Lecture 7

Deformation & Strengthening

Mechanisms

1
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

2
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals (Cu, Al):
+ + + + + + + +
Dislocation motion easiest + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions ion cores
electron cloud
for slip
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion difficult
- + - + - + -
- need to avoid nearest
neighbors of like sign (- and +) + - + - + - +

3
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
• Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

• If dislocations can't move,

Adapted from Fig. 7.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

plastic deformation doesn't occur! 4

 Dislocation Motion
• A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip direction
perpendicular to the dislocation line
• The slip direction is the same as the Burgers vector direction

Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Screw dislocation

5
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
– Slip directions - directions of movement
• Highest linear densities

Adapted from Fig.

7.6, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.
6
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, tR
– results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

A
F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
FS
F nS f
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR  scosl cosf
7
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR  tCRSS
• Ease of dislocation motion depends typically
on crystallographic orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR  scosl cosf
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l = 90° l = 45° f = 90°
f = 45°

t maximum at l = f = 45º 8
Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
9
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f = 60°
tcrss = 20.7 MPa
l = 35°
t  s cosl cosf
s  45 MPa

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t  (45 MPa)(cos35)(cos60)
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.   (45 MPa)(0.41)
t  18.4 MPa  tcrss  20.7 MPa
s = 45 MPa
So the applied stress of 45 MPa will not cause the
crystal to yield.
10
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss  20.7 MPa  sy cosl cosf  sy(0.41)

tcrss 20.7 MPa

sy    50.5 MPa
cosl cosf 0.41
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must
be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s  sy  50.5 MPa
11
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Polycrystals stronger than s
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.
Adapted from Fig.
• Slip planes & directions 7.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(l, f) change from one (Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of C.
grain to another. Brady, National
Bureau of
• tR will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
grain to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The grain with the
largest tR yields first.

• Other (less favorably

oriented) grains 300 mm
yield later.
12
 Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

13
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
14
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation: syield so  ky d 1/ 2

15
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice strains.
• These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

16
Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

17
Strengthening by Solid Solution Alloying
• Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
(regions of compressive strains) - partial cancellation of
dislocation compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
• Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength

Adapted from Fig. 7.17,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
18
Strengthening by Solid Solution Alloying
• Large impurities tend to concentrate at
dislocations (regions of tensile strains)

Adapted from Fig. 7.18,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

19
Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in
Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16(a) and (b),
Callister &
120 Rethwisch 8e.
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: sy ~C1/ 2

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

20
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
21
Application: Precipitation Strengthening

• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig. 11.26,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
22
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister & roll
Rethwisch 8e.
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao 23
 Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
• Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Fig. 4.6, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)

24
Dislocation Density Increases During
Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystals
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases as rd increases:

25
 Lattice Strain Interactions Between
Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

26
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

low carbon steel

27
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu?
Do2 Dd2

Copper %CW  4 4 x 100
Cold Do2
Work
4
Do2  Dd2
 x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2

(15.2 mm)2  (12.2 mm)2

%CW  x 100  35.6%
(15.2 mm)2
28
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H.
Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 29
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold
Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 • Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500
40 3. Grain Growth

400 30
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch
ductility 20 8e. (Fig. 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

30
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
diffuse and form
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

31
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
32
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

33
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
 don  Kt
34
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 7.22,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

º
35
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

36
Diameter Reduction Procedure - Problem
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10 mm (0.39 in) in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 380 MPa (55,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 7.5 mm (0.30 in). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

37
 Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Solution
What are the consequences of directly drawing
to the final diameter?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 10 mm Df = 7.5 mm

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW   x 100  1  x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 D2 4    7.5 2 
 1 f2 x 100  1    x 100  43.8%
 D 4    10  
 o  
38
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (Cont.)

420 540

• For %CW = 43.8% Adapted from Fig. 7.19,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria… what other options are possible?
39
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (cont.)

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig. 7.19,

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to 12 < %CW < 27

40
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (cont.)
Cold work, then anneal, then cold work again
• For objective we need a cold work of 12 < %CW < 27
– We’ll use 20 %CW
• Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd
cold work stage) is calculated as follows:
 Df 22  D 2
%CW

%CW 1  x 100  1 f 2 
 D 2 2 100
 02  D02
0.5 Df 2
Df 2  %CW D02 
 1    %CW
0.5
D02  100  1 
 100 
0.5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = Df 1  D02  7.5 mm 1   8.39 mm
 100
41
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Summary
Stage 1: Cold work – reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm

  8.39 mm2 
%CW1  1    x 100  29.6
  10 mm  
 
Stage 2: Heat treat (allow recrystallization)
Stage 3: Cold work – reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm

  7.5 2  Fig 7.19 sy  340 MPa


%CW2  1   x 100  20 
  8.49   TS  400 MPa
 
Therefore, all criteria satisfied %EL  24

42
 Cold Working vs. Hot Working

• Hot working  deformation above TR

• Cold working  deformation below TR

43
 Grain Size Influences Properties

• Metals having small grains – relatively

strong and tough at low temperatures

• Metals having large grains – good creep

resistance at relatively high
temperatures
 Summary
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties
will be altered.

45