10 concurrent connectionsand is designed
for eveloping Websites or hosting small intranet sites.

NetBIOS Extended User Interface(NetBEUI) A network protocol created byIBM and supported in Windows
XP for routingnetwork traffic. It has been largely supplantedin Windows XP by TCP/IP.
NetBIOS The default application programminginterface used for networking in earlierversions of Windows.
Originally combined with NetBEUI (which is still supported), itcan be paired with other networking protocols
such as IP and IPX. NetBIOS uses 15-characternames to identify individual computers.
Telnet An insecure protocol designed to provide remote access to a computer by performing terminal
emulation, thus allowing a
user to communicate with a computer although he or she were typing directly at a local console. Telnet is a
text-only protocol and isused primarily by UNIX-based systems. Telnets ends all data, including user names
and passwords,in clear text; its use should be avoidedfor security reasons.

Serial communications the transmission of information from computer to computer or from computer to
peripheral device one bit at a time.
Serial communications can be synchronous and controlled by a clock.
Parallel communications the transmission of information from computer to computer or from computer to
peripheral device, in which all the bits that make up the character are transmitted at the same time over a
multiline cable.
Parallel port an input/output (I/O) port that manages information eight bits at a time; often used to connect a
parallel printer.

Serial port a computer input/output port that supports serial communications, in which information is
processed one bit ate time.
RS-232-C is a common protocol used on serial ports when communicating with modems, printers, mice, and
other peripherals.
Bandwidth In networking, the transmission capacity of a computer or a communications channel, stated in
megabits per second (Mbps). For example, FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) has a bandwidth
of100Mbps. To relate this to a real-world example, a complete page of text, in English, is approximately
16,000 bits.
Packet switching: In this mechanism a message is split up into packets of a fixed size.
Besides the blocks of data to be sent, a packet has a header that contains destination and

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source addresses, control information, message number, number of current and last
packet, acknowledgement and error checking bytes.

These chunks are then routed through the network the best way possible to reach the
destination.

Circuit switching: It is the simplest way of data communication in which a dedicated

physical path is established between the sending and receiving stations through the
nodes of the network.

Circuit switching involves three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and circuit
termination.

Packet-switched network A network that consists of a series of interconnected circuits that route individual
packets of data over one of several routes, offering flexibility and high reliability. A packet-switched network
may also be called connectionless because it contains many different possible connections and routes that a
packet might take to reach its destination. The term often refers to networks using the international standard
X.25.

Circuit switching: dedicated circuit per call: telephone net

Circuit switching is where communication uses a direct dedicated connection for the duration of the
transmission
Packet-switching: data sent through net in discrete “chunks
Communication using smaller packets of data is known as packet switching, whereas if a direct
dedicated communication line is used for the duration of the transmission it is known as circuit
switching.
There are three different ways in which packets can be addressed:

 Unicast: packet is addressed to a single destination

 Multicast: packet is addressed simultaneously to multiple destinations
 Broadcast: packet is sent simultaneously to all stations on the network
 Baseband & broadband transmission
o Baseband Transmission:  Large bandwidth
 Signal is digital  Uses multiplexing to allow multiple
 No multiplexing is being channels
used  Usually analogue
 Only a single channel of data
is transmitted
o Broadband Transmission:
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Access Method
 The set of rules that governs how network traffic is controlled is called the access method
 When using the CSMA/CD access method, a computer waits until the network is quiet and then
transmits its data. If two computers transmit at the same time, the data will collide and have to be
re-sent. If two data packets collide, both will be destroyed
 The ports of switches, bridges and routers are on separate collision domains, whereas those of
hubs and repeaters are in the same collision domain.
 When using the CSMA/CA access method, a computer transmits its intent to transmit before
actually sending the data

A collision domain is a part of a LAN (or an entire LAN) where two computer transmitting at
the same time will cause a collision. Because switches, bridges and routers do not forward
unnecessary packets the different ports of these devices operate in different collision domains.
Repeaters and hubs broadcast all packets to all ports, so their ports are in the same collision
domain.

Server Types: There are different types of servers based on the need of the
organization.

1. File Server: These are servers that provide centralized data storage that will be
shared among the network.
2. Printer Server : Printer servers are servers that control one or more printers on the
network

3. Database Server: These are servers that centrally store database and provide data to
the client computer.

4. Web Server: Web servers are servers that store Webpages that will be viewed using
web browsers in the network.

Web browser is a software that runs on the user’s computer & allows them to view
different websites. Examples of web browsers includes Internet Explorer, Mozilla Fire fox,
Opera etc.

5. Mail Servers: Mail servers are servers that are used to manage & control e-mail
communications across the network.

IP Address

The first byte of class and addresses is always between 0 and 127

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The first byte of class B addresses is always between 128 and 191
The first byte of class C addresses is always between 192 and 223
The first byte of class D addresses is always between 224 and 239
The first byte of class E addresses is always between 240 and 255

 Class D addresses are used for multicasting; there is only one block in this
class.
 Class E addresses are reserved for special purposes; most of the block is
wasted.
Network Addresses: The network address (the first address in the block) is
the one that is assigned to the organization.

The network address defines the network to the rest of the Internet. Unicast,
Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses

 Unicast communication is one-to-one.

 Multicast communication is one-to-many.
 Broadcast communication is one-to-all.

 The first phase of Ethernet standards had a transmission speed of 10Mbps. Three of the most
common of these are known as 10Base2, 10Base5 and 10BaseT. The following table
summarises some of the features of each specification.

ETHERNET STANDARDS
10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT
Topology Bus Bus Star bus
UTP
Cable type Thinned coaxial Thicket coaxial
(Cat. 3 or higher)
Simplex/half/full duplex Half duplex Half duplex Half duplex
Manchester, Manchester, Manchester,
Data encoding
asynchronous asynchronous asynchronous
Connector BNC DIX or AUI RJ45
Max. segment length 185 metres 500 metres 100 metres

GLOSSARY

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10Base2 Ethernet specification for thinned coaxial cable.
10Base5 Ethernet specification for thicket coaxial cable.
10BaseF Ethernet specification for fibre-optic cable.
10BaseT Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling.
100BaseT2 Fast Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling.
100BaseT4 Fast Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling.
100BaseTX Fast Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling.
100BaseFX Fast Ethernet specification for fibre-optic cable.
1000BaseT Gigabit Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling.
1000BaseCX Gigabit Ethernet specification for twine cabling.
1000BaseSX Gigabit Ethernet specification for fibre-optic cable.
1000BaseLX Gigabit Ethernet specification for fibre-optic cable.
Access method A set of rules for sending packets of data onto a network.
Access permissions A security model in client-server networks in which a user enters a password to log in to
the network. Network permissions are assigned on a user-by-user or group-by-group
basis.
AM Amplitude Modulation. A technique used to encode digital data as an analogue signal to
be transmitted over a network, by modulating the amplitude of the analogue signal.
ARP Address Resolution Protocol. Part of the TCP/I protocol stack, it is responsible for
translating from IP addresses to MAC addresses. Also see RARP.
Asynchronous A technique that splits up a bit stream into a number of characters (typically 5-8 bits) to
communication be communicated over a network. A way of overcoming the synchronisation problem in
data communications.
Backbone A cable to which multiple computers or network nodes are attached in the bus topology
(see also trunk, segment).
Bandwidth The range of frequencies that can be safely transmitted on an analogue communication
channel without loss of signal.
Baseband A communication system in which a single carrier (e.g. cable) is used to transmits digital
information, for example the Ethernet.
Bridge Device that connects two subnets that use the same communication protocol, passing
only packets that are intended for the other subnet.
Broadband A high bandwidth communication system in which multiple signals are multiplexed onto
the same channel, usually using analogue communication.
Collision Two or more computers transmitting at the same time within the same collision domain.
Collision domain A portion of a network where two or more computers transmitting at the same time will
interfere with each other.
CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. An access method used to share
bandwidth among a maximum of 1024 stations. Two or more stations transmitting at the
same time will cause a collision, forcing random waiting periods before retransmission is
attempted.
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance. An access method in which
computers broadcast their intent to transmit before it actually does so, thus preventing
collisions from occurring. Used by AppleTalk and wireless Ethernet specifications.
Datagram A packet of data.
DHCP The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. A protocol used to allocate IP addresses
dynamically.
DNS The Domain Name System. A protocol used to translate between domain names (e.g.
www.yahoo.com) and IP addresses.
Ethernet A common LAN architecture, which typically uses CSMA/CD.
Fast Ethernet A set of Ethernet specifications that support up to 100Mbps transmission rates using
category 5 twisted pair or fibre-optic cable.
Fibre-optic cable A cable consisting of a glass core surrounded by plastic that transmits using light pulses
rather than electricity.

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Firewall A program designed to control/limit traffic into and out of a LAN.
Frame A packet of data.
FTP File Transfer Protocol. A protocol designed to ensure reliable transfer of files between 2
computers.
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The protocol used to exchange multimedia web content over
the Internet.
Hub A multiport device that broadcasts packets received on one port to all other ports. All
ports are in the same collision domain. Sometimes called a multiport repeater or
concentrator.
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol. Used by higher-level TCP/IP protocols to send status
reports about information being transmitted.
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol. A protocol used to retrieve email from a mail server.
Intranet Network internal to an organisation that uses Internet protocols
Internet A global network of networks used to exchange information using the TCP/IP protocol
suite
IP Internet Protocol. The base (i.e. lowest level) protocol for the TCP/IP protocol suite.
IP address A 32-bit address used to identify computers on a network using the TCP/IP protocol
suite. Often written as four numbers (0-255) separated by dots
(e.g. 192.168.0.1)
ISP Internet Service Provider. A company that sells Internet connections.
LAN Local Area Network. A collection of networked computers in a limited geographical area.
MAC address Media Access Control address. A 48-bit address unique to each network interface card or
other network device.
MAN Metropolitan Area Network. A network connecting computers over a large geographical
area, such as a city.
Manchester Technique used to encode 0s and 1s as transitions, rather than constant voltage levels. A 0
encoding is represented by a 0-to1 transition, and a 1 is represented by a 1-to-0 transition.
Multiplexing A technique that allows multiple signals to be transmitted over the same communications
channel. See also FDM and TDM.
Multiplexer A device that allows multiplexing over a channel
NetBEUI NetBIOS Extended User Interface. A protocol used to transport NetBIOS messages over a
network.
NetBIOS Network Basic Input Output System. Low-level networking operations that enable
networking operations such as file and printer sharing.
Open-source Software in which the source code is made freely available to everybody.
OSI Open System Interconnection. A standard classification of the logical levels at which
network communication takes place.
Packet A small block of data together with control information (e.g. source address, destination
address, parity bits, sequencing information). The basic building block of network
communications.
Packet switching Communication using packets of data, with no dedicated physical connection between the
nodes.
Point-to-point A direct connection between two devices on a network.
POP3 Post Office Protocol. A protocol used to receive emails from a mail server.
Ports A connection point for a cable.
Protocol The rules for exchanging information between two objects (e.g. network devices,
application programs).
RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. Part of the TCP/I protocol stack, it is responsible
for translating from MAC addresses to IP addresses. Also see ARP.
Repeater A device used in a network to amplify the signal, extending the usable length of the
segment
Ring A network topology in which the computers are connected together in a circular fashion,
with each computer connected to exactly two others.

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
RJ45 Standard connector used for twisted pair cabling.
Router A multiport device that forwards packets between ports based on their IP address. Each
port connects to a different LAN, and possibly even different LAN technologies. Very
commonly found in the infrastructure that forms the basis of the Internet.
Subnet A small portion of a larger network.
Subnet mask Used in CIDR to specify how many bits of an IP address are assigned to the network ID
and how many to the computer ID.
Switch A multiport device that forwards packets to a specific port based on their destination
MAC address. Each port is in its own collision domain.
Synchronous A technique in which two channels are used to transmit a single signal. One carries the
communication signal and the other carries timing information. A way of overcoming the synchronisation
problem.
TCP Transmission Control Protocol. Part of the TCP/IP protocol stack – a protocol that
provides connection-oriented completely reliable delivery,
TCP/IP A standard suite of protocols acting at different levels that is used on the Internet.
TDM Time Division Multiplexing. A technique for multiplexing that allocates time-slots to a
number of sub channels in turn, each of which can use the entire bandwidth for a limited
amount of time.
Telnet A protocol used for logging on to a remote computer over a network.
Transceiver A device that interfaces between two different network technologies (e.g. RJ45 and
BNC).
Unicast Transmitting a packet/frame of data to a single node on a network
UNIX An operating system that is very commonly used in computer networking because of its
powerful security features.
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair. A type of twisted pair cabling.
VPN Virtual Private Network. A connection-oriented packet-switching system in which
packets are encrypted and sent through logical tunnels.
WAN Wide Area Network. A collection of LANs connected via routers over a large
geographical area.
Wireless network A network that uses radio waves, infrared light or lasers instead of wires. Currently
slower and more expensive than conventional networks.
Workgroup The term used in Windows operating systems to refer to a peer-to-peer network.
1, you want to implement a mechanism that automates the ip configuration in your company's network.
the protocol that helps you to accomplish this

a. DHCP B DNS C, SMTP D, STP

2, you are the administrator for your company's domain. You need to subdivide the groups in your
organization within active directory. if you want to separate sales from marketing as an example. what
will use as a system of organization this subdivision

a. crate organization unit

b. crate a site and service subnet grouping
c. use user and group
d. use separate domains
3.the TCP/IP pro for transferring electronic mail messages

a. FTP C, SMTP
b. RPC D,SNMP
4, the command used to access active directory installation wizard

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
a. DOMAINISTALL C, DCONFIG
b. DCPROMO D DCINSTALL
5, A system administrator wants to prevent users from starting or stopping specific services on the domain
controller. The tools that can be used to do this.

a. active directory users and computers

b. domain security policy
c. local system policy
d. domain controller security policy
6, the configuration information for a DHCP client is received dynamically the utility used to read
configuration for everything this setting.

A. tracert C, net stat

B. ping D,ipconfig

7, you are in charge of a small network and want to make a secured. the user want to have full control
over their data and still be able to share data with the rest of the office. the best type of network to set up
this.

A. client based network

B. master domain network
C. peer-to-peer network
D. server based network
8, your customer has a client/ server Ethernet network consisting of a server and 225 computer running
windows Xp . The kind of security you recommend to him for centralized control of access to file and
directions on the network.

a. setup a password for each file and groups for each directory
b. setup a password for each file and directory shared
c. setup a group of shared resources and user who have access to these group
d. setup a password for each user
9, one of yours calls you with a complaint that they can't reach the site www.yahoo.com. you try and
access the site and discover that you can't access either. but you can PING the site with its IP address. the
most probable cause of the problem.

a. yahoo is down
b. the working switch is down
c. the gateway is down
d. the DNS server is down
10,The tool that can be used to prevent users from starting or stopping specified services on the
domain controller .

A.client security policy B. Group security policy

C.computer system policy D. domain controller security policy

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
1, while gathering data to determine the organization business requirement you might take records of
the organization like, annual reports and organizational polices. These kinds of information resources
are considered as

a. informant sources
b. primary sources
c. secondary sources
d. tertiary sources

2, the main reason for implementing a network for an organization is

a. to reduce security risk

b. to decrease company cost
c. to share resources
d. to exchange information
e. all
3, you are requested to implement an antivirus policy in a company that has large number of user
identify the incorrect statement on implementing the antivirus policy

a. each computer in the company should be equipped with virus detection and cleaning software
b. each user should install his own antivirus software and know how to use it
c. organization should impose penalties on user who don't follow the antivirus policy
d. the company should have an antivirus team that focus on maintaining the antivirus measures in
place
4, you want to implement a mechanism that automates the ip configuration in your company's network.
the protocol that helps you to accomplish this

b. DHCP
c. DNS
d. SMTP
e. STP
5, you are the administrator for your company's domain. You need to subdivide the groups in your
organization within active directory. if you want to separate sales from marketing as an example. what
will use as a system of organization this subdivision

e. crate organization unit

f. crate a site and service subnet grouping
g. use user and group
h. use separate domains
6, the file system that allow for file level security to use for a server that will be an active directory
domain controller for your organization.

a. CDFS
b. FAT
c. FAT32
d. NTFS

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
7, your company has a LAN in its downtown office and has now set up a LAN in the manufacturing plant
in another city. the best device required to enable everyone to share data and resources between the
two LANs

a. Router
b. HUB
c. modem
d. switch
8, the TCP/IP pro for transferring electronic mail messages

c. FTP
d. RPC
e. SMTP
f. SNMP
9, the command used to access active directory installation wizard

c. DOMAINISTALL
d. DCPROMO
e. DCONFIG
f. DCINSTALL
10, A system administrator wants to prevent users from starting or stopping specific services on the
domain controller. The tools that can be used to do this.

e. active directory users and computers

f. domain security policy
g. local system policy
h. domain controller security policy
11, the research and development department at your office has be experimenting with different
technologies to help improve the performance of the network; one group has been examining the use of
a broadband network versus a based band network. The correct statements about broadband and
baseband.

a. broadband network carry several channels on a single cable, whereas in a baseband network
several cables carry one channel
b. baseband networks carry a single channel on a single cable whereas broadband networks carry
several channels on a single cable
c. baseband operates at a standard bit rate, whereas broadband may operate at different rates as
needed
d. Broadband and baseband refer to the different frequencies at which infrared operates then
transmitting signals in certain conditions.

12, computer cannot communicate with each other directly over telephone line because they use digital
pulse where as telephone lines use analog sound frequency. the device that permits digital to analog
conversation at the start of transmission

A. attenuation
B. interface

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
C. modem
D. NIC
13, the configuration information for a DHCP client is received dynamically the utility used to read
configuration for everything this setting.

C. tracert
D. ping
E. net stat
F. ipconfig
14, you are in charge of a small network and want to make a secured. the user want to have full control
over their data and still be able to share data with the rest of the office. the best type of network to set
up this.

E. client based network

F. master domain network
G. peer-to-peer network
H. server based network
15, your customer has a client/ server Ethernet network consisting of a server and 225 computer
running windows Xp . The kind of security you recommend to him for centralized control of access to file
and directions on the network.

e. setup a password for each file and groups for each directory
f. setup a password for each file and directory shared
g. setup a group of shared resources and user who have access to these group
h. setup a password for each user
16, you are requested to setup a 100mbps network for a client in an office that already has 10mbps
throughput. your client wants to keep the costs to a minimum but needs the 100mbps throughput. the
cabling solution you recommend?

a. cat3UTP
b. cat5UTP
c. coaxial cable
d. fiber able
17, the following figure shows a typical small size organize network setup. identify the network
components marked with letters A,B,C AND D consecutively.

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment

a. DSL modem, CAT5 Ethernet cable, wireless signal, wireless router/access point.
b. Wireless router/access point, CAT 5 Ethernet cable, wireless signal DSL modem.
c. wireless router/access point, wireless signal, CAT 5 Ethernet cable, DSL modem
d. DSL modem, wireless signal, CAT5 Ethernet cable, wireless router/access point
18, you are assigned to lead a small team in your company for managing network identify the wrong
statement in leading a team

a. understand the team role

b. possess necessary leadership skill
c. favor some individuals in your team
d. assign responsibilities to team members
19, one of yours calls you with a complaint that they can't reach the site www.yahoo.com. you try and
access the site and discover that you can't access either. but you can PING the site with its IP address.
the most probable cause of the problem.

e. yahoo is down
f. the working switch is down
g. the gateway is down
h. the DNS server is down

20, the hardware and network administrator wants to remotely and securely enter commands to be run
at a remote server. the application that the administrator should use.

a. telnet
b. SSH
c. SFTP
d. RSA

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
21, you have just implemented a solution for a major network problem in your company and you want
to celebrate the success. The next step you should dc before starting your celebration

A. Document the issue and the solution that has implemented

B. Escalate the issue
C. Gather more information about the issue
D. Test the solution in a similar organization

 Hard Were Problem NIC Failare

 The First Troubleshooting Problem Exchange /Identify/Symptom
 Nic Installing Problem Soft Ware Problem
 Coaxial Cable Connector BNC
 Fiber Optical Connector MT RJ
 Twisted Pair Cable Connector RJ 45
 Unique Number Of MAC Address ARP
 Accesses Remote Telnet
 Installation AD(active directory) Dc Promo
 User And Password Event Log On
 Display Use Address Nice Facilitate
 The Correct Color Arrangement Cable Problem
 Network Layer Data Format Packet
 Application Data Format Message

 Loop Back IP Address --------------------------------------------------127.0.0.1

 Resolve IP Address-------------------------------------------------------------- DNS
 Degenerated Signal By Cause Of Cable Of Length ---------Auto Rising
 Transport Layer ------------------------------------ Cammunication partner
 Assign IP AddressAutomatically -----------------------------------------DHCP
 Physical Topology -------------------------------------------------Topology
 Convert Ip Address To Hard Ware nw-------------------------------------ARP
 Secondary Storage ----------------------------------------------Hard Disk
 The Operate System Memory Switch -----------------Virtual Memory
 Central Administrator ---------------------------------------------------- Server
 Twisted Pair Cable Rj-45 ----------------------------------------------------- UTP
 Upgrade -----------------------------------------------------------Confirmation
 Fiber Optic Cable ------------------------------------------------------MT-RJ

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment

1. Lee802.__ CSMA/CA
2 Mac Address Unique Number Stumped On Every
Nic
3 DNs The Brain Of Active Directory
4 File Server Used To Share Public Resource
5 Application Server Used To Build Deploy Resource
6 Cache Memory Frequently Hold Data
7 Parity Susceptible Bad Memory
8
9 A Protocol That Support LAN To LAN Protocol-Rout Abase
Protocol
10 Twisted Pair Cable Connector RJ 45
11 Preventive Maintenance Defragmentation
12 When A Memory That Full Virtual Memory
13 Secondary Storage Device Hard Disk
14 10Base Rj-45
15 Use Central device Star Topology
16 Redundancy & Telerate Mesh Topology
17 Thick Net Cable BNC Or Coaxial Cable
18 Test Connectivity Of Network Ping
19 Used To Share Public Resources File Server
20 Remote Access Telnet
21 Display Information IPConfigure
22 That Install Active Directory Dc Promo
23 Display MAC Address Arp. A
24 Dynamical Assign IP Address DHCP
25 Resolve Domain Name In Ip Address DNS
26 Used To Build & Xml Application
27 Physical Layout Of Network Topology
28 Utility That Test Connectivity Of Network Ping
29 A Method Access Network Access Method
30 The End Step Of Network Confirmation
31 A Two Network Computer Direct Cable Connection
32 Central Administer Server Based Network
33 Provide Service To Resource File Server
34 Convert IP Address In To Hard Ware Address Arp
35 Automatically Configure IP Address DHCP
36 Multiport Switch
37 Speedy Memory Cache Memory
38 Centrally Administer Resources Server Based Network
39 Preventive Maintenance Defragmentation
40 IP Address Confect Assign Then Some Ip Address
41 Talent Remote Log In
42 Fabric Optic Cab Le Mt-RJ

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
43 Definition Of Quality Quality
44 LAN Con Graphical Area Password
45 Character Of Security VLAN
46 Operate At Physical Layer Hub
47 Operate At Data Link Layer Switch
48 UBS Plug-N-Play System
49 Defragmentation Hard Disk Optimization
50 Replicate Itself In Other Computers Worm
51 Used As Transmitted And Receiver For Wireless LAN WAP
52 A Protocol Used To Down Land Internet Files FTP
53 A Protocol Use To Transmitting & Receiving E-Mails SMTP

54 Fault Tolerant Topology Mesh

 Network Physical Layout Of Computer____________________ Topology

 Prurient Simulate All To The Enable ________________ Access Method
 Provides Services And Rescores To The Network______________ Server
 Unities That Are The Used To The Network _____________________Ping
 Compaction Of To Computer Connection ________ D Cable Comment
 The Final Step Many Upgrade Is______________________ Confirmation
 Documentation Of Network Normal__________________ Star Topology
 Protocol That Support Multimode LAN To LAN___ Routable Protocol
 Twisted Pair Cable___________________________________________ RJ-45
 Convert IP Adders To The Hard Ware________________________
 Centrally Administer Resources __________________ Server Based NW
 Created When By The Memory ____________________ Virtual Memory
 Preventive Maintenance ________________________ Defragmentation
 Resolve IP Address____________________________________________ DNS
 Pop 3 (SNMP) ______________________________ Remote E-Mail Access
 Access User Security _____________________________________ Fire Wall
 Hide IP Address For Private Protocol _________________________ HTTP
 Priority Error ________________________________________ Had Memory
 Transport Layer ____________________________________ Segmentation
 Automatically Assign Ip Address_____________________________ DHCP
 Loop Back Address_______________________________________ 127.0.01
 Unreliable Communication____________________________________ UDP
 Type Of Network Threat_______________________________________ NAT
 Antis Tic Wrist String______________________________ Denied Service
 Type Of System & Con Policy FromThe Internet_________ Authorized
 Type Wide Of Network Separated By Router & Bridge ____ CSMA/CD
 Telnet ______________________________________________ Remote Login
 Secondary Storage ______________________________________ Hard Disk
 The ehepenaration Of Signal Over Distance On Network Cable__ Attenuation
 Communication Protocol Network Access On The Network _____ Protocol

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
1. IP Address Conflict A. Assigning The Same
2. Fiber Optics Cable Connector B. MT-RJ
3. Telnet C. Remote Login
4. Class B Address Range D. 10xxxxxx
5. Continuous Improvement E. Kaizen
6. A Secret Word Or Stirring Of Characters Used For User Authentication F. Authentication
7. A Logical Group Of Workstations Servers And Network Devices That G. VLAN
Appears To Be On The Same LAN Despite Their Geographical
Distribution
8. Replicates Itself In Order To Spread To Other Computer H. Worm
9. Verify That DNs Name Resolution Is Working Correctly I. Ns Look Up

10. Exchanging Of Information Both Verbal And Nan Verbal Within An J. Work Place
Organization Communication
11. Set Of Procedures Intended To Ensure That A Manufactured Product Or K. Quality
Performed Service Adheres To A Defined Set Of Quality Control
12. Object In Active Directory Represents A Geographic Location That Hosts L. DNs
Network
13. Allows You To Transfer Files Between Tow Computers On The Internet M. FTP
14. A Utility To Determine Whether A Specific Ip Address Is Accessible N. Ping
15. Wireless Fidelity O. Wife

1. Which One Of The Device Is Not Share

A, Hard Disk B, Printer C, Nic D, CD-Rom
2. Which Of The Following Are Not Private IP Address
A, 101.18.0.1 B, 192.162.0.1 C, 127.0.0.7 D, None
3. How Many Pairs Of Wires Are Used In An Rj-45
A, 2 B, 3 C, 4 D, 8
4. Which Type Problem Is Most Likely To Be Caused By Increasing Cable Length
A, Attenuation B, Beaconing C, Crosstalk D, Jitter
5. How Many Bits Are There In An IP Address
A, 64 B, 32 C, 128 D, 68
6. Ip Operate At The ____ OSI Level
A, Physical Layer B, Application Layer C, Network
Layer D, Data Link Layer
7. Which Of The Following Device Is Operating At The Physical Layer
A, Hub B, Router C, Bridges D, Switches
8. Which One Of The Following Device Is Operating At The Data Layer
A, Router B, Switch C, Hub D, Repeater
9. Which Of The Following Is Class N’’C’’ IP Address
A, 10.10.14.118 B, 135.23.112.57 C,
191.200.199.199 D, 204.67.118.54
10. A Token Ring Network Has A Maximum Limit Of ____Computers
A, 1024 B, 260 C, 512 D, 20
11. Your IP Address Is 135.72.17.43 What Portion Of This Ip Address Indentifies Your Network
ID A, 135 B, 135.72 C, 135.72.14 D, 43
12. Utility Which Can Be Used ToIndentify Bottlenecks In The Network A, Ping B,
Wing Pc FC C, Tracer

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
13. What Network Cabling Has Four Pairs Of Wire
A, Coaxial B, Twisted Pair Cable
C, Fiber Optic Cable D, Twisted Optic Cable
14. What Cable A Glass Or Plastic Core
A, Coaxial Cable Pair B, Twisted Pair Cable C, Fiber Optic Cable
AB

1. Base Connector A) ?
2. Network Connective B) Ping
3. Resolve IP Address C) DNs
4. Coaxial Cable Connector D) BNS
5. Mac IP Address E) ARP
6. Assess Email, E) Web Server
7. High Level F) Mesh Topology
8. Central Device Connectivity G) Star Topology
9. Telephone Line H) Rj-11
10. Pup Having Resource I) Network
11. Access Remote/Remote Login J) Telnet
12. AD Instigation K) Dc Promo
13. As Sigh IP Address L) DHCP
14. Used To Access Web Server M) File Server

Sector: Economic Infrastructure

Subsector: Information Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level IV
The assessment covers the following units of competence:
1. EIS HNS4 01 0811 Plan and Organize Work
2. EIS HNS4 02 0811 Assist with Policy Development for Client Support
3. EIS HNS4 03 0811 Build Internet Infrastructure
4. EIS HNS4 04 0811 Migrate to New Technology
5. EIS HNS4 05 0811 Determine Maintenance Strategy
6. EIS HNS4 06 0811 Establish Quality Standards
7. EIS HNS4 07 0811 Utilize Specialized Communication Skills
8. EIS HNS4 08 0811 Develop Team and Individuals
Project I: Design company network and Internet Infrastructure
Total time for this project: 1:20hrs
Competences Covered:
1. EIS HNS4 01 0811 Plan and Organize Work
2. EIS HNS4 02 0811 Assist with Policy Development for Client Support

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
3. EIS HNS4 03 0811 Build Internet Infrastructure
In this project the candidate is required to design Company Network and Internet Infrastructure for PARROT Plc.
The company is expandable and dedicated for Importing and Distribution of drugs and medical equipments for
resellers using Company’s Application Software, it has 5 departments: Sales, Maintenance, HRM, Public Relation
and Marketing. The Company has two buildings, G+2 and G+3 in a compound with a distance of 30m between
them. Each building has 25 users in each floor including the ground.
The Company wants to implement centralized network infrastructure that include:
1. Resource Sharing between different departments
2. 10 MB internet connection for the whole employees
3. Company Mailing System
4. System Security
Instruction: under this project you are expected to perform the following four tasks based on the information
provided.
Task 1: Planning and organizing project work
Time allowed 40min
Competence covered
1. Plan and organize work
Instruction: under this task the candidate should prepare work plan which include (phases of the project,
activities to be performed, duration for each activity, required man power and responsible body).
Task2. Identify the basic resources required to implement this project
Time allowed: 60min
Competence covered
1. Build internet infrastructure
2. Migrate to new technology
3. Establish quality standards
Instruction: Under this task the candidate is expected to perform the following activities tasks based on
the information provided:
 Identify Hardware needed to build the infrastructure.
 Identify Software needed to build the infrastructure.
 Identify type of internet connectivity needed to build the infrastructure.
 Estimate price of listed hardware, software, and internet connectivity
Task3. Design the infrastructure of network using Microsoft office Visio 2007
Time allotted: 0:55 min
Instruction: -Under this task, the candidate should prepare logical design for the infrastructure using
Microsoft Visio 2007 that considers:
 Appropriate network devices
 Suitable type of cable to be used.
 Internet connectivity
Based on the scenarios given under “project I”, fill the following table appropriately. In addition you have been
given the network address 192.168.1.0/24 to subnet and provide the IP addressing for the network in both building
G+2 and G+3.

Network Subnet mask CIDR subnet IP Address range Broadcast Address

Address mask Fist usable IP Address Last usable IP Address

Task 4: suppose client mechanism and maintenance strategy

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
Instruction: under this task candidate is expected perform propose client support mechanism and strategy
to minimize the down time of the network system
1. Offer client mechanism
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
2. Propose maintenance policy
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
Task 5: Assist in policy development of client support and maintenance
Time allotted: 20min
Instruction: under this task, the candidate should propose client support mechanism and maintenance
strategy to minimize the down time of the network system
Project II. Prepare Service Level Agreement
Total time for this project: 1:00hrs
Competences Covered:
1. EIS HNS4 05 0811 Determine Maintenance Strategy
2. EIS HNS4 06 0811 Establish Quality Standards
XY Company needs annual maintenance service for all PCs. The Company posts the announcement for
interested bidders.
Instruction: Under this project you are expected to perform the following two tasks based on the
information provided:-
Task1. Prepare SLA of XY Company using Microsoft word.
Time allotted: 0:35 hrs
Instruction: -Under this task, you assume as an ICT solution provider Plc who wins the bid and expected
to prepare SLA of XY company using Microsoft Word. (Use the following points to prepare the SLA).
 Objective of the service
 Serve provider’s responsibilities;
 customer responsibilities;
 service measurement
 Modification and review of the agreement;
Task2. Prepare a format that monitors the quality of maintained computer and network.
Time allotted: 0:25 hrs
Instruction: -Under this task you assume as a technician of XY Company and invited to monitor the
quality of maintained computer and network so you are expected to prepare a format that helps to monitor
using Microsoft Word.
Task 3: Presenting IT project proposal
Instruction: under this task the candidate should present and demonstrate his/her overall proposal by
preparing a power point presentation. (The presentation should include: introduction, phases and activities
of the project, logical diagrams, cost of the project and proposed software and equipment and human
resource for the project).

Answer for project I: Task1

No Phases of the Activity to be performed Duration of Man power Responsible
project time Required Body
Activity
1 Plan Identifying financial 1Days 1 Accountant
requirements
Identifying material 1Days 1 Manager/mgt
Requirement

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
Identifying security needed 1days 1 Security
guard
2 Organize - Analyzing the tasks and 2days 2 Technician
actions needed to be done
- Select preferable topology
for Networking
3 Design - Determine the best network 5days 2 Technician
topology
- logical design of the network
- Reporting the site face line of
implementation
4 Implement - Implementing the network 3Days 3 Technician
installation
- Implement the logical
design into the physical
design of the network.
5 Tests - Evaluate the configuration 2day 1 Technician
and installation of network
Hard ware and Software
6 Maintenance - Adjust/ replacements of the 1days 1 Technician
components required
- Troubleshooting the network
7 Documentation - Document all the steps 1Days 1 Technician
needed for the user
documentations.

Table activity time

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

remar
Activities
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Plan 1
Organize 2
Design 2
Implement 3
Test 2
Maintenance 2
Documentatio 1
n

 Required man power

No Position Requirednumber Responsible Salary
1 Network designer 1 Technicians 8,000
2 Management 1 ICT manager 7,000

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
3 Accountant/Purchaser 1 Accountant 5,000
4 Security Guard 1 Guard 3,000

Answer for Project I: Task2

 Hardware needed to built the infrastructure

No Items Specification/Description Measurement Quantity Unit Total

Price Price
1 Server  server with 8GB RAM, Number 1 15,000 15,000
computers 2TB Hard , 3.0Ghz
processor

2 Client Dell computer with 4GB Number 175 10,000 1,750,000

Computers RAM, 3.0Ghz processor,
and Hard Disk 500GB.
3 Switch Access Switch with 32 Number 8
ports
4 Network Cat 6e (UTP) Role 10
cable
5 Outlet and 329
faceplate
6 Patch panel 48ports Number 7
7 D-Link/ Number 1
Modem
8 Router /Core number 1
Switch
9 UPS 3000 watt Number 1
10 Rack 27u 1
11 Patch Cord meter 3meter
per pc
12 Trunk 1500
13 Cable RJ-45 Number 3000
connector
14 Network Number 1
toolkit
15 Network HP LaserJet Number 1 25,000 25,000
Printer

 Software needed to built the infrastructure

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
No Application and OS name Description/ Measurement Unit Tota
specification Price l
Price
1 Network operating system Windows Server 2008 Licensed 3000 3000
2 Desktop Operating system Windows 7 ultimate Licensed 1500 1500
3 KASPERSKY server based Licensed 1500 1500
antivirus for the server virus
protection
4 Microsoft office 2007 Licensed 50 50
5 Microsoft office Visio 2007 Licensed 50 50
6 Driver NIC, Printer driver Licensed 50 50

 Type of internet connectivity needed to built the infrastructure

No Type Of internet Description Price Total

Connectivity Price
1 Broad band 10 Mbs

Answer for Project I: Task3

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment

Given: IP Address = 192.168.1.0/24 Subnet mask =255.255.255.0 Host = 25

Network Subnet mask CIDR IP Address range Broadcast

Address subnet Fist usable IP Last usable IP Address
mask Address Address
192.168.1.0 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.30 192.168.1.31
4
192.168.1.32 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.33 192.168.1.62 192.168.1.63
4
192.168.1.64 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.65 192.168.1.94 192.168.1.95
4
192.168.1.96 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.97 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.127
4
192.168.1.128 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.129 192.168.1.158 192.168.1.159
4
192.168.1.160 255.255.255.22 /27 192.168.1.161 192.168.1.190 192.168.1.191
4
Answer for Project I: Task4
1. Offer client support mechanism
- using a preventive maintenance(cleaning PC )
- using a corrective maintenance(replacement)
- Schedule maintenance
- Giving training for client/user

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
- Customer handling
o Respect customer time
2. Propose maintenance policy
- Users must sign a service level agreement(SLA)
- All users must have user account and password in organization
- Every user must change their password in 30 days.
- Users must respect rule & regulation of the organization
- Safety rule
- Required all needed network materials (tool kit)

Answer for Project I: Task5. Assist in policy development of client support and maintenance

Assist with policy development for client support

- Customer handling
- Respect client time
- Respect client
Determine maintenance strategy
- Preventive maintenance(cleaning PC )
- Corrective maintenance(replacement)
- Schedule maintenance
- Giving training for client/user

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment

Answer for Project II: Task1

Service Level Agreement (SLA)
SLA between Service provider and Customer
Effective Date: 08/10/2018.
Service Provider: IT solution plc
Customer: XY Company
Introduction
This Agreement representsa SLA between XY Company and ICT solution provider Plc for the provision
of annual maintenance service required to support and sustain maintenance service for all Pcs. This
Agreement remains valid until superseded by a revised agreement mutually endorsed by the stakeholders.
This Agreement outlines the parameters of all services covered as they are mutually understood by the
stakeholders. This Agreement does not supersede current processes and procedures unless explicitly
stated herein.

Objective of the Service

The objective of this Agreement is to ensure that the proper elements and commitments are in place to
provide a maintenance service for XY Company by ICT solution provider Plc.
The goals of this Agreement are to:
 Provide clear reference to service ownership, accountability, roles and responsibilities.
 Present a clear, concise and measurable description of service provision to the customer.
 Match perceptions of expected service provision with actual service support & delivery.
Responsibilities
Service provider’s responsibilities:
 Understand the request accepted and identify requirements
 Inform the customer about financial requirements and agree on them.
 Provide maintenance service based on the requirements
 Complete the work on time
 Keep the confidential information of the customer
 Provide technical support & training

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment
Customer responsibilities:
 Submit clear request to service provider
 Agree on financial requirements
 Follow up the activities
 Check the functionality of maintained equipments
 Attend technical support and training
Service Measurement: Functionality of maintained equipments will be measured on the level of meeting
the requirements requested.
Modification and review of the agreement:
This agreement is valid until June 08, 2019
This agreement can cease if the customer and service provider both want to cancel it.
Signature of service provider Signature of Customer
____________________________ ______________________
Date Date

Answer for Project II: Task2

No Item Previous Status Current Status Remark

1 Server computer Server hard disk is not mirrored. Hard disk is mirrored to
protect data.
2 Client computer One of the client is unable to The client can install the
install Microsoft office Visio ms-office Visio 2007.
2007 on his/her pc
3 Printer Cannot print from remote pc The client can print from
the remote computer.
4

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 FVC TVET college
Sector: Information and Communication Technology
Occupation: Hardware and Network Servicing Level III
Knowledge assessment

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