Lecture Notes on Coordinate Geometry

For the Partial Fulfillment of

Course Code: MATH 201
Course Title: Engineering Mathematics - III

Prepared by
Muhammad Shahnewaz Bhuyan
Lecturer

Department of Mathematics
Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology
Chattogram-4349

Started From: March 16, 2024

Last Updated On: January 6, 2025
Outline

Course Code: MATH 201

Course Title: Engineering Mathematics - III
Credit: 3.0
Contact Hours/Week: 3.0

Syllabus
Coordinate geometry of two dimensions
Transformation of coordinates, Pair of straight lines, General equation of second degree: Standard
form of parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola.

Coordinate geometry of three dimensions

System of coordinates, Projection, Direction cosines and direction ratios, Angle between two
straight lines.
Planes: Equations of planes, Angle between two planes, Distance of a point from a plane,
Condition of perpendicularity and parallelism of planes.
Straight lines: Equations of straight line, Shortest distance between two lines.

Books Recommended
(i) G. Fuller and D. Tarwater, Analytic Geometry, 7th Edition.

(ii) E. H. Askwith, The Analytic Geometry of the Conic Sections, Radha Publishing House,
Calcutta, 3rd Edition, 1988.

(iii) R. J. T. Bell, An Elementary Treatise on Coordinate Geometry of Three Dimensions, Macmil-

lanand Company Limited, London, 3rd Edition, 1937.

(iv) M. Abdur Rahman, University Analytic and Vector Geometry : Two and Three Dimensions
- Coordinates and Vectors, Nahar Book Depot and Publications, Dhaka, First Edition, 2016.

(v) K. Mohammad, A Text Book on Co-ordinate Geometry (Two and Three Dimensions) and
Vector Analysis, The University Press, Ideal Library, Third Edition (revised and enlarged),
1975.

(vi) M. Fazlur Rahman, E. Hossain, M. Hafizur Rahman and P. K. Bhattacharjee, Analytic and
Vector Geometry, Titas Publications, Dhaka, Fifteenth Edition, 2022-23.

(vii) B. S. Grewall, Higher Engineeering Mathematics, Khanna Publishers, 43rd Edition, 2015.

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Class Routine
Monday
09:00 AM — 09:50 AM (Section B), 09:50 AM — 10:40 AM (Section A)

Tuesday
09:00 AM — 09:50 AM (Section A), 09:50 AM — 10:40 AM (Section B)

Room Number
Section A: 1301, Section B: 1302

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Contents

Outline ii

1 Introduction to Analytic Geometry 1

1.1 Before Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Before Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Influence of Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Geometry before Euclid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Synthetic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Introduction to Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Initial days of Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 How does Analytic Geometry work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Difference between synthetic approach and analytic approach . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.5 Application of Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.6 Some undefined terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.7 Definition of some necessary terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Connection between Algebra and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Geometry of real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Limitation of number line geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Going Beyond the Geometry of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Geometry of plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Geometry of space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

I Two Dimension 11
2 Change of Axes 12
2.1 Coordinate Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 The relativity of coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.2 Rectangular axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.3 Oblique axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.4 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Translation of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 What does translation of axes mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Theorem to related to translation of axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Rotation of Axes with Fixed Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 What does rotation of axes mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Theorem to related to rotation of axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Translation and Rotation of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Removing x, y and xy terms from the general second degree quadratic equation 16

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 2.5 Two Perpendicular Lines as New Coordinate Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 General Equation of Second Degree 20

3.1 General Equation of Second Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.1 General equation of second degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.2 Center of a conic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Conic From a Double Right Circular Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.1 Elements of a double right circular cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2 How a conic is formed from a double right circular cone . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Standard Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.1 Standard form of a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2 Properties of standard parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Standard Forms of Ellipse and Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4.1 Properties of ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4.2 Properties of hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4 Pair of Straight Lines 29

4.1 Homogeneous Equations of Pair of Straight lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.1 Second degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.2 n-th degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Angle between Pair of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Pair of Parallel Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Bisectors of the Angles between Pair of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

II Three Dimension 48
5 Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems 49
5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.1 Distance between two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Section formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.3 Direction cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.1 Cylindrical coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.2 Transformation from cartesian to cylindrical system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.3 Transformation from cylindrical to cartesian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.4 Distance formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1 Spherical coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.2 Transformation from spherical to cartesian system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.3 Transformation from cartesian to spherical system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.4 Distance formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Planes 54
6.1 Equation of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.1.1 Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.1.2 Equation of planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 Angle between two planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3 Planes in 3-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3.1 Planes in 3-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3.2 Meet of three planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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 6.4 Meet of Two Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.1 Meet of two planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.2 Finding meet of two planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.5 Cartesian and Parametric Equations of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.5.1 Parametric equation of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.5.2 Deducing cartesian equation of a plane from its parametric equation . . . . . 60
6.5.3 Deducing parametric equation of a plane from its cartesian equation . . . . . 60

7 Lines 61
7.1 Lines in 2-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1.1 Cartesian form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1.2 Parametric or vector form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2 Lines in 3-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2.1 Parametric equation of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.2 General equation of a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.3 Symmetrical equation of a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.4 Deriving cartesian equation of a line from its parametric equation . . . . . . 63
7.3 Different Properties of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3.1 Meet of a line and a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3.2 Direction ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.3.3 Angle between a straight line a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.3.4 Coplanar straight lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3.5 Shortest distance between two straight lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8 Spheres 70
8.1 Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2 Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2.1 General equation of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2.2 Standard equation of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2.3 Properties of a sphere’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2.4 Tangent plane of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.2.5 Sphere through the intersection of a sphere and a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.6 Circle in terms of sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2.7 Angle of intersection of two spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

9 Conicoids 75
9.1 Conicoids and Its Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.1.1 General equation of coinicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.1.2 Types of conicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.1.3 Central conicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.1.4 Non-central conicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.2 Standard Form of the Central Conicoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.2.1 Standard equation of the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.2.2 Standard equation of the hyperboloid of one sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.3 Standard equation of the hyperboloid of two sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.2.4 Reduction of general equation to standard equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

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III Vectors 77
10 Vectors 78
10.1 Vector Triple Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2 Grad, Divergence and Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2.1 Solenoidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2.2 Irrotational or conservative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2.3 Vortex or rotational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.2.4 Wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Bibliography 80

A 81

Appendix A 81
A.1 Trigonometric Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Analytic Geometry

Geometry is one of those branches of Mathematics, foundation of which were not too much dif-
ficult to establish. Many initial concepts of Geometry are very familiar to us from our daily life
experiences and for this reason, journey with Geometry starts from very beginning of our student
life. Analytic Geometry is a significant modern Geometrical discipline, that mainly deals with
Euclidean Geometry. Here we start from the era of Euclid and Synthetic Geometry with recall-
ing some historical points. For this chapter the reader is referred to Stillwell [?], Burton [?] and
[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?].

1.1 Before Analytic Geometry

1.1.1 Before Analytic Geometry
Ancient Greek had an innovative and creative period. History of Greek civilization is the history of
Greek’s contribution to Science. They made significant progress in many sides of science, like : in
Philosophy, Drama, Mathematics etc. Probably their most long lasting and profound contribution
was in Mathematics, more specifically in Geometry. Euclid of Alexandria 1 , also known as the
father of Geometry, was a Greek mathematician. Around 300 BC he wrote The Elements, a
collection of 13 books on Mathematics. Most probably, this was comparatively more organised
book on Mathematics at that time and historically is one of the most used human written books.
In Elements, Euclid gathered a summary of almost everything those were discovered related to
Mathematics about 300 years before his time by the ancient Greeks.
Geometry, a central and one of the richest branches of Mathematics, historically was so much
interesting subject to the mathematicians. So among the discussion on many mathematical issues,
discussion on Geometry occupied a big potion in Euclid’s Elements.
Any book starts from somewhere. Euclid had to do so. He focused specially on those things
which provide a necessary and logical setup for the foundation of Mathematics and he started his
Elements with some definitions :

1. A point is that which has no part.

2. A line is breadth-less length.

1
There was another Greek philosopher named same as our familiar mathematician Euclid. He is known as Euclid
of Megara, as Megara is his birth place. He was a Socratic philosopher, founder of the Megarian school of philosophy
and was present at the death time of Socrates. Alexander the Great, an ancient Greek emperor (basileus), conquered
Egypt at one stage. After some years of this triumph, our familiar Euclid shifted himself to the city of Alexendria
in Egypt and there he spent a remarkable time of his life. So our familiar Euclid is referred as Euclid of Alexandria
to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara.

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 3. The extremities of a line are points.

4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.

5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.

6. The extremities of a surface are lines.

7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
..
.

11. An obtuse angle is an angle greater than a right angle.

12. An acute angle is an angle less than a right angle.

13. A boundary is that which is an extremity of anything.

14. A figure is that which is contained by any boundary or boundaries.

..
.

23. Parallel straight lines are straight lines which, being in the same plane and being produced
indefinitely in both directions, do not meet one another in either direction.

Some of the terms defined by Euclid, such as : points, lines, planes etc are considered as unde-
fined terms by today’s mathematicians. We discuss some undefined terms in Article 1.2.6 more
elaborately.
After that, he enlisted some Postulates :

1. Through two distinct points a unique straight line can be drawn.

2. Any straight line can be extended infinitely along either side.

3. For any line segment, it is possible to draw a circle using the segment as the radius and one
end point as the center.

4. Any two right angles are same.

5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less
than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on
which are the angles less than the two right angles.

Sometimes Postulate 5 is also stated as - If l1 is a straight line and P is point not lying on l1 , then
a unique line l2 can be drawn through P which will never meet with l1 .
Then Euclid noted some common notions or obvious observations which have a pre-assigned
meaning to us from our experience :

1. Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.

2. If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal.

3. If equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.

4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.

5. The whole is greater than the part.

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 Euclid included some Propositions in his books also. He tried to develop his book by following
a step by step procedure. He started with some comparatively simpler concepts and gradually he
went to comparatively complicated notions.

Note 1.1.1 Postulate or axiom is a statement that could be accepted as a truth without any
proof, as they are self-evident.

1.1.2 Influence of Euclid’s Elements

Influence of Euclid’s Elements were so much that even 200 years later of Euclid’s time, studying
Geometry could not be imagined without using The Elements as a text book. Untill the beginning
of 19th century, that means, even in 16th century, 17th century, studying Geometry in University was
unimaginable without going through Euclid’s Proposition one by one and learning these all. That
was the Geometry of those days. Nowadays we also use Euclid’s Elements for better understanding
of Mathematics.

Repelling a misconception
Sometimes we think that Geometry has come to us by the hands of Euclid only and he addressed
all initial geometrical notions, as he is well known as the Father of Geometry. This is exactly not so,
rather it is a misconception. All geometric ideas pulled together in Elements, were not introduced
by Euclid only. It is supposed that he tried to collect all concepts developed during and previous his
time together and he gathered many concepts in fact within his 13 books. However, he definitely
contributed to develop not only Geometry, but also the whole Mathematics in a more concrete
and organized way. Euclid mainly paved a path for so many future thinkers to think Geometrical
issues in a precise, rigid and rigorous approach. In this aspect, he is considered to be the Father of
Geometry.

1.1.3 Geometry before Euclid

Geometry was also a highly practised subject to mathematicians before Euclid’s time. For example,
Thales (624-548 BC), Hippocrates (470-410 BC), Theaetetus (417-369 BC), and Eudoxus (408-355
BC) were Greek predecessors of Euclid. Even Pythagorean Theorem, the most used Theorem in
Geometry, was also established before the days of Euclid.
Most of what we know about Ancient Egyptians is that they knew a lot of geometry. Thales
even became a celebrity in Egypt. He could see the mathematical principles behind rules for
specific problems, then apply the principles to other problems such as determining the height of
the pyramids.
The ancient Babylonians also contributed a lot to Geometry before Euclid.

1.1.4 Synthetic Geometry

Most of the primary works on Geometry goes to the branch named Synthetic Geometry. We are
familiar with this oldest and traditional branch of Geometry from the very beginning of our journey
with Geometry. Prominent mathematician Euclid is famous for his synthetic approach for solving
different geometrical issues.
In Synthetic Geometry, directly related geometric tools such as - compass, straightedge etc
are used. Synthetic Geometry is also known as Pure Geometry. Sometimes it is also referred as
Axiomatic Geometry, as here conclusion of a geometric problem is drawn by means of axiomatic
approach. Axiomatic approach mainly works based on a set of undefined terms and a set of axioms
relating the undefined terms. One of the usages of undefined terms is - they are used for defining

3
some other terms. In case of defining a term, previously defined terms are also used. Consequences
like as Lemmas, Propositions, Theorems, Corollaries etc are described in terms of undefined terms
and defined terms.
Synthetic method was also favoured by Sir Isaac Newton for solving geometric problems.

1.2 Introduction to Analytic Geometry

1.2.1 Analytic Geometry
Analytic geometry is the study of geometry using a coordinate system and algebraic formulae.
So this is also known as Coordinate Geometry. Frequently Analytic geometry is also referred as
Cartesian geometry. It contrasts with Synthetic Geometry. In this branch of Geometry, space of
our consideration is given a coordinate system in which every point is expressed in terms of an
n-tuple. That means, here points get algebraic representation. Since every shape is a nothing but
a togetherness of points, in Analytic approach shapes get algebraic representation. Here the entries
of n-tuples belongs to the set of all real numbers R and depends on the choice of the initial point
or origin.

1.2.2 Initial days of Analytic Geometry

Though Analytic Geometry has started to flourish vastly from modern period, more specifically
from 17th century, it is not only practised from that time. This kind of geometry was practising
actually many many years before 17th century :
The Greek mathematician Menaechmus is assumed as the first person who solved many geo-
metric problems by using the methods having similarity with analytic approach. So many people
try to give him the credit as the introducer of Analytic Geometry. Apollonious of Perga, a Greek
geometer, studied conic sections around 200 BC.
So far we know that Persian poet-mathematician Omar Khayyám observed a strong relationship
between geometry and algebra in 11th -century. He contributed significantly in the side of solving
general cubic equations in one variable

ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

through geometric approach, by his attempt to solve the equation

x3 + bx2 = d, [where d > 0].

in geometrical way.
Although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit as the founder of Analytic geometry, actually
this branch was independently discovered by Rene Descartes and Pierre de Fermat. An interesting
matter is that both of this two mathematicians were French. They applied algebraic principles to
Geometry. Though Fermat developed Analytic Geometry before Descartes, Descartes published
his discovery before Fermat.

1.2.3 How does Analytic Geometry work?

Analytic Geometry interrelates Geometry and Algebra. In analytic approach, at first a geometry is
given an algebraic representation by means of some algebraic equations, that means, here geometry
is transformed into algebra at first. This sometimes makes geometry more easy to us to manipulate
for obtaining information. In a word, Analytic Geometry extracts information from shapes via
algebraic procedures.

4
1.2.4 Difference between synthetic approach and analytic approach
Main difference between Synthetic and Analytic Geometry is that their tools for studying geomet-
rical objects are different.
Synthetic approach is the oldest approach to handle geometric problems, whereas Analytic
approach is comparatively modern. Only after the introduction of coordinate methods there arose
a reason to introduce the term Synthetic Geometry to distinguish this approach to geometry from
other approaches.
In Synthetic Geometry, to draw a conclusion by solving a geometric problem we do not use
coordinates or algebraic formulae. Synthetic geometry in this sense is doing geometry without re-
course to algebras and analytic computations. We use more abstract axiomatic approach and many
geometrical instruments here. In Analytic approach, we model geometry by algebraic expressions
and use analysis and algebraic techniques to obtain results. According to the geometer Felix Klein,

Synthetic geometry is that which studies figures as such, without recourse to for-
mulae, whereas analytic geometry consistently makes use of such formulae as can be
written down after the adoption of an appropriate system of coordinates.

Analytic Geometry acts like as a bridge between Algebra and Geometry, when Synthetic Geometry
is purely related to only Geometry. In this point of view, synthetic approach is more independent
geometric approach.

1.2.5 Application of Analytic Geometry

Before starting to learn something, it is very natural for us to search the answer of the question -
Why do we need to learn it? Same question may arise in case Analytic Geometry also. The answer
is :

ˆ Analytic Geometry assists us to manipulate and explain geometries often in two dimensions
(in Euclidean plane), three dimensions (in Euclidean space) and even in higher dimensions
more simply, as it is concerned with representing, defining and studying geometrical shapes
in algebraic way.

ˆ To understand Physics, Engineering, Aviation science, Rocketry science, Space science etc
well, it is prerequisite to have a minimum knowledge in Analytic Geometry. To study our
solar system, projectile motion and so on we need Analytic Geometry.

ˆ Foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete and
computational geometry is standing on Analytic Geometry.

1.2.6 Some undefined terms

Here undefined terms does not mean the terms which are invalid in Mathematics. By undefined
terms here we indicate those terms, which are taken in Geometry without any formal definition.
Some of those terms are explained shortly in the following :

• Point : Point is considered as a basic element of Geometry, like the letters A, B, a , M, q etc
of English alphabet. Usually we represent a point in Geometry by putting a dot.

• Line : A line is the locus of a point, which can also be considered as a sequential arrangement
of points one after another without any gap between any two of them. It may be straight or
may be curved. A line has no starting and ending point. It is always infinitely extendable
and has no starting or ending point.

5
 • Plane : By a plane we mean a flat surface. A plane is also extendable infinitely in either
direction.

Remark 1.2.1 Unless otherwise specified explicitly, by line we will mean a straight line.

Repelling a misconception
In Euclid’s Elements, point was defined as that which has no part, that means, a point is that,
which has none of length, breadth and height. Actually it is not so logical. To become more clear,

let us consider a line l. Obviously l consists of infinitely many individual points. If

those points have zero dimension, then it will not affect l, if we delete all of the points
of l one by one. Because subtraction of 0 (zero) from a quantity has not any effect. But
in real aspect, omitting all points of l one by one will cause to disappear the existence
of l.

Same case will occur for any shape in Geometry. As a result, existence of Geometry will be vanished,
if we consider a point as a dimensionless object. In this regard, today’s modern mathematicians
have taken point as a basic object of Geometry having a negligible dimension. That means, we can
neglect or delete some points from a shape when it is necessary to do, but length, breadth, height
of a point is not exactly equal to 0 (zero).

1.2.7 Definition of some necessary terms

Definition of a term is nothing but the statement that gives a meaning to that term. To define a
term we use only undefined terms and previously defined terms. Now using some undefined terms
like as points, line etc, let us define some terms those are necessary in the next.

Definition 1.2.1 Points lying on the same straight line are called collinear points.

Example 1.2.1

Definition 1.2.2 Part of a straight line that starts from a point situated on that straight line
and ends at another point located on the same straight line is called a line segment.

That means, a line has starting and ending points. All points together lying between the starting
and ending points including these form a line segment.

Example 1.2.2

Definition 1.2.3 Part of a straight line that starts from a point and ends never in one direction
ia called a ray.

That means, a ray has no end point. Any ray seems to emanate from its staring point, as it
starts from somewhere of a straight line and goes on and on in one of the two directions of its
support line.

Example 1.2.3

Definition 1.2.4 Distance between the end points of that line segment is called the length of
that line segment.

Example 1.2.4

6
1.3 Connection between Algebra and Geometry
1.3.1 Geometry of real numbers
The set of all real numbers R can be represented by a line like as that one sketched in the following
Figure 1.1. This kind of line is called number line.
A
R
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Figure 1.1: Number nine.

At first we place 0 at somewhere (usually we try to place it in the middle) on the number line
and then locate the positive numbers in the right and negative numbers in the left side with respect
to the 0 (zero). On the number line, any kind of counting is considered with respect to 0 (zero).
Distance d of a real number x lying on the number line from 0 (zero) is obtained by the formula
p
d = | 0 − x |= (0 − x)2 unit.

Each point on a number line corresponds a real number. Conversely, every point on a number
line can be represented by a real number. A fixed point on the number line is called the graph of
its corresponding real number.
In Figure 1.1, the point A is the graph of the real number x = 1.5 .

1.3.2 Limitation of number line geometry

Number line can not capture the Geometry of n-tuples. Any point not located on the number line,
like as the point A in the Figure 1.2, can not be expressed by an algebraic expression like as x = a.

R
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Figure 1.2: Limitation of number line.

Here as a reference the number line is not sufficient to reach A, since along the number line we
can only go exactly below the point, but can not touch it. To reach the point, we also have to go
perpendicularly or vertically upward. But there is no reference or scale along the vertical direction,
with respect to which we can calculate the distance of the point A from our horizontal number line.

1.4 Going Beyond the Geometry of Real Numbers

1.4.1 Geometry of plane
To reach the points like as A in the Figure 1.2 and express these algebraically, we need to take
another number line as a reference along vertical direction. So let us take another number line that
is the perpendicular to the previous one and locate it in such a way that the points indicating the
real number 0 (zero) in both of the number line coincide. Figure 1.3 illustrates this.
Now at first going exactly below the point A in Figure 1.3 along the horizontal number line and
then from that place going parallel with the vertical number line in the upward direction, we can
easily reach the point A.

7
 R

3
A ≡ (3, 2)

2
1
900

0
R
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

−1
−2 −3
Figure 1.3: R2 -plane

Suppose to reach at A, we have to go 3 units in the right direction of the horizontal line and 2
units perpendicularly upward along the vertical number line. Then we can express A algebraically
as the ordered pair (3, 2).
An interesting matter is that now we are able to reach not only the point A, but also any
point that is situated on the plane of our consideration. Each point on plane of our consideration
corresponds an ordered pair and conversely. A fixed point on the plane of our consideration is called
the graph of its corresponding ordered pair. In Figure 1.3, point A is the graph of the ordered
pair (3, 2).
Observe that as a result of taking two mutually perpendicular number line, our whole plane is
divided into 4 regions. Each of these regions is called a quadrant. These 4 quadrants are named
as the 1st quadrant, 2nd quadrant, 3rd quadrant and 4th quadrant as like as named in the following
Figure 1.4 :

R
4
3

2nd quadrant 1st quadrant

(−, +) (+, +)
2

(−a, b) (a, b)
1

900
0

R
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

−2

(−, −) (+, −)
−4 −3

(−a, −b) (a, −b)

Figure 1.4: Four quadrants of R2 -plane.

Keeping our eyes on the positive and negative parts of the two mutually perpendicular number
lines in the Figure 1.4, we can easily conclude that

ˆ in the 1st quadrant those points lie, whose both 1st and 2nd entries of the corresponding
ordered pair are positive real numbers.

8
 ˆ in the 2nd quadrant those points lie, whose 1st entry in the corresponding ordered pair is a
negative real number and 2nd entry is a positive real number.

ˆ in the 3rd quadrant those points lie, whose both 1st and 2nd entries of the corresponding
ordered pair are negative real numbers.

ˆ in the 4th quadrant those points lie, whose both 1st entry in the corresponding ordered pair
is a positive real number and 2nd entry is a negative real number.

Let a and b be any two positive real numbers. Then the positions of the points expressed
algebraically by the ordered pairs (a, b), (−a, b), (−a, −b) and (a, −b) will be at that quadrant
where (a, b), (−a, b), (−a, −b) and (a, −b) are respectively written and shown in the Figure 1.4.

Note 1.4.1 Since all points of our plane of consideration can be reached and represented with
respect to two mutually perpendicular real lines such as in Figure 1.3, our plane of consideration
is also referred sometimes as R2 -plane.

Example 1.4.1 Consider we are given the ordered pairs (2.5, 3), (−2, 1), (−1, −2.8), (1, −3) and
(0, 0). Then illustration of these ordered pairs in our plane of consideration are as follows (see
Figure 1.5) :

R
(2.5, 3)
3
2

(−2, 1)
1

900
0

R
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1

(0, 0)
−2

(1, −3)
−3

(−1, −2.8)

Figure 1.5: Graphs of (2.5, 3), (−2, 1), (−1, −2.8), (1, −3) and (0, 0).

Remark 1.4.1 As any ordered pair (x, y) corresponds a point in the R2 -plane, from now we will
use a fixed ordered pair (x0 , y0 ) to mean a fixed point. For example, we will write a point (2, 1)
to mean the point which can be represented by the ordered pair (2, 1).

Question 1.4.1 We reach at the same point, if we move along the either number line at first.
Then is it obligatory to move along the horizontal number line at first and then along the vertical
line to reach a point in R2 -plane?

Answer In this level we will practice so as we do commonly - at first move along the horizontal
number line and then along parallel direction of the vertical line to reach a point in R2 -plane. But
in higher classes we will be introduced with another type of Geometry named Affine Geometry.
In that Geometry, there will be no effect along which direction we move at first. Moreover, the
notions of the mutually perpendicular reference lines and the fixed point (0, 0) are also absent there.

9
1.4.2 Geometry of space
3D

10
 Part I

Two Dimension

11
Chapter 2

Change of Axes

For this chapter the reader is referred to [3, 5, 6, 8].

2.1 Coordinate Axes

2.1.1 The relativity of coordinates
For details go through Askwith [3, Page 3].

2.1.2 Rectangular axes

Axes of coordinates are at right angles.

2.1.3 Oblique axes

Axes of coordinates ... Affine geometry

2.1.4 Polar coordinates

Polar plane. (r, θ). r may be positive, negative, or zero. r is directed distance
 π  π  π  π
Exercise 2.1.1 Locate 5, , 5, − , −5, , and −5, − on the polar plane.
6 6 6 6

2.2 Translation of Axes

2.2.1 What does translation of axes mean?
Translation of axes means that transformation in which new axes are parallel to the old axes but
intersect at a new origin.

2.2.2 Theorem to related to translation of axes

Theorem 2.2.1 If the origin O(0, 0) is shifted to O′ (α, β) keeping the direction of the axes
unchanged, then coordinates are transformed as

x′ = x − α, y ′ = y − β.

Proof. Do yourself.

12
Note 2.2.1 To change an equation from old to new coordinates we use the transformation

x = x′ + α, y = y ′ + β. (2.1)

Problem 2.2.1 Keeping the direction of axes unchanged the origin is shifted to (1, −1). Find
the transformed equation of ax2 + by + c = 0 with respect to the new axes.

Solution Let (x′ , y ′ ) be the transformed coordinates of (x, y) under the described transformation.
So (according to (2.1))
x = x′ + 1, y = y ′ − 1.
Therefore transformed equation of ax2 + by + c = 0 is
2
a (x′ + 1) + b (y ′ − 1) + c = 0
2
⇒ a (x′ ) + by ′ + 2ax′ + a − b + c = 0
∴ ax2 + by + 2ax + a − b + c = 0, replacing x′ &y ′ by x&y respectively

2.3 Rotation of Axes with Fixed Origin

2.3.1 What does rotation of axes mean?
Translation of axes means that transformation in which the origin remains the same (unchanged
or fixed), but the new axes make a specified angle with the old axes.

2.3.2 Theorem to related to rotation of axes

Theorem 2.3.1 If the origin O(0, 0) is remained fixed and the axes are rotated through an angle
θ, then coordinates of a point (x, y) are transformed as

x′ = x cos θ + y sin θ, y ′ = y cos θ − x sin θ.

with respect to the new axes.

Proof. Left as an exercise.

Note 2.3.1 The transformation from new co-ordinates (x′ , y ′ ) to old coordinates (x, y) is

x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ, y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ .

To express an equation from old coordinate system (x, y) to new coordinate system (x′ , y ′ ), x and
y are replaced by their corresponding expression given here.

Technique to memorize the transformation. Table 2.1 helps to keep the transformations
related to rotation of axes in mind easily.

x′ y′
x cos θ − sin θ
y sin θ cos θ

Table 2.1:

13
Problem 2.3.1 Determine the transformation equation of x2 + y 2 − 2xy + 2x − 4y + 3 = 0, when
the origin remains unchanged and the direction of axes is turned through an angle 45o .

Solution Given equation is

x2 + y 2 − 2xy + 2x − 4y + 3 = 0. (2.2)

Let under the described transformation (x1 , y1 ) be the transformed coordinates of (x, y). So
1
x = x1 cos 45 − y1 sin 45 = √ (x1 − y1 )
2
and
1
y = x1 sin 45 + y1 cos 45 = √ (x1 + y1 ).
2
From (2.2),
 2  2   
1 1 1 1
√ (x1 − y1 ) + √ (x1 + y1 ) − 2 √ (x1 − y1 ) √ (x1 + y1 )
2 2 2 2
   
1 1
+ 2 √ (x1 − y1 ) − 4 √ (x1 + y1 ) + 3 = 0
2 2
1 2 1
√
x1 − 2x1 y1 + y12 + x21 + 2x1 y1 + y12 − x21 − y12 + 2 (x1 − y1 )



⇒
2 √ 2
− 2 2 (x1 + y1 ) + 3 = 0
√ √ √
⇒ x21 − 2x1 y1 + y12 + x21 + 2x1 y1 + y12 − 2x21 + 2y12 + 2 2x1 − 2 2y1 − 4 2x1
√
− 4 2y1 + 6 = 0
√ √
⇒ 4y12 − 2 2x1 − 6 2y1 + 6 = 0.

Replacing x1 and y1 by x and y respectively in the above equation, we obtain that

√ √
4y 2 − 2 2x − 6 2y + 6 = 0,

which is the required transformed equation.

Exercise 2.3.1 If the direction of the axes is turned through an angle

√ 30o and the origin remains
unchanged, then find the transformation equation of x2 − y 2 + 2 3xy − 2a2 = 0. Identify and
sketch it.

Answer x2 − y 2 = a2 , which represents a rectangular hyperbola centered at (0, 0) with vertices

(±a, 0) and asymptotes
x2 − y 2 = 0 ⇒ y = ±x.
Sketch of this hyperbola is as follow (see Figure 2.1).

Exercise 2.3.2 Transform the equation 11x2 + 24xy 2

 + 4y − 20x − 40y − 5 = 0, when the direction
−4
of the axes is turned through an angle tan−1 whereas the coordinates of the origin remains
3
unchanged.

Hints If the axes are rotated through the angle θ by keeping the origin fixed,
 
−1 −4 −4 −4 3
θ = tan ⇒ tan θ = ⇒ sin θ = and cos θ = .
3 3 5 5

14
 y
y=x

y = −x

Figure 2.1: Sketch of the rectangular hyperbola x2 − y 2 = a2 .

So
3 −4 3x1 4y1
x = x1 cos θ − y1 sin θ = x1 − y1 = +
5 5 5 5
and
−4 3 −4x1 3y1
x1 + y1 =
y = x1 sin θ + y1 cos θ = + .
5 5 5 5
Thus from 11x2 + 24xy + 4y 2 − 20x − 40y − 5 = 0,

x21 − 4y12 − 4x1 + 8y1 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 − 4y 2 − 4x + 8y + 1 = 0.

2.4 Translation and Rotation of Axes

Problem
 2.4.1
 When the origin is shifted to (1, −2) and the axes are turned through an angle
1
tan−1 − then determine the transformed equation of
2

14x2 − 4xy + 11y 2 − 36x + 48y + 41 = 0.

Solution Given equation is

14x2 − 4xy + 11y 2 − 36x + 48y + 41 = 0. (2.3)

If the origin is shifted to (1, −2) by keeping the direction of the axes fixed, then

x = x1 + 1, y = y1 + (−2) = y1 − 2.

So from Equation (2.3),

14 (x1 + 1)2 − 4 (x1 + 1) (y1 − 2) + 11 (y1 − 2)2 − 36 (x1 + 1)

+ 48 (y1 − 2) + 41 = 0
⇒ 14x2 − 4xy + 11y 2 = 25, replacing x1 , y1 by x, y respectively. (2.4)

If the axes are rotated through the angle θ after shifting the origin (0, 0) to (1, −2), then we obtain
that  
−1 1 1 −1 2
θ = tan − ⇒ tan θ = − ⇒ sin θ = √ and cos θ = √ .
2 2 5 5
So
2 −1 2x1 y1
x = x1 cos θ − y1 sin θ = √ x1 − y1 √ = √ + √
5 5 5 5

15
and
−1 2 −x1 2y1
y = x1 sin θ + y1 cos θ = √ x1 + √ y1 = √ + √ .
5 5 5 5
Thus from Equation (2.4) we obtain that
 2     2
2x1 y1 2x1 y1 −x1 2y1 −x1 2y1
14 √ + √ −4 √ + √ √ +√ + 11 √ + √ = 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
⇒ 75x21 + 50y12 = 125
∴ 3x2 + 2y 2 = 5, replacing x1 , y1 by x, y respectively.
Caution 2.1 In Exercise 2.3.2 and Problem 2.4.1, if we take sin θ as +ve and cos θ as −ve, then
xy-related term isn’t removed and the answer does not match. Why? (so we need to consider sin θ
as −ve and cos θ as +ve)

Answer In Exercise 2.3.2 tan θ is negative. We know that in the formula θ is acute. So in
Exercise 2.3.2 θ is produced in the 4th -quadrant by clockwise rotation. In this quadrant sin θ is
negative and cos θ is positive

Exercise 2.4.1 Suppose that the origin (0, 0) is translated to the point (2, 3) and the axes are
rotated through an angle 45o . Obtain the transformed equation of 3x2 +2xy+3y 2 −18x−22y+50 = 0
under the described transformations.

Solution Since the origin is shifted to (2, 3) transformed equation of 3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 − 18x −
22y + 50 = 0 is
3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 = 1. (2.5)
Since the axes are rotated through the angle 45o , via the transformations
x = x1 cos 45o − y1 sin 45o
and
y = y1 sin 45o + y1 cos 45o ,
we obtain the transformed equation of Equation (2.5) as follows.
8x21 + 4y12 = 2 ⇒ 4x2 + 2y 2 = 1.

2.4.1 Removing x, y and xy terms from the general second degree

quadratic equation
The next theorem describes the process of removing x, y and xy terms from the equation ax2 +
by 2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0.

Theorem 2.4.1 To remove the x, y from the general second degree quadratic equation
ax2 + by 2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, (2.6)
we need to transform the origin to the point
 
f h − bg gh − af
(α, β) = ,
ab − h2 ab − h2

and in this case new transformed equation of Equation (2.6) will be

ax2 + by 2 + 2hxy + c1 = 0 , (2.7)

16
whenever c1 = gα + f β + c . In addition, to remove xy-related term from Equation (2.7), we need
to rotate the axes through an angle
 
1 −1 2h
θ = tan
2 a−b

and as a result of this rotation Equation (2.7) transform into the equation

a1 x 2 + b 1 y 2 + c 1 = 0 , (2.8)

whenever a1 + b1 = a + b and a1 b1 = ab − h2 .

Problem 2.4.2 If the origin is shifted to (2, 3), then to transform the equation 3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 −
18x − 22y + 50 = 0 to 4x2 + 2y 2 = 1, at which angle should the axes be rotated?

Solution As a result of shifting origin (0, 0) to the point (2, 3), equation 3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 − 18x −
22y + 50 = 0 to 4x2 + 2y 2 = 1 is transformed to

3x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 = 1 (2.9)

according to the transformations x = x1 + α, y = y + β.

In Equation (2.9),
a = 3, b = 3, h = 1.
 
1 −1 2h
Therefore according to the formula θ = tan required rotation angle is
2 a−b
 
1 −1 2×1 1
θ = tan = × 90o = 45o .
2 3−3 2
Verification/obtainig the transformed equation: If the axes are turned through an angle
o
45 , then
1
x = x1 cos 45o − y1 sin 45o = √ (x1 − y1 )
2
and
1
y = x1 sin 45o + y1 cos 45o = √ (x1 + y1 ) .
2
So from Equation (2.9),
 2  2
1 1 1 1
3 √ (x1 − y1 ) + 2 · √ (x1 − y1 ) · √ (x1 + y1 ) + 3 √ (x1 + y1 ) = 1
2 2 2 2
⇒ 3 (x1 − y1 ) + 2 x1 − y1 + 3 (x1 + y1 )2 = 2
2 2 2

⇒ 8x21 + 4y12 = 2 ∴ 4x2 + 2y 2 = 1.

Exercise 2.4.2 Keeping the origin

√ fixed, at which angle should the axes be rotated to remove
2 2
xy-term form the equation 7x −6 3xy+13y −16 = 0? Hence determine the transformed equation
also.

Solution Comparing √
7x2 − 6 3xy + 13y 2 − 16 = 0 (2.10)
with ax2 + by 2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, we get
√
a = 7, b = 13, h = −3 3, c = −16, f = 0, g = 0.

17
  
1 2h
According to the formula θ = tan−1 required rotation angle is
2 a−b
√ ! √  1
1 2 × (−3 3) 1
θ= tan−1 = tan −1
3 = × 60o = 45o .
2 7 − 13 2 2

Let after removing xy-term the transformed equation of (2.10) be

a1 x2 + b1 y 2 − 16 = 0 (2.11)

Here
a1 + b1 = a + b = 7 + 13 = 20
and  √ 2
a1 b1 = ab − h2 = (7 × 13) − 3 3 = 64.
So p p
a1 − b1 = ± (a1 + b1 )2 − 4a1 b1 = ± (20)2 − 4 × 64 = ±12.
Thus a1 = 4, or 16 and b1 = 16, or 4. Therefore required transformed equation is 4x2 + 16y 2 = 16,
or 16x2 + 4y 2 = 16.

Problem 2.4.3 Remove the first degree terms from

(i) x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 + 2x − 4y − 1 = 0.

(ii) 3x2 + 5xy − 2y 2 − 16x + 3y + 5 = 0.

Problem 2.4.4 Remove the xy-terms from 19x2 + 5xy + 7y 2 − 13 = 0.

Problem 2.4.5 Remove the x-terms, y-terms and xy-terms from 17x2 + 18xy − 7y 2 − 16x − 32y −
18 = 0.

2.5 Two Perpendicular Lines as New Coordinate Axes

Theorem 2.5.1 Let (x, y) be the coordinate of a point P with respect to the axes OX and OY .
The transformed coordinates (x1 , y1 ) of P with the axes ax + by + c = 0 and bx − ay + c1 = 0 is
 
bx − ay + c1 ax + by + c
(x1 , y1 ) = √ , √ .
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2

Problem 2.5.1 Considering the mutually perpendicular lines x − 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x + y = 8 as

X-axis and Y -axis respectively, transform the equation 11x2 − 4xy + 14y 2 − 58x − 44y + 126 = 0
to new coordinate system.

Solution Given equation is

11x2 − 4xy + 14y 2 − 58x − 44y + 126 = 0. (2.12)

If (x, y) is transformed into (x1 , y1 ) under the described transformation,

!
2x + y − 8 x − 2y + 1
(x1 , y1 ) = p ,p .
(2)2 + (1)2 (2)2 + (1)2

18
So √ )
2x + y − 8 = 5x1
√ (2.13)
x − 2y + 1 = 5y1
Solving (2.13),
2x1 + y1 x1 − 2y1
x= √ + 3, y= √ +2
5 5
2x1 + y1 x1 − 2y1
⇒ x = h + 3, y = k + 2; say √ = h and √ = k. (2.14)
5 5
Using (2.14) from Equation (2.12) we obtain the following transformed equation :

11(h + 3)2 − 4(h + 3)(k + 2) + 14(k + 2)2 − 58(h + 3) − 44(k + 2) + 126 = 0

⇒ 11h2 − 4hk + 14k 2 = 5
 2  2
2x1 + y1 2x1 + y1 x1 − 2y1 x1 − 2y1
⇒ 11 √ −4· √ · √ + 14 √ =5
5 5 5 5
⇒ 50x21 + 75y12 = 25 ∴ 2x2 + 3y 2 = 1.

Exercise 2.5.1 Considering the mutually perpendicular lines x − 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x + y = 8 as

X-axis and Y -axis respectively, transform the equation 11x2 − 4xy + 14y 2 − 48x − 44y + 126 = 0
to new coordinate system.
√ √
Answer 10x2 + 15y 2 + 4 5x + 2 5y + 25 = 0

19
Chapter 3

General Equation of Second Degree

The graph of a second degree equation in the R2 -plane is a conic section, or simply a conic. The
Greek mathematician Apollonius (262 BC - 200 BC) characterized the conic section by cutting
a double right circular cone with a plane and gave their names. He believed that they should
be studied for the beauty of demonstrations rather than for practical applications. For details go
through [3, Chapter 3] and for problem solving see [6].

3.1 General Equation of Second Degree

3.1.1 General equation of second degree
The equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (3.1)
is known as general equation of second degree. There is a special determinant
a h g
h b f
g f c
related to this equation which is referred as ∆. That is,

a h g
∆= h b f = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 .
g f c

Equation (3.1) represents

ˆ a pair of straight lines, if ∆ = 0.
ˆ a circle, if h = 0 and a = b.
ˆ a parabola, if ∆ ̸= 0 and ab = h2 .
ˆ an ellipse, if ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 > 0.
ˆ a hyperbola, if ∆ ̸= 0 and ab − h2 < 0.

Note 3.1.1 Equation (3.1) represents two parallel lines, if ∆ = 0 and ab = h2 .

Note 3.1.2 Equation (3.1) represents two perpendicular lines, if ∆ = 0 and a + b = 0.

Note 3.1.3 Equation (3.1) represents a rectangular hyperbola, if ∆ ̸= 0, ab−h2 < 0 and a+b = 0.

20
3.1.2 Center of a conic
Center of the conic represented by Equation (3.1) is
 
f h − bg gh − af
, .
ab − h2 ab − h2

3.2 Conic From a Double Right Circular Cone

When a plane intersects a double right circular cone, then a two dimensional curve called a conic
is formed.

3.2.1 Elements of a double right circular cone

Axis, circular base, directrix, nappe, upper nappe, lower nappe, vertex angle.

3.2.2 How a conic is formed from a double right circular cone

Suppose that the vertex angle of a double right circular cone is α and a plane intersect that double
right circular cone at an angle β. Then the intersection of the cone and plane is a

(a) ellipse, if α < β.

(b) circle, if β = 90o .

(c) parabola, if α = β.

(d) hyperbola, if α > β.

(e) degenerate conic, if the plane intersects the double right circular cone throgh its vertex.
Ellipse becomes a point, parabola becomes a line, hyperbola becomes two intersecting lines

3.3 Standard Parabola

3.3.1 Standard form of a parabola
Y 2 = 4aX is the standard equation of a parabola.

Problem 3.3.1 Transform the conic 16x2 − 24xy + 9y 2 − 104x − 172y + 44 = 0 into standard
form.

Solution Comparing the equation

16x2 − 24xy + 9y 2 − 104x − 172y + 44 = 0 (3.2)

with ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, we obtain that

a = 16, b = 9, c = 44, h = −12, g = −52, f = −86.

Since
a h g
∆= h b f == abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = −250000 ̸= 0,
g f c

21
Equation (3.2) represents a conic. Moreover, ab − h2 = 0. Thus Equation (3.2) represents a
parabola.
Equation (3.2) can be written as

(4x − 3y)2 = 104x + 172y − 44 (3.3)

Introduce a constant k in Equation (3.3) as

(4x − 3y + k)2 = 104x + 172y − 44 + k 2 + 8kx − 6ky

= (104 + 8k)x + (172 − 6k)y + k 2 − 44 (3.4)

so that straight lines 4x − 3y + k = 0 and (104 + 8k)x + (172 − 6k)y + k 2 − 44 = 0 become

perpendicular. So then
−4 −(104 + 8k)
× = −1 ⇒ k = 2.
−3 (172 − 6k)
Plugging the value of k in Equation (3.4), we obtain that

(4x − 3y + 2)2 = 120x + 160y − 40

!2
4x − 3y + 2 3x + 4y − 1
⇒ p × 25 = 40 × √ ×5 (3.5)
2
4 + (−3) 2 32 + 42

4x − 3y + 2 3x + 4y − 1
Let = Y and = X. So the Equation (3.5) becomes
5 5
Y 2 = 4 × 2 × X,

which is the standard form of parabola with a = 2.

3.3.2 Properties of standard parabola

Let Y 2 = 4aX be the standard form of the given parabola represented by the equation of the form

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0.

Then its

(i) vertex (X, Y ) = (0, 0)

(ii) equation of axis is Y = 0

(iii) focus (X, Y ) = (a, 0)

(iv) equation of latus rectum is X = a

(v) equation of directrix is X = −a

(vi) length of latus rectum is 4a unit

(vii) equation of tangent at vertex X = 0.

Problem 3.3.2 Find the vertex, focus, equation of directrix, equation of latus rectum, length of
latus rectum, equation of tangent at the vertex of the parabola given in Problem 3.3.1. Also sketch
it.

22
Solution For vertex,
 
3x + 4y − 1 4x − 3y + 2
(X, Y ) = (0, 0) ⇒ , = (0, 0)
5 5
3x + 4y − 1 4x − 3y + 2
⇒ = 0, =0
5 5
⇒ 3x + 4y − 1 = 0, 4x − 3y + 2 = 0
11 10
⇒ x = − , y = ; solving above two equations.
7 7
 
11 10
So the vertex is (x, y) = − , .
7 7
For focus,
 
3x + 4y − 1 4x − 3y + 2
(X, Y ) = (a, 0) ⇒ , = (2, 0)
5 5
3x + 4y − 1 4x − 3y + 2
⇒ = 2, =0
5 5
⇒ 3x + 4y − 11 = 0, 4x − 3y + 2 = 0
⇒ x = 1, y = 2; solving above two equations.
So the focus is (x, y) = (1, 2).
Equation of the directrix,
3x + 4y − 1
X = −a ⇒ = −2 ∴ 3x + 4y − 11 = 0.
5
Length of latus rectum is 4a = 4 × 2 = 8.
Equation of the axis,
4x − 3y + 2
Y =0 ⇒ = 0 ∴ 4x + 3y + 2 = 0.
5
Equation of the tangent at the vertex is
3x + 4y − 1
X=0 ⇒ = 0 ∴ 3x + 4y − 1 = 0.
5
Sketch of the described parabola is given below(see Figure 3.1).

Exercise 3.3.1 Determine the nature of the conic represented by the equation
(a) x2 + 10x − 20y + 25 = 0
(b) x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 6x − 2y + 4 = 0.
Reduce it to standard form. Find its vertex, focus, equation of directrix, equation of latus rectum,
length of latus rectum, equation of tangent at the vertex. Hence sketch it.

Solution (a) ∆ ≠= 0 and ab − h2 = 0. Parabola. Y 2 = 4 × a × X, where Y =, X = and a =.

Vertex (− − −), focus (− − −), equation of latus rectum − − − = 0 and the length of latus
rectum is − − − unit.
x+y−2
(b) ∆ = −4 ̸= 0 and ab − h2 = 1 − 1 = 0. Parabola. Y 2 = 4 × a × X, where Y = √ ,
2
x−y 1
X = √ and a = √ .
2 2  2 
5 3
Vertex (1, 1), focus , , equation of latus rectum 2x − 2y − 1 = 0 and the length of latus
√ 4 4
rectum is 2 unit.

23
 y

0
(0, 18.85)

=
+9 y
4x + 3y + 2 = 0

+4
11 10
 
− ,

3x
7 7

(0, 0.259) x
(0.4549, 0) (6.045, 0)

3x + 4y − 1 = 0

Figure 3.1: Sketch of the parabola given in Problem 3.3.1

3.4 Standard Forms of Ellipse and Hyperbola

3.4.1 Properties of ellipse
x2 y 2
Let + = 1 with r1 > r2 be the standard form of the given ellipse represented by the equation
r12 r22
of the form ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0. Then
 
f h − bg gh − af
(i) its center is (α, β) = ,
ab − h2 ab − h2

(ii) if the origin is shifted to (α, β) keeping the direction of the axes fixed, the given equation
becomes ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + c1 = 0 whenever c1 = gα + f β + c . In this case, ax2 + 2hxy +
by 2 + c1 = 0 is transformed into

Ax2 + 2Hxy + By 2 = 1

a 2 h b 2
by means of x +2 xy + y = 1.
−c1 −c1 −c1
 
1 2h
If the axes are rotated through the angle θ = tan−1 keeping the origin fixed at
2 a−b
(α, β), then the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + c1 = 0 takes the form a1 x2 + b1 y 2 + c1 = 0 ,
where a1 + b1 = a + b and a1 b1 = ab − h2 . From this we find a1 and b1 using the formula
p
x − y = ± (x + y)2 − 4xy. Using these value of a1 , b1 and c1 , we transform the equation
x2 y 2
a1 x2 + b1 y 2 + c1 = 0 into the standard form 2 + 2 = 1 with r1 > r2 .
r1 r2
 
1
(iii) its equation of major axis is A − 2 (x − α) + H(y − β) = 0 . From this equation we get
r1
tan θ = slope of major axis and from that we obtain sin θ , cos θ .

24
  
1
(iv) its equation of minor axis is A− 2 (x − α) + H(y − β) = 0 .
r2

(v) its length of major axis is 2r1 unit, whereas length of minor axis is 2r2 unit.
s
r22
(vi) its eccentricity is e = 1− 2 .
r1

(vii) its vertices are at (α ± d cos θ, β ± d sin θ) , when d is the distance between the center and
the vertex. So d = ±r1 .

(viii) its foci are (α ± d1 cos θ, β ± d1 sin θ) , when d1 is the distance between the center and the
focus. So d1 = ±r1 e .

(ix) its foots of directrices are (α ± d2 cos θ, β ± d2 sin θ) , when d1 is the distance between the
r1
center and the foot of directrix. So d2 = ± .
e
(x) its equation of directrices are perpendicular to its major axis and passes trough feet of direc-
trices.
(xi) its equation of latus rectums are perpendicular to its major axis and passes through foci.

2r22
(xii) length of latus rectum is unit.
r1

Problem 3.4.1 Transform the conic 8x2 − 4xy + 5y 2 − 16x − 14y + 17 = 0 into its standard form
and find its length of major axis, length of minor axis, equation of major axis, equation of minor
axis, eccentricity, vertices, length of latus rectum, feet of the directrices, equation of directrix,
equation of latus rectum. Hence sketch the conic.

Solution Comparing the equation

8x2 − 4xy + 5y 2 − 16x − 14y + 17 = 0 (3.6)

with ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, we obtain that

a = 8, b = 5, c = 17, h = −2, g = −8, f = −7.

Since
a h g
∆= h b f == abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = −324 ̸= 0,
g f c
and ab − h2 = 36 > 0. Thus Equation (3.6) represents an ellipse centered at
   
f h − bg gh − af 3
, = ,2 .
ab − h2 ab − h2 2
 
3
So, if the origin is shifted to , 2 keeping the direction of the axes fixed, then Equation (3.6)
2
becomes
8x2 − 4xy + 5y 2 + c1 = 0, (3.7)

25
 3
where c1 = gα + f β + c = −8 × + (−7) × 2 + 17 = −9. Thus Equation (3.7) becomes
2
8x2 − 4xy + 5y 2 − 9 = 0 (3.8)
8 4 5
⇒ x2 − xy + y 2 = 1 (3.9)
9 9 9
Comparing Equation (3.9) with Ax2 + 2Hxy + By 2 = 1, we obtain that
8 5 2
A= , H=− .
B= ,
9 9 9
   
1 −1 2h 1 −1 −4
If the axes are rotated through the angle θ1 = tan = tan keeping the
  2 a−b 2 3
3
origin fixed at , 2 , then Equation 3.8
2

a1 x2 + b1 y 2 − 9 = 0, (3.10)

where
a1 + b1 = a + b = 13 (3.11)
and a1 b1 = ab − h2 = 36. Now
p
a1 − b 1 = ± (a1 + b1 )2 − 4a1 b1 = ± 5 (3.12)

Solving Equation 3.11 and Equation 3.13, we get

a1 = 9, b1 = 4 or a1 = 4, b1 = 9.

We consider a1 = 4, b1 = 9, as r1 > r2 . Thus Equation 3.10 takes the form

x2 y2
 2 + = 1,
3 (1)2
2
3
which is the standard form of the given ellipse with r1 = and r2 = 1.
2
Therefore
the length of major axis is
2r1 = 3,
the length of minor axis is
2r2 = 2,
 
1
the equation of major axis according to the formula A − 2 (x − α) + H(y − β) = 0 is
r1
2x − y − 1 = 0
2 1
with slope tan θ = 2. So sin θ = √ and cos θ = √ ,
5 5  
1
the equation of minor axis according to the formula A − 2 (x − α) + H(y − β) = 0 is
r2
11
x + 2y − = 0,
2

26
 y

0
= 2x − y − 1 = 0
2
11
−
2y
+
x (2, 3)
3
 
,2
2

(1, 1)
x

Figure 3.2: Sketch of the ellipse given in Problem 3.4.1

s √
r22 5
the eccentricity is e = 1− 2 = .
r1 3
3
Let d be the distance between the center and the vertices. So d = ± r1 = ± . Therefore the
2
vertices are
 
3 3 1 3 2
(α ± d cos θ, β ± d sin θ) = ± × √ ,2 ± × √
2 2 5 2 5
   
3 3 3 3 3 3
= + √ ,2 + √ , − √ ,2 − √
2 2 5 5 2 2 5 5
Let d1 be the distance between the center and the foci. So
√ √
3 5 5
d1 = ± de = ± r1 e = ± × =± .
2 3 2
Therefore the foci are
√ √ !
3 5 1 5 2
(α ± d1 cos θ, β ± d1 sin θ) = ± × √ ,2 ± ×√ = (2, 3), (1, 1).
2 2 5 2 5

Let d2 be the distance between the center and the directrices. So

3
d r1 9
d2 = ± = ± = ± √2 = ± √ .
e e 5 2 5
3
Therefore the feet of directrices are
   
12 19 3 1
(α ± d2 cos θ, β ± d2 sin θ) = , , , .
5 5 5 5
Let the equation of directrices be
x + 2y + k = 0, (3.13)

27
    
12 19 3 1
where k is a constant. Since Equation 3.13 passes through , , , , we obtain that
5 5 5 5
k = −1, −10. Therefore required equations of directrices are

x + 2y − 1 = 0, x + 2y − 10 = 0.

Let the equation of latus rectums be

x + 2y + k1 = 0, [as it perpendicular to major axis] (3.14)

where k1 is a constant. Since Equation 3.14 passes through (2, 3), (1, 1), we obtain that k1 = −3, −8.
Therefore required equations of latus rectums are

x + 2y − 3 = 0, x + 2y − 8 = 0.

Sketch of the described parabola is given below(see Figure 3.2).

Exercise 3.4.1 Determine the nature of the conic represented by the equation

(a) 5x2 + 2xy + 5y 2 + 26x + 34y + 65 = 0

(b) 17x2 + 12xy + 8y 2 − 46x − 28y + 33 = 0.

Reduce it to standard form. Find its length of major axis, length of minor axis, equation of major
axis, equation of minor axis, eccentricity, vertices, length of latus rectum, feet of the directrices,
equation of directrix, equation of latus rectum. Hence sketch the conic.

3.4.2 Properties of hyperbola

x2 y2
Let − = 1 with r1 > r2 be the standard form of the given hyperbola represented by the
r12 r22
equation of the form ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0. All properties of hyperbola are similar to
the properties of ellipse. For hyperbola, in the term major axis is replaced by the term transverse
axis and the term minor axis is replaced by the term conjugate axis.

28
Chapter 4

Pair of Straight Lines

For this chapter the reader is referred to [7, 8].

4.1 Homogeneous Equations of Pair of Straight lines

4.1.1 Second degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y
The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is known as the second degree homogeneous equation
in the variables x and y.

Theorem 4.1.1 The second degree homogeneous equation represents a pair of straight lines
passing through the origin.

Proof. The second degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y is

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
⇒ (ax)2 + 2(ax)(hy) + (hy)2 − h2 y 2 − aby 2 = 0, multiplying by a, (a ̸= 0)


n √ o2
⇒ (ax + hy)2 − y h2 − ab = 0
 √  √ 
⇒ ax + hy + y h2 − ab ax + hy − y h2 − ab = 0
 √   √ 
⇒ ax + hy + y h2 − ab = 0, or ax + hy − y h2 − ab = 0
a a
∴ y= √ x, or y = √ x;
h + h2 − ab h − h2 − ab
which are two straight lines passing through the origin.

Problem 4.1.1 Show that the area of the triangular region bounded by the pair of√straight lines
n2 h2 − ab
represented by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 and the straight line lx + my + n = 0 is .
am2 − 2hlm + bl2
Solution Given straight line is
lx + my + n = 0 (4.1)
and given homogeneous second degree equation is

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 (4.2)

29
Equation (4.2) represents a pair of straight lines passing through the origin. Let these straight lines
be
y = m1 x (4.3)
and
y = m2 x. (4.4)
Since (4.3) and (4.4) passes trough the origin, their intersecting point is O(0, 0).
Let the intersecting points of the straight line (4.1) with the straight lines (4.3) and (4.4)
respectively be A and B.
From (4.1),

lx + mm1 x + n = 0, using (4.3)

⇒ x(l + mm1 ) = −n
n
∴ x=−
l + mm1
n
Putting x = − in (4.3),
l + mm1
m1 n
y=−
l + mm1
 
n m1 n
So A ≡ − ,− .
l + mm1 l + mm1
Again, from (4.1),

lx + mm2 x + n = 0, using (4.4)

⇒ x(l + mm2 ) = −n
n
∴ x=−
l + mm2
n
Putting x = − in (4.4),
l + mm2
m2 n
y=−
l + mm2
 
n m2 n
So B ≡ − ,− .
l + mm2 l + mm2
Thus area enclosed by △OAB is

0 0 1
1 − n m 1 n
− 1
2 l + mm n 1
l + mm1
m2 n
− − 1
l + mm2 l + mm2
m 2 n2 m1 n2
 
1
= −
2 (l + mm1 )(l + mm2 ) (l + mm1 )(l + mm2 )
n2
 
m2 − m1
=
2 (l + mm1 )(l + mm2 )
" p # " p #
2 2 2 2
n (m 2 − m 1 ) n (m 1 − m2 )
= =
2 (l + mm1 )(l + mm2 ) 2 (l + mm1 )(l + mm2 )
" p #
n2 (m1 + m2 )2 − 4m1 m2
= (4.5)
2 l2 + lm(m1 + m2 ) + m2 m1 m2

30
 Now the combined equation of straight lines (4.3) and (4.4) is

(y − m1 x)(y − m2 x) = 0
⇒ m1 m2 x2 − (m1 + m2 )xy + y 2 = 0 (4.6)

Equation (4.2) can be written as

a 2 2h
x + xy + y 2 = 0 (4.7)
b b
Comparing (4.6) with (4.7),
a 2h
m1 m2 = and m1 + m2 = − .
b b
Therefore from the Expression (4.5) required area is
 s 2 
2h a  r 2
4h − 4ab

− − 4
n2  b b  n2 
 
=  =  b2 

2 

2h
  a   2  bl2 − 2hlm + am2 
 l2 + lm − + m2 
b b b
√ √
n2 n2 h2 − ab
 
2 h2 − ab
= = .
2 bl2 − 2hlm + am2 am2 − 2hlm + bl2
Hence the proof is complete.

4.1.2 n-th degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y

The n-th degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y is of the form a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2

Theorem 4.1.2 Every n-th degree homogeneous equation represents n straight lines, real or
imaginary, passing through the origin.

Proof. n-th degree homogeneous equation in the variables x and y is

a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + an y n = 0
Dividing both sides by an xn we obtain that
         
a0 a1 y a2 y 2 an−1  y n−1  y n
+ + + ··· + + =0
an an x an x an x x
 y n a  y n−1 a  y n−2 a1  y  a0
n−1 n−2
⇒ + + + ··· + + = 0, (4.8)
x an x an x an x an
y
which is a n-th degree polynomial equation in . So it has n roots. Let n roots of Equation
x
(4.8) be m1 , m2 , m3 , · · · , mn . Thus Equation (4.8) can be written as
y  y  y  y 
− m1 − m2 − m3 · · · − mn = 0
x x x x
y y y y
⇒ − m1 = 0, − m2 = 0, − m3 = 0, · · · , − mn = 0
x x x x
∴ y = m1 x, y = m2 x, y = m3 x, · · · , y = mn x;

which are n straight lines, real or imaginary, passing through the origin.

31
Proposition 4.1.1 Equation of a pair of straight lines always is of second degree.

Proof. Let l1 x + m1 y + n1 = 0 and l2 x + m2 y + n2 = 0 together form a pair of straight lines. Now

(l1 x + m1 y + n1 )(l1 x + m1 y + n1 ) = 0
⇒ l1 l2 x2 + (l1 m1 + l2 m1 )xy + m1 m1 y 2 +(l1 n2 + l2 n1 )x
+(m1 n2 + m2 n1 )y + n1 n2 = 0.
Let
l1 l2 = a, l1 m1 + l2 m1 = 2h, m1 m1 = b,
l1 n2 + l2 n1 = 2g, m1 n2 + m2 n1 = 2f, n1 n2 = c.
Then the above equation becomes ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, which is a second degree
equation.

Note 4.1.1 Converse of the Proposition 4.1.1 may not hold. For instance, x2 +y 2 −4x−4y +4 = 0
is a second degree equation, but it does not represent a pair of straight lines. Rather, it represents
a circle with center (2, 2) and radius 2 unit.

Theorem 4.1.3 If the general second degree equation

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
represents a pair of straight lines, then

a h g
∆= h b f = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0
g f c

and the intersection points of this pair of straight lines is

 
f h − bg gh − af
, .
ab − h2 ab − h2

Proof. Suppose that

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (4.9)
represents a pair of straight lines intersecting each other at (α, β). Let the origin be shifted to (α, β)
keeping the direction of the axes fixed. So according to x = x1 + α, y = y1 + β, the transformed
equation of (4.9) is
a(x + α)2 + 2h(x + α)(y + β) + b(y + β)2 + 2g(x + α) + 2f (y + β) + c = 0
⇒ a(x2 + 2xα + α2 ) + 2hxy + 2hxβ + 2hyα + 2hαβ + b(y 2 + 2yβ + β 2 ) + 2gx
+ 2gα + 2f y + 2f β + c = 0
⇒ ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2x(aα + hβ + g) + 2y(hα + bβ + f ) + aα2 + 2hαβ
+ bβ 2 + 2gα + 2f β + c = 0 (4.10)
Since Equation (4.10) represents a pair of straight lines through the new origin, (4.10) must be a
homogeneous equation of x and y. So the coefficients of x, y and the constant term in (4.10) equals
to zero. Thus
aα + hβ + g = 0, (4.11)
hα + bβ + f = 0, (4.12)
aα2 + 2hαβ + bβ 2 + 2gα + 2f β + c = 0 (4.13)

32
From (4.13),
aα2 + hαβ + gα + hαβ + bβ 2 + f β + gα + f β + c = 0
⇒ α(aα + hβ + g) + β(hα + bβ + f ) + gα + f β + c = 0
⇒ (α × 0) + (β × 0) + gα + f β + c = 0, by (4.11) & (4.12)
⇒ gα + f β + c = 0 (4.14)
Solving Equation (4.11) and Equation (4.12),
 
f h − bg gh − af
(α, β) = , .
ab − h2 ab − h2
Plugging the values of α and β in Equation (4.14),
f h − bg gh − af
g 2
+f +c=0
ab − h ab − h2
⇒ f gh − bg 2 + f gh − af 2 + abc − ch2 = 0 × (ab − h2 )
a h g
2 2 2
⇒ abc + 2f gh − af − bg − ch = h b f = 0.
g f c
Hence the statement.

Problem 4.1.2 Find such a λ for which λx2 − 10xy + 12y 2 + 5x − 16y − 3 = 0 represents a pair
of straight line.

Solution Comparing the equation λx2 − 10xy + 12y 2 + 5x − 16y − 3 = 0 with the general second
degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
5
a = λ, h = −5, b = 12, g = , f = −8 and c = −3.
2
According to the question, it needs to be
5
a h g λ −5
2
h b f = 0 ⇒ −5 12 −8 = 0 ⇒ −100λ = −200 ∴ λ = 2.
g f c 5
−8 −3
2
Answer : 2.

Problem 4.1.3 Show that 12x2 + 7xy − 12y 2 − x + 7y − 1 = 0 represents a pair of straight lines.
Find their point of intersection and then find their equations also.

Solution Comparing the equation 12x2 + 7xy − 12y 2 − x + 7y − 1 = 0 with the general second
degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
7 1 7
a = 12, h = , b = −12, g = − , f = and c = −1.
2 2 2
Here ∆ = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0, that is
7 1
12 −
a h g 2 2
7 7
∆= h b f = −12 = 0.
g f c 2 2
1 7
− −1
2 2

33
If the pair of straight lines intersect at (α, β), then
   
f h − bg gh − af 1 7
(α, β) = , = − , .
ab − h2 ab − h2 25 25
Now
12x2 + 7xy − 12y 2 − x + 7y − 1 = 0
⇒ 12x2 + x(7y − 1) − (12y 2 − 7y + 1) = 0
p
−(7y − 1) ± (7y − 1)2 − 4 × 12 × {−(12y 2 − 7y + 1)}
⇒x= =0
p 2 × 12
⇒ 24x + 7y + 1 = ± 625y 2 − 350y + 49 = ±(25y − 7)
Considering + sign
24x + 7y + 1 = 25y − 7 ⇒ 4x − 3y + 1 = 0
and considering − sign
24x + 7y + 1 = −(25y − 7) ⇒ 3x + 4y − 1 = 0
 
1 7
Answer : − , , 4x − 3y + 1 = 0, 3x + 4y − 1 = 0.
25 25

4.2 Angle between Pair of Straight Lines

Theorem 4.2.1 Angle θ between two straight lines represented by the general equation of second
degree ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 is
 √ 2 
−1 2 h − ab
θ = tan .
a+b

Proof. Let the general equation of second degree

x2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (4.15)
represent the pair of straight lines
l1 x + m1 y + n1 = 0 (4.16)
l2 x + m2 y + n2 = 0. (4.17)
Now slope of (4.16) and (4.170 are respectively
l1 l2
M1 = − and M1 = − .
m1 m2
So if the angle between straight lines (4.16) and (4.17) is θ, then
 
l1 l2
− − −
M1 − M2 m1 m
tan θ = ± =±   2 
1 + M1 M2 l1 l2
1+ − −
m1 m2
l2 m1 − l1 m2 ±(l2 m1 − l1 m2 ) |l2 m1 − l1 m2 |
=± = =
m m + l1 l2 m1 m2 + l1 l2 m1 m2 + l1 l2
p 1 2 p
(l2 m1 − l1 m2 ) 2 2
(l2 m1 + l1 m2 ) − 4l1 l2 m1 m2
= = . (4.18)
m1 m2 + l1 l2 m1 m2 + l1 l2

34
Combined equation of (4.16) and (4.17) is

(l1 x + m1 y + n1 ) (l2 x + m2 y + n2 ) = 0
⇒ l1 l2 x2 + (l1 m2 + l2 m1 ) xy + m1 m2 y 2 + (l1 n2 + l2 n1 ) x
+ (m1 n2 + m2 n1 ) y + n1 n2 = 0 (4.19)

Since (4.15) and (4.19) are identical,

a = l1 l2 , 2h = l1 m2 + l2 m1 , b = m1 m2 ,
2g = l1 n2 + l2 n1 , 2f = m1 n2 + m2 n1 , c = n1 n2 .

Plugging these expressions in (4.18),

p √
(2h)2 − 4ab 2 h2 − ab
tan θ = = .
a+b a+b
Hence the proof is complete.

Corollary 4.2.1.1 If the straight lines represented by the general equation of second degree
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 are perpendicular, then

a+b=0.

Proof. When the straight lines represented by x2 +2hxy +by 2 +2gx+2f y +c = 0 are perpendicular,
then according to Theorem 4.2.1
√
2 h2 − ab
is undefined ⇒ a + b = 0.
a+b
Hence the proof is complete.

Problem 4.2.1 Find the angle between the lines represented by the second degree equation
−3x2 − 8xy + 3y 2 − 29x + 3y − 18 = 0.

Solution Comparing the equation −3x2 − 8xy + 3y 2 − 29x + 3y − 18 = 0 with the general second
degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
29 3
a = −3, h = −4, b = 3, g = − ,f= and c = −18.
2 2
Therefore if the angle between the lines is θ, then
√
2 h2 − ab
tan θ =
pa + b
2 (−4)2 − (−3)(3)
= , which is undefined.
−3 + 3
π
∴ θ= .
2
π
Answer .
2
Problem 4.2.2 Show that 6x2 +5xy −6y 2 +16x+63y −102 = 0 represents a pair of perpendicular
straight lines.

35
Solution Comparing 6x2 + 5xy − 6y 2 + 16x + 63y − 102 = 0 with the general second degree
equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
5 63
a = 6, h = , b = −6, g = 8, f = and c = −102.
2 2
Here
a h g
∆= h b f = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2
g f c
5
6 8
2
5 63
= −6
2 2
63
8 −102
2
= 5316 − 5316
= 0.

Again
a + b = 6 + (−6) = 0.
Hence the lines represented by the given equation are perpendicular.

Exercise 4.2.1 Show that each of the following equations represent a pair of straight line :

(a) x2 − xy − 2y 2 − x − 4y − 2 = 0.

(b) 6x2 − 5xy − 6y 2 + 14x + 5y + 4 = 0.

Obtain their equations, point of intersections and angle between them.

Solution (a) ∆ = 0. So the given equation represents a pair of straight lines. x − 2y − 2 = 0,

x + y + 1 = 0, (2, 1), tan−1 (−3).
(b) ∆ = 0. So the given  equation represents a pair of straight lines. 2x − 3y + 4 = 0,
11 10
3x + 2y + 1 = 0, − , , 90o .
13 13

Problem 4.2.3 Show that (x2 + y 2 ) sin2 α = (x cos θ − y sin θ)2 represents a pair of straight lines
passing through the origin and angle between them is 2α.

Solution Equation
x2 + y 2 sin2 α = (x cos θ − y sin θ)2

can be written as

sin2 α − cos2 θ x2 + (2 sin θ cos θ) xy + sin2 α − sin2 θ x2 = 0,

(4.20)

which is a homogeneous second degree equation. Thus it represents a pair of straight lines passing
through origin.
Comparison of Equation (4.20) with ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 yields

a = sin2 α − cos2 θ, h = sin θ cos θ, b = sin2 α − sin2 θ.

36
 Thus angle between the straight lines represented by the given equation is
 √ 2 
−1 2 h − ab
tan
a+b
p !
2 (sin θ cos θ) 2 − (sin2 α − cos2 θ)(sin2 α − sin2 θ)
= tan−1
(sin2 α − cos2 θ) + (sin2 α − sin2 θ)
p !
2 2 θ − sin4 α + sin2 α sin2 θ + cos2 θ sin2 α − sin2 θ cos2 θ
2 sin θ cos
= tan−1
2 sin2 α − (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)
p 2 !
2 sin α(cos 2 θ + sin2 θ) − sin4 α
= tan−1
2 sin2 α − 1
p !
2 4
2 sin α − sin α
= tan−1 , since 1 − cos 2A = 2 sin2 A
− cos 2α
p !
2
2 sin α 1 − sin α
= tan−1
− cos 2α
 
−1 2 sin α cos α
= tan
− cos 2α
 
−1 sin 2α
= tan
− cos 2α
−1
= tan (− tan 2α)
= tan−1 (tan(−2α)) = −2α
Caution 4.1 The conclusion of the above problem −2α does not match with the conclusion 2α
of the question.

4.3 Pair of Parallel Straight Lines

Theorem 4.3.1 If the straight lines represented by the general equation of second degree ax2 +
2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 are parallel, then h2 = ab .

Proof. Let the general equation of second degree

x2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (4.21)
represent the pair of straight lines
l1 x + m1 y + n1 = 0 (4.22)
l2 x + m2 y + n2 = 0. (4.23)
When these straight lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal. Thus
l1 l2
− =− ⇒ l1 m2 − l2 m1 = 0 ⇒ (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 = 02
m1 m2
⇒ (l1 m2 + l2 m1 )2 − 4l1 l2 m1 m2 = 0 (4.24)
Combined equation of (4.22 and (4.23) is
(l1 x + m1 y + n1 ) (l2 x + m2 y + n2 ) = 0
⇒ l1 l2 x2 + (l1 m2 + l2 m1 ) xy + m1 m2 y 2 + (l1 n2 + l2 n1 ) x
+ (m1 n2 + m2 n1 ) y + n1 n2 = 0 (4.25)

37
Since (4.21) and (4.25) are identical,
a = l1 l2 , 2h = l1 m2 + l2 m1 , b = m1 m2 ,
2g = l1 n2 + l2 n1 , 2f = m1 n2 + m2 n1 , c = n1 n2 .
Plugging these expressions in (4.24),
(2h)2 − 4ab = 0 ∴ h2 − ab = 0.

Hence h2 = ab .

Note 4.3.1 Proof of the above theorem can shortly be done, if we treat it as a corollary of the
Theorem 4.2.1.

Definition 4.3.1 Two straight lines are coincident if the following two conditions holds
(i) they are parallel and
(ii) distance between them is 0 (zero).

Theorem 4.3.2 The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of parallel
straight lines, if a : h = h : b = g : f or bg 2 = af 2 and the distance of those parallel lines is
s s
g 2 − ac f 2 − bc
2 or 2 .
a(a + b) b(a + b)

Proof. Let two parallel straight lines represented by

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (4.26)
be
lx + my + n1 = 0 and lx + my + n2 = 0.
Distance d between these two straight lines,
|n1 − n2 |
d= √
l2 + m2
p
(n1 − n2 )2
= √
l2 + m2
p
(n1 + n2 )2 − 4n1 n2
= √ (4.27)
l2 + m2
Now
(lx + my + n1 )(lx + my + n2 ) = 0
⇒ l2 x2 + 2lmxy + m2 y 2 + l(n1 + n2 )x + m(n1 + n2 )y + n1 n2 = 0 (4.28)
Since (4.26) and (4.28) are identical, equating the coefficients of like terms,
l2 = a (4.29)
lm = h (4.30)
m2 = b (4.31)
l(n1 + n2 ) = 2g (4.32)
m(n1 + n2 ) = 2f (4.33)
n1 n2 = c (4.34)

38
Multiplying (4.29) and (4.31)

l2 m2 = ab
⇒ h2 = ab, using (4.30) (4.35)
a h
⇒ = (4.36)
h b
Multiplying (4.30) and (4.33)

lm2 (n1 + n2 ) = 2f h (4.37)

Multiplying (4.31) and (4.32)

lm2 (n1 + n2 ) = 2bg (4.38)

Comparing (4.37) and (4.38)

2f h = 2bg
⇒ hf = bg (4.39)
g h
⇒ = (4.40)
f b

Comparison between (4.36) and (4.40) yields

a h g
= = ∴ a:h=h:b=g:f .
h b f

Squaring (4.39),

h2 f 2 = b2 g 2
⇒ abf 2 = b2 g 2 , as according to (4.35)h2 = ab
∴ af 2 = bg 2 .

From (4.32) and (4.33) respectively

2g 2g
n1 + n2 = =√ , using (4.29) (4.41)
l a

and
2f 2f
n1 + n2 = = √ , using (4.31) (4.42)
m b
Thus according to (4.27), required distance is
s  s 
2 2
2g 2f
− 4c − 4c
a b
d= √ , or √ ; using (4.29), (4.31), (4.34), (4.41) & (4.42)
a+b a+b
s s
g 2 − ac f 2 − bc
= 2 , or 2 .
a(a + b) b(a + b)

Hence the proof is complete.

39
Corollary 4.3.2.1 The straight lines represented by the general second degree equation ax2 +
2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 coincide, if af 2 = bg 2 = ch2 .

Proof. When the straight lines represented by the general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 coincide, then h2 − ab = 0 and d = 0. So
s s
2
g − ac f 2 − bc
h2 − ab = 0, 2 = 0, 2 =0
a(a + b) b(a + b)
⇒ h2 = ab, g 2 = ac, f 2 = bc
h2 ab f 2 bc
⇒ 2 = , 2 =
g ac g ac
2 2
h b f b
⇒ 2 = , 2 =
g c g a
⇒ ch2 = bg 2 , af 2 = bg 2 ∴ af 2 = bg 2 = ch2 .

Hence the proof is complete.

Problem 4.3.1 Show that x2 + 6xy + 9y 2 + 4x + 12y − 5 = 0 represents a pair of parallel straight
lines. Obtain the distance between these two lines.

Solution Comparing the given equation with the general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = 1, h = 3, b = 9, g = 2, f = 6, and c = −5.

Here
a : h = 1 : 3, h : b = 3 : 9 = 1 : 3 and g : f = 2 : 6 = 1 : 3.
Since a : h = h : b = g : f , given equation represents a pair of parallel straight lines.
Alternatively, since
bg 2 = 9 × 22 = 1 × 62 = af 2 ,
given equation represents a pair of parallel straight lines.
Distance between the parallel lines is
s s √
g 2 − ac 22 − (1)(−5) 6 3 10
2 =2 =√ = ,
a(a + b) 1(1 + 9) 10 5
s √
f 2 − bc 3 10
Alternatively, 2 = .
b(a + b) 5

Alternative Here ∆ = 0. So by Theorem 4.1.3 the given equation represents a pair of straight
lines. Again h2 = 9 = ab. Hence by Theorem 4.3.1 s the lines sare parallel. Moreover, by Theo-
2
√
g − ac 22 − (1)(−5) 6 3 10
rem 4.3.2, distance between the parallel lines is 2 =2 =√ = .
a(a + b) 1(1 + 9) 10 5

Alternative See [8, Problem 9, Page 80].

Problem 4.3.2 Show that 9x2 − 12xy + 4y 2 = 0 represents a pair of coincident straight lines.

40
Solution Here a = 9, h = −6, b = 4 and f = g = c = 0. Now
a h g
∆= h b f = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2
g f c
9 −6 0
= −6 4 0 = 0.
0 0 0
Moreover,
af 2 = 9 × 02 = 0, bg 2 = 4 × 02 = 0, and ch2 = 0 × 02 = 0.
Since af 2 = bg 2 = ch2 , the statement is true.

Alternative See [8, Problem 11, Page 81].

4.4 Bisectors of the Angles between Pair of Straight Lines

Theorem 4.4.1 Equation of bisectors of the angles between the pair of straight lines represented
x2 − y 2 xy
by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is = .
a−b h
Proof. Let the equations of two straight lines represented by
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 (4.43)
be
y = m1 x and y = m2 x.
Now the equation of bisectors of the angles between these two straight lines is
y − m1 x y − m2 x
p
2
=±p
1 + m1 1 + m22
(y − m1 x)2 (y − m2 x)2
⇒ =
1 + m21 1 + m22
⇒ (y 2 − 2m1 xy + m21 x2 )(1 + m22 ) = (y 2 − 2m2 xy + m22 x2 )(1 + m21 )
⇒ y 2 + m22 y 2 − 2m1 xy − 2m1 m22 xy + m21 x2 + m21 m22 x2
= y 2 + m21 y 2 − 2m2 xy − 2m2 m21 xy + m22 x2 + m21 m22 x2
⇒ x2 m21 − m22 − y 2 m21 − m22 = 2xy m1 + m1 m22 − m2 − m2 m21

⇒ m21 − m22 x2 − y 2 = 2xy [(m1 − m2 ) − m1 m2 (m1 − m2 )]

⇒ x2 − y 2 (m1 + m2 ) (m1 − m2 ) = 2xy (m1 − m2 ) (1 − m1 m2 )

⇒ x2 − y 2 (m1 + m2 ) = 2xy (1 − m1 m2 )


(4.44)
From Equation (4.43)
a 2 2h
x + xy + y 2 = 0, dividing both sides by b. (4.45)
b b
Combined equation of y − m1 x = 0 and y − m2 x = 0 is
(y − m1 x)(y − m2 x) = 0
⇒ y 2 − (m1 + m2 )xy + m1 m2 x2 = 0
⇒ m1 m2 x2 − (m1 + m2 )xy + y 2 = 0 (4.46)

41
Since (4.46) and (4.45) are identical,
a 2h
m1 m2 = and m1 + m2 = − .
b b
Therefore from Equation (4.44)
 
2 2h2

 a
x −y − = 2xy 1 −
b b
2 2


⇒ x − y (−h) = xy (b − a)
x2 − y 2 xy
∴ = .
a−b h
Hence our proof is complete.

Problem 4.4.1 Find the angle of bisectors of the angle between the pair of straight lines repre-
sented by x2 − 10xy + 9y 2 = 0.
x2 − y 2 xy
Solution Here a = 1, h = −5, b = 9 and f = g = c = 0. Therefore according to =
a−b h
the required bisectors are
x2 − y 2 xy x2 − y 2 xy
= ⇒ = ∴ 5(x2 − y 2 ) = 8xy.
1−9 −5 8 5
Answer 5(x2 − y 2 ) = 8xy.

Alternative See [8, Example 12, Page 82].

Theorem 4.4.2 Equation of the bisectors of the angles between the pair of straight lines inter-
secting at (α, β) and represented by the general second degree quadratic equation ax2 + 2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 is

(x − α)2 − (y − β)2 (x − α)(y − β)

= .
a−b h
Proof. Let the pair of straight lines represented by the general second degree quadratic equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (4.47)
intersect each other at (α, β).
If the origin (0, 0) is shifted to the point (α, β) without changing the direction of the axes, then
Equation (4.47) transforms into
ax21 + 2hx1 y1 + by12 = 0, whenever x1 = x − α & y1 = y − β, (4.48)
which is a homogeneous second degree equation. So according to the Theorem 4.4.1, equation of the
bisectors of the angles between the striaght lines represented by the transformed Equation (4.48)
is
x21 − y12 x1 y 1
=
a−b h
(x − α)2 − (y − β)2 (x − α)(y − β)
⇒ = .
a−b h
Hence the proof is complete.

42
Problem 4.4.2 Find the bisectors of the angles between the straight lines represented by 2x2 +
7xy + 6y 2 + 13x + 22y + 20 = 0.

Solution Comparing 2x2 +7xy +6y 2 +13x+22y +20 = 0 with the general second degree equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
7 13
a = 2, h = , b = 6, g = , f = 11 and c = 20.
2 2
If the straight lines represented by the given equation is (α, β), then
77 91
 

hf − bg hg − af
 − 39 − 22
(α, β) = , = 2 , 4  = (2, −3).
 
2
ab − h ab − h 2 49 49
12 − 12 −
4 4
Therefore required bisectors are
(x − α)2 − (y − β)2 (x − α)(y − β)
=
a−b h
2 2
(x − 2) − (y + 3) (x − 2)(y + 3)
⇒ =
2−6 7
2
2 2
∴ 7x + 8xy − 7y − 4x − 58y − 83 = 0.

Answer 7x2 + 8xy − 7y 2 − 4x − 58y − 83 = 0.

Exercise 4.4.1 Find the bisectors of the angles between the straight lines represented by 12x2 +
7xy − 10y 2 + 13x + 45y − 35 = 0.

Solution Comparing 12x2 + 7xy − 10y 2 + 13x + 45y − 35 = 0 with the general second degree
equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,
7 13 45
a = 12, h = , b = −10, g = , f = and c = −35.
2 2 2
If the straight lines represented by the given equation is (α, β), then
     
hf − bg hg − af 575 989 25 43
(α, β) = , = − , = − , .
ab − h2 ab − h2 529 529 23 23
Therefore required bisectors are
(x − α)2 − (y − β)2 (x − α)(y − β)
=
a−b h
 2  2   
25 43 25 43
x+ − y− x+ y−
23 23 23 23
⇒ =
12 + 10 7
2
2 2
∴ 7(23x + 25) − (23y − 43) = 44(23x + 25)(23y − 43).

Answer 7(23x − 25)2 − (23y − 43)2 = 44(23x − 25)(23y − 43).

Problem 4.4.3 Show that pair of straight lines joining the origin (0, 0) and the intersection points
of the line lx+my = 1 with the conic ax2 +by 2 = 1 has the equation (a−l2 )x2 −2lmxy+(b−m2 )y 2 =
0.

43
Solution Given straight line is
lx + my = 1 (4.49)
and given conic is
ax2 + by 2 = 1 (4.50)
With the help of (4.49) let us convert (4.50) into a homogeneous second degree equation as

ax2 + by 2 = 12 ⇒ ax2 + by 2 = (lx + my)2

⇒ (a − l2 )x2 − 2lmxy + (b − m2 )y 2 = 0,

which is the required equation of pair of straight lines.

Note 4.4.1 In the Problem 4.4.3 required pair of straight lines passes through the origin. So we
need to find their equation in the form of homogeneous second degree ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0.
√ !
2 2
Problem 4.4.4 Show that tan−1 is the angle between the lines joining the origin to the
3
intersecting points of the line y = 3x + 2 and the curve x2 + 3y 2 + 2xy + 4x + 8y − 11 = 0.

Solution Given straight line is

y = 3x + 2 (4.51)
y − 3x
⇒ =1 (4.52)
2
and given curve is

x2 + 3y 2 + 2xy + 4x + 8y − 11 = 0. (4.53)

With the help of (4.52) let us convert (4.53) into a homogeneous second degree equation as
 2
2 2 y − 3x y − 3x y − 3x
x + 3y + 2xy + 4x + 8y − 11 =0
2 2 2
 2
2 2 y − 3x y − 3x
⇒ x + 3y + 2xy + (4x + 8y) − 11 =0
2 2
⇒ 4(x2 + 3y 2 + 2xy) + 2(x + 8y)(y − 3x) − 11 y 2 − 6xy + 9x2 = 0

⇒ − 119x2 + 34xy + 17y 2 = 0

⇒ 7x2 − 2xy − y 2 = 0,

which is the required equation of pair of straight lines. Comparing this equation with ax2 + 2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = 7, b = −1, h = −1 and c = g = h = 0.

Therefore required angle is

 √ 2  p ! √ !
−1 2 h − ab 2 (−1)2 − 7(−1) 2 2
tan = tan−1 = tan−1 .
a+b 7−1 3

Problem 4.4.5 Show that the lines, joining the origin to the intersecting points of the line
3x + 4y = 1 and the curve x2 + y 2 + 19x + 4y − 3 = 0, are perpendicular.

44
Solution Given straight line is

3x + 4y = 1 (4.54)

and given curve is

x2 + y 2 + 19x + 4y − 3 = 0. (4.55)

With the help of (4.54) let us convert (4.55) into a homogeneous second degree equation as

x2 + y 2 + 19x(3x + 4y) + 4y(3x + 4y) − 3 (3x + 4y)2 = 0

⇒ 31x2 + 16xy − 31y 2 = 0, (4.56)

which is the required homogeneous second degree equation of pair of straight lines. Comparing this
equation with ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = 31, b = −31, h = 8 and c = g = h = 0.

Here in Equation (4.56)

a + b = 31 + (−31) = 0.
Hence the straight lines represented by (4.56) are perpendicular.

Problem 4.4.6 Show that the lines joining the origin to the intersecting points of the line lx +
x2 y 2
my + n = 0 and the curve 2 + 2 = 1 will be coincident if a2 l2 + b2 m2 = n2 .
a b
Solution Given straight line is

lx + my + n = 0 (4.57)
lx + my
⇒1=− (4.58)
n
and given curve is

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1. (4.59)
a2 b
With the help of (4.58) let us convert (4.59) into a homogeneous second degree equation as

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 12
a2 b
2
2
y2 (lx + my)2

x lx + my
⇒ 2+ 2 = − =−
a b n n2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
⇒ b n x + a n y = a b (l x + m y + 2lmxy)
⇒ (b2 n2 − a2 b2 l2 )x2 − 2a2 b2 lmxy + (a2 n2 − a2 b2 m2 )y 2 = 0, (4.60)

which is the equation of described pair of straight lines. Comparing this equation with ax2 +2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = b2 n2 − a2 b2 l2 , b = a2 n2 − a2 b2 m2 , h = −a2 b2 lm and c = g = h = 0.

Since (4.60) is a homogeneous second degree equation, it represents a pair of straight lines passing
through the origin. So these straight line will be coincident, if they becomes parallel. Thus the

45
lines represented by (4.60) will be coincident, if

h2 − ab = 0
⇒ (−a2 b2 lm)2 − (b2 n2 − a2 b2 l2 )(a2 n2 − a2 b2 m2 ) = 0
⇒ a4 b4 l2 m2 − a2 b2 n4 + a2 b4 m2 n2 + a4 b2 l2 n2 − a4 b4 l2 m2 = 0
⇒ − a2 b2 n4 + a2 b4 m2 n2 + a4 b2 l2 n2 = 0
⇒ − a2 b2 n2 (n2 − b2 m2 − a2 l2 ) = 0
∴ b2 m2 + a2 l2 = n2 .

Hence the statement.

Problem 4.4.7 Find the pair of straight lines joining the origin and the intersecting point of the
straight line bx + ay = ab with the curve x2 + y 2 = c2 . If the lines touch the circle, then show that
b 2 c 2 + c 2 a2 = a2 b 2 .

Solution Given straight line is

bx + ay = ab (4.61)
bx + ay
⇒1= (4.62)
ab
and given curve is

x 2 + y 2 = c2 . (4.63)

With the help of (4.62) let us convert (4.63) into a homogeneous second degree equation as

x2 + y 2 = (c2 )(12 )
 2
2 2 2 bx + ay
⇒x +y =c
ab
⇒ a b (x + y ) = c (b x + 2abxy + a2 y 2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

⇒ b2 (a2 − c2 )x2 − 2abc2 xy + a2 (b2 − c2 )y 2 = 0, (4.64)

which is the equation of described pair of straight lines. Comparing this equation with ax2 +2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = b2 (a2 − c2 ), b = a2 (b2 − c2 ), h = −abc2 and c = g = h = 0.

If the straight line (4.61) touch the circle (4.63), then the pair of straight lines represented by (4.64)
will be coincident. Since (4.64) represents a pair of straight lines passing through the origin, they
will be coincident if they becomes parallel. That is, the lines represented by (4.64) will be coincident,
if

h2 − ab = 0
⇒ (−abc2 )2 − (b2 (a2 − c2 ))(a2 (b2 − c2 )) = 0
⇒ a2 b2 c4 = b2 (a2 − c2 ) · a2 (b2 − c2 )
⇒ c4 = (a2 − c2 )(b2 − c2 )
⇒ c 4 = a2 b 2 − a2 c 2 − b 2 c 2 + c 4
∴ a2 c 2 + b 2 c 2 = a2 b 2 .

Hence the statement.

46
Problem 4.4.8 Show that the pair of straight lines joining the origin and the intersecting point
of ax + by = 2ab with the curve (x − b)2 + (y − a)2 = c2 will be perpendicular if a2 + b2 = c2 .

Solution Given straight line is

ax + by
ax + by = 2ab ⇒ 1= (4.65)
2ab
and given curve is

(x − b)2 + (y − a)2 = c2 .
⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2(bx + ay) + a2 + b2 − c2 = 0 (4.66)

With the help of (4.65) let us convert (4.66) into a homogeneous second degree equation as
 2
2 2 ax + by 2 2 2 ax + by
x + y − 2(bx + ay) + (a + b − c ) =0
2ab 2ab
⇒ 4a2 b2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 4ab(abx2 + b2 xy + a2 xy + aby 2 )
+(a2 + b2 − c2 ) a2 x2 + 2abxy + b2 y 2 = 0

⇒ 4a2 b2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 4a2 b2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 4ab(a2 + b2 )xy

+(a2 + b2 − c2 ) a2 x2 + 2abxy + b2 y 2 = 0

⇒ (a2 + b2 − c2 ) a2 x2 + 2abxy + b2 y 2 −4ab(a2 + b2 )xy = 0

⇒ a2 (a2 + b2 − c2 )x2 + b2 (a2 + b2 − c2 )y 2

+{2ab(a2 + b2 − c2 ) − 4ab(a2 +b2 )}xy = 0, (4.67)

which is the equation of described pair of straight lines. Comparing this equation with ax2 +2hxy +
by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0,

a = a2 (a2 + b2 − c2 ), b = b2 (a2 + b2 − c2 ),
h = ab(a2 + b2 − c2 ) − 2ab(a2 + b2 ), c = g = h = 0.

The pair of straight lines represented by (4.67) will be perpendicular, if

coefficient of x2 + coefficient of y 2 = 0
⇒ a2 (a2 + b2 − c2 ) + b2 (a2 + b2 − c2 ) = 0
⇒ (a2 + b2 )(a2 + b2 − c2 ) = 0
∴ a2 + b2 − c2 = 0, since a2 + b2 ̸= 0.

Hence the statement.

47
 Part II

Three Dimension

48
Chapter 5

Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems

For this chapter the reader is referred to [1, 9, 2, 8, 4, 10].

5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System

In this coordinate system three mutually perpendicular real lines XOX ′ , Y OY ′ and ZOZ ′ are
referred as respectively x-axis, y-axis and z-axis. These axes divides the whole space into eight
octants. Here the coordinates are of the form (x, y, z). This space is also referred as R3 -space.

5.1.1 Distance between two points

Theorem 5.1.1 Distance between the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
p
d = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 .

5.1.2 Section formula

The next theorem describes a technique of finding the coordinate of the point that divides the line
segment joining two given points internally into a given ratio.

Theorem 5.1.2 If C(x, y, z) divides internally the line segment joining the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 )
AC m1
and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) so that = , then
CB m2
 
m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 m1 z2 + m2 z1
C≡ , , .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

5.1.3 Direction cosines

Direction cosines of a three dimensional straight line play a role like the slope of a two dimensional
straight line [10, Section 11.5].

Definition 5.1.1 (Direction cosine) [2] Let α, β and γ be the angles that a directed line makes
with the positive directions of the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively. Then cos α, cos β and cos γ
are called the direction cosines of the line. Usually, these direction cosines are denoted by l, m
and n respectively.

Problem 5.1.1 What are the direction cosines of the x, y and z axes?

49
Solution For x-axis the direction cosines are 1, 0 and 0; for y-axis the direction cosines are 0, 1
and 0; for z-axis the direction cosines are 0, 0 and 1.

Definition 5.1.2 (Direction ratios) Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of a straight line and a,
b, c are three numbers such that
l m n
= = .
a b c
Then a, b are c are called direction ratios of the line.

Theorem 5.1.3 (Fundamental theorem of direction cosines) If direction cosines of a straight line
is l, m and n, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.

Proof. Left as an exercise.

Problem 5.1.2 Show that sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2.

Problem 5.1.3 Determine the directionrcosines of the straight line that makes equal angle α
2
with the axes. Hence show that sin α = ± .
3
Or, determine the directionrcosines of the straight line equally inclined to the axes with angle
2
α. Hence show that sin α = ± .
3
Theorem 5.1.4 If the direction ratios of a straight line are a, b, c, then its direction cosines are
a b c
√ , √ , √
a2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c 2
or
a b c
−√ , −√ , −√ .
a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2
Proof. Left as an exercise.

Theorem 5.1.5 If A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are two points, then the direction ratios of the
straight line AB are

x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 or x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 , z1 − z2 .

Problem 5.1.4 Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of the straight line passing through
the points (2, −3, 4) and (−1, 2, 3).

Theorem 5.1.6 If θ is the angle between the straight lines with direction cosines l1 , m1 , m3 and
l2 , m2 , n2 respectively, then

(i) cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
p
(ii) sin θ = ± (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2
p
(m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2
(iii) tan θ = ± .
l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
Proof. See [8, Page 326].

Corollary 5.1.6.1 Two straight lines with direction cosines l1 , m1 , m1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are per-
pendicular if and only if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0 ,

50
Problem 5.1.5 If the direction cosines of two straight lines are related by the equations

2l + 2m − n = 0 and lm + mn + nl = 0,

find their direction cosines. Also show that the lines are perpendicular.

Exercise 5.1.1 If the direction cosines of two straight lines are related by the equations

l + m + n = 0 and l2 + m2 − n2 = 0,

find the angle between the lines.

Corollary 5.1.6.2 Two straight lines with direction cosines l1 , m1 , m1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are parallel
l1 m1 n1
if and only if = = .
l2 m2 n2

Problem 5.1.6 The direction cosines of two straight lines are related by the equations

al + bm + cn = 0 and f mn + gnl + hlm = 0.

f g h √ √ √
Show that the lines are perpendicular if + + = 0 and parallel if af ± bg ± ch = 0.
a b c
Problem 5.1.7 The direction cosines of two straight lines are related by the equations

al + bm + cn = 0 and ul2 + vm2 + wn2 = 0.

Show that the lines are perpendicular if a2 (v + w) + b2 (w + u) + c2 (u + v) = 0 and parallel if

a2 b 2 c 2
+ + = 0.
u v w
Theorem 5.1.7 If θ is the angle between the straight lines with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c3 and
a1 a2 + b 1 b 2 + c 1 c 2
a2 , b2 , c2 respectively, then cos θ = p 2 p .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

Problem 5.1.8 Find the angle between the straight lines OP and OQ, when O is the origin and
P , Q are the points (2, 3, 4), (1, 1, −1) respectively.

Problem 5.1.9 Show that the acute angle between two straight lines with direction ratios 2, 1,
√ √ π
1 and 4, 3 − 1, − 3 − 1 is .
3
 
−1 1
Problem 5.1.10 Show that angle between two diagonals of a cube is cos .
3
Problem 5.1.11 If a straight line forms the angles α, β, γ and δ with the four diagonals of a
4 8
cube, then show that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ = and sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ + sin2 δ = .
3 3
Corollary 5.1.7.1 Two straight lines with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are perpen-
dicular if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ,

Corollary 5.1.7.2 Two straight lines with direction cosines a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are parallel
a1 b1 c1
if and only if = = .
a2 b2 c2

51
Theorem 5.1.8 Perpendicular distance from the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) of the straight line with direc-
tion cosines l, m, n and passing through the point (a, b, c) is
s
2 2 2
x1 − a y 1 − b y − b z1 − c z − c x1 − a
+ 1 + 1 .
l m m n n l

Exercise 5.1.2 Direction ratios of a line passing through (3, 4, 5) are 2, −3, 6. Find the distance
of that line from the point (−1, 2, 5).

Theorem 5.1.9 Projection of a straight line joining the points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) on a
straight line with direction cosines l, m and n is l(x2 − x1 ) + m(y2 − y1 ) + n(z2 − z1 ) .

Problem 5.1.12 Find the equation of the right circular cylinder having radius 2 unit and axis
with direction ratios 2, −3, 6 and passing through the point (1, 2, 3).

5.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System

This coordinate system is convenient to use in the environment, where there is a axis of symmetry.
For details of this section the reader is referred to Khan [4, Chapter 12, Page 474] and [9].

5.2.1 Cylindrical coordinate system

Coordinates are of the form (r, θ, z), where r ≥ 0, −π < θ < π, −∞ < z < ∞.

5.2.2 Transformation from cartesian to cylindrical system

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z.

5.2.3 Transformation from cylindrical to cartesian system

p y
−1
r = x2 + y 2 , θ = tan , z = z.
x

5.2.4 Distance formula

q
Distance between (r1 , θ1 , z1 ) and (r1 , θ1 , z1 ) is r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + (z1 − z2 )2 .

Problem 5.2.1 Each of the following equations are in cylindrical coordinate system

(a) r = constant

(b) θ = constant

(c) z = constant

What do they represent? Why?

Problem 5.2.2 Identify the surface for the following equations:

(a) r2 + z 2 = 100

(b) z = r

52
in cylindrical coordinate system.

Solution (a) sphere

(b) z 2 = x2 + y 2 , z > 0. Cone opening up

Problem 5.2.3 Find the equation in cylindrical coordinates for the ellipsoid 4x2 + 4y 2 + z 2 = 1.

Solution 4r2 + z 2 = 1.

5.3 Spherical Coordinate System

This coordinate system is convenient to use in the environment, where there is a center of symmetry.
For details of this section the reader is referred to Khan [4, Chapter 12, Page 475] and [9].

5.3.1 Spherical coordinate system

Coordinates are of the form (r, θ, ϕ)

5.3.2 Transformation from spherical to cartesian system

x = r sin θ cos ϕ, y = r sin θ sin ϕ, z = r cos θ.

5.3.3 Transformation from cartesian to spherical system

!
p z y
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , θ = cos−1 p , ϕ = tan−1 .
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x

5.3.4 Distance formula

Distance between (r1 , θ1 , ϕ1 ) and (r2 , θ2 , ϕ2 ) is
q
r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 sin θ1 sin θ2 cos (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) + cos θ1 cos θ2 .

Problem 5.3.1 What type of locus does each of the following equations in spherical form repre-
sent?

(a) r = constant

(b) θ = constant

(c) ϕ = constant

Why?

Problem 5.3.2 Transforming into cartesian system, show that the equation r = 2 cos θ in spher-
ical represent a sphere. Determine its center and radius also.

Solution See Khan [4, Chapter 12, Problem 4 of Page 478]

Problem 5.3.3 Solve the Problem 5 of Khan [4, Chapter 12, Page 478]

53
Chapter 6

Planes

For this chapter the reader is referred to [8].

6.1 Equation of Planes

6.1.1 Planes
A surface is called a plane if a line segment joining any two points of that surface lies on the
surface.

6.1.2 Equation of planes

Here different equations of planes are discussed.

Theorem 6.1.1 An equation of first degree in the variables x, y and z represents a plane.

Theorem 6.1.2 Equation of a plane passes through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is

a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.

Note 6.1.1 (a, b, c) is a normal vector to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.

Note 6.1.2 Direction cosines of the normal to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 are proportional
to a, b and c respectively [2, Section 35 in Page 33]. That is, direction ratios of the normal to the
plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 are a, b, c.

Note 6.1.3 (Mnemonic) Direction ratios behaves like vector.

Theorem 6.1.3 General equation of a plane passes through the points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 )
is
(x − x1 )(y − y2 ) − (x − x2 )(y − y1 ) = k{(x − x1 )(z − z2 ) − (x − x2 )(z − z1 )}.

Theorem 6.1.4 Equation of a plane passing through the points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and
x y z 1
x y1 z1 1
(x3 , y3 , z3 ) is 1 = 0.
x2 y2 z2 1
x3 y3 z3 1
x y z
Theorem 6.1.5 + + = 1.
a b c

54
Problem 6.1.1 Find the plane passing through (0, 4, −3) and (6, −4, 3), and the sum of the
intercepts from the axes by which is 0.

Problem 6.1.2 If a plane meets the coordinate axes in A, B, C. If the centroid of △ABC is
x y z
(p, q, r), then show that equation of the plane is + + = 3
p q r
Theorem 6.1.6 Equation of xy-plane is z = 0.

Theorem 6.1.7 The points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) and (x4 , y4 , z4 ) are coplanar if and
x1 y1 z1 1
x y2 z2 1
only if 2 = 0.
x3 y3 z3 1
x4 y4 z4 1
Theorem 6.1.8 If the direction cosines of a plane’s normal are l, m, n and the perpendicular
distance of the plane from the origin is p, then the equation of the plane is lx + my + nz = p.

Note 6.1.4 The perpendicular distance of the plane lx + my + nz = p from the origin is p.
Clearly, this distance is calculated along the normal to the plane. So p is also referred as the length
of the normal.

Note 6.1.5 We know that a, b, c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane ax + by +
a
cz + d = 0. So by the Theorem 5.1.4 the direction cosines of the normal are √ ,
a + b2 + c 2
2
b c
√ , √ .
2 2
a +b +c 2 a + b2 + c 2
2

Note 6.1.6 Here,

ax + by + cz + d = 0
a b c d
⇒√ x+ √ y+√ z = −√ .
a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2
a b c
Thus by Theorem 6.1.8 √ , √ , √ are the direction cosines of
2 2
a +b +c 2 2 2
a +b +c 2 a + b 2 + c2
2
d
the normal to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0. Moreover, − √ is the length of the
a + b2 + c 2
2
normal the plane from the origin by Theorem 6.1.8.

Problem 6.1.3 Find the direction cosines and length (from the origin to the plane) of the normal
to the plane 9x + 6y − 2z + 7 = 0.

Theorem 6.1.9 Equation of the plane passing through the intersecting point of a1 x + b1 y + c1 z +
d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0 is a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 + k(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0, where k
is a constant.

Problem 6.1.4 Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersecting point of x − 2y +
3z + 4 = 0 and 2x − 3y + 4z − 7 = 0, and containing the point (1, −1, 1).

Theorem 6.1.10 The equation of the plane parallel to ax+by +cz +d = 0 is ax+by +cz +k = 0.

Theorem 6.1.11 The equation of the plane perpendicular to a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and

55
 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a2 x+b2 y +c2 z +d2 = 0, and passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a1 b1 c1 =
a2 b2 c2
0.

Problem 6.1.5 Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to both x + 2y − 2z − 5 = 0 and
3x + 3y + 2z − 8 = 0, and passing through the points (−1, 3, 2).

aa1 + bb1 + cc1

Theorem 6.1.12 Distance of ax + by + cz + d = 0 from (a1 , b1 , c1 ) is √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
Problem 6.1.6 Example 25 of [8]

Problem 6.1.7 Suppose that two systems of rectangular axes have the same origin. If a plane
cuts these coordinate axes at distances a, b, c and a1 , b1 , c1 respectively from the origin, then show
1 1 1 1 1 1
that 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 .
a b c a1 b 1 c 1

6.2 Angle between two planes

Definition 6.2.1 Angle between two planes is the angle between the normals to the planes.

Theorem 6.2.1 Angle between the planes ! a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0

a1 a2 + b 1 b 2 + c 1 c 2
is cos−1 p 2 p .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

Corollary 6.2.1.1 The planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are

perpendicular if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.

Problem 6.2.1 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point of intersection of 2x −
y = 0 and 3z − y = 0, and perpendicular to 4x + 5y − 3z + 7 = 0.

Problem 6.2.2 Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to 5x + 3y + 6z + 8 = 0 and passing
through the point of intersection of x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2x + y − z + 5 = 0.

Problem 6.2.3 Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to 2x + 6y + 6z + 9 = 0 and passing
through the points (2, 2, 1) and (9, 3, 6).

Exercise 6.2.1 Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to 2x + y + z + 1 = 0 and passing
through the points (1, 0, −1) and (2, 1, 3).

Corollary 6.2.1.2 The planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are parallel

a1 b1 c1
if and only if = = .
a2 b2 c2

6.3 Planes in 3-dimensions

6.3.1 Planes in 3-dimensions
Analogue of 2-dimensional lines are planes in 3-dimensions. That is, planes in 3-dimensions act
most like lines in 2-dimensions.

56
Example 6.3.1 Three points on the plane p : 2x + 6y + 3z = 6 are (0, 0, 2), (0, 1, 0) and (3, 0, 0).
Moreover,

ˆ when x = 0, then 2y + z = 2.

ˆ when y = 0, then 2x + 3z = 6.

ˆ when x = 0, then x + 3y = 3.

6.3.2 Meet of three planes

Three planes generally intersect at a point with an exception, when among three planes there is at
least two parallel lines.

Problem 6.3.1 Find the meet of the planes


x + 2y − z = −3

2x + 7y + 2z = 1 (6.1)

4x − 2y + z = −2


Solution We have to solve the equivalent form of (6.1)

   −1    
x 1 2 −1 −3 −1
 y  = 3 7 2   1  =  0 .
z 4 −2 1 −2 2

6.4 Meet of Two Planes

6.4.1 Meet of two planes
Usually meet of two planes is a line.

6.4.2 Finding meet of two planes

When is asked to find the meet of two planes

ax + by + cz = d
ex + f y + gz = h.

algebraically, then introduce a third plane z = λ and solve the new system. If

a b c
e f g = 0,
0 0 1.

then we introduce x = λ or y = λ (like in Problem 6.4.3).

Problem 6.4.1 Find the meet of two planes

x + 2y − z = −3
3x + 7y + 2z = 1.

57
Solution Let z = λ be another plane. Then the corresponding matrix equation of the system
x + 2y − z = −3
3x + 7y + 2z = 1
z=λ
is     
1 2 −1 x −3
3 7 2   y =
  1 .
0 0 1 z λ
 
1 2 −1 1 2 −1
Since 3 7 2 = 1(7 − 6) = 1 ̸= 0, the matrix 3 7 2  is invertible. Thus
0 0 1 0 0 1
   −1  
x 1 2 −1 −3
 y  = 3 7 2   1
z 0 0 1 λ
    
7 −2 11 −3 −23 + 11λ
= −3 1 −5  1  =  10 − 5λ 
0 0 1 λ λ
Therefore meet of the given two planes is the line with parametric equations
(x, y, z) = (−23 + 11λ, 10 − 5λ, λ) = (−23, 10, 0) + λ(11, −5, 1),
x + 23 y − 10 z
which has the cartesian equation = = .
11 −5 1

Verification technique of the answer

Here both equations of the planes are satisfied by the point (−23, 10, 0). The direction vector
(11, −5, 1) of the line is the common direction of the both line. So we plug this vector in the left
hand side of the planes, then we get 0, like the left hand sides of the above equations
11 + 5 × (−5) − 1 = 0 and 3 × 11 + 7 × (−5) + 2 × 1 = 0.
That is, if we add any multiple of this vector with a solution of the given two equations of planes,
the solution remain same.

Problem 6.4.2 What parameter family is found as a solution of a system consisting of two
(intersecting) first degree equations in the variables x, y and z? Geometrically, what does it
represent?

Solution 1-parameter of solution. Line.

Problem 6.4.3 Find the meet of two planes

x + 3y − 2z = 2
2x + 6y − 5z = 3.
Solution Let z = λ be another plane. Then the corresponding matrix equation of the system
x + 3y − 2z = 2
2x + 6y − 5z = 3
z=λ

58
is     
1 −2
3 x 2
2 −5 y  =  3  .
6
0 01 z λ
 
1 3 −2 1 3 −2
Since 2 6 −5 = 0, the matrix 2  6 −5 is not invertible. Thus we introduce
0 0 1 0 0 1
another plane y = λ and now the new system becomes

x + 3y − 2z = 2
2x + 6y − 5z = 3
y=λ

is     
1 3 −2 x 2
2 6 −5 y  =  3  .
0 1 0 z λ
 
1 3 −2 1 3 −2
Since 2 6 −5 = 1 ̸= 0, the matrix 2 6 −5 is invertible. Thus
0 1 0 0 1 0
   −1  
x 1 3 −2 2
 y  = 2 6 −5   3
z 0 1 0 λ
    
5 −2 −3 2 4 − 3λ
= 0 0 1  3 =  λ 
2 −1 0 λ 1
Therefore meet of the given two planes is the line with parametric equations

(x, y, z) = (4 − 3λ, λ, 1) = (4, 0, 1) + λ(−3, 1, 0),

x−4
which has the cartesian equation = y, z = 1.
−3

6.5 Cartesian and Parametric Equations of a Plane

6.5.1 Parametric equation of a plane
Let A, B and C be three non-collinear points lying on a plane p. Then the parametric equation of
p is
−→ −→
A + λAB + η AC,
where λ and η are two parameters.

Note 6.5.1 Parametric equation of a plane is highly non-unique.

Example 6.5.1 Parametric equation of the plane containing the points (1, −1, 0), (2, 1, 4) and
(1, −1, 9) is

(x, y, z) = (1, −1, 0) + λ[(2, 1, 4) − (1, −1, 0)] + η[(1, −1, 9) − (1, −1, 0)],

where λ and η are two parameters.

59
6.5.2 Deducing cartesian equation of a plane from its parametric equa-
tion
Ax Ay Az
→
− → − → −
The determinant Bx By Bz in terms of triple product A · ( B × C ) represents the signed
Cx Cy Cz
→
− → − →
−
volume of the parallelepiped formed by the three vectors A , B and C . The necessary and sufficient
→
− →− →
− →
− →− → −
conditions for the three vectors A , B and C to be coplanar is that A · ( B × C ) is zero. It is to
be noted that
→
− → − → − →
− → − → − →
− → − → −
A · ( B × C ) = B · ( C × A ) = C · ( A × B ).
Also
→
− → − → − →
− → − → −
A · (B × C ) = (A × B ) · C .

Problem 6.5.1 Obtain the cartesian equation of the plane

p : (1, −1, 0) + λ(1, 2, 4) + η(0, 0, 9).

Solution Let P (x, y, z) be any point on p, A = (1, −1, 0), →

−u = (1, 2, 4), →
−
v = (0, 0, 9). So
−→ −→ → − →
−
AP = (x − 1, y + 1, z). Here AP , u and v must be coplanar. So

x−1 1 0
y+1 2 0 =0
z 4 9
⇒ (−1)3+3 9[2(x − 1) − (y + 1)] = 0 ∴ 2x − y = 3.

6.5.3 Deducing parametric equation of a plane from its cartesian equa-

tion
From the cartesian equation of a plane, it can easily be found three points lying on it.

Problem 6.5.2 Find the parametric equation of the plane 2x + y + 3z = 6.

Solution Clearly, A = (0, 0, 2), B = (0, 6, 0) and C = (3, 0, 0) lie on the given plane. Therefore
the parametric equation of the required plane p is
−→ −→
p : A + λAB + η AC =,

where λ and η are two parameters.

60
Chapter 7

Lines

For this chapter the reader is referred to [8].

Remark 7.0.1 Throughout this text, unless otherwise specified explicitly, by a line, we mean a
straight line.

7.1 Lines in 2-dimensions

7.1.1 Cartesian form
Problem 7.1.1 Find the meet of the lines x − 2y = 2 and 5x + 4y = 20.

Solution
    
1 −2 x 2
=
5 4 y 20
   −1     
x 1 −2 2 1 4 2 2
⇒ = = .
y 5 4 20 14 −5 1 20

7.1.2 Parametric or vector form

Problem 7.1.2 Find the meet of the lines

l1 : (2, 0) + λ(4, 2) and l1 : (0, 5) + µ(4, −5).

Solution We need to solve

(2 + 4λ, 2λ) = (4µ, 5 − 5µ)

(
4λ − 4µ = −2
⇒
2λ + 5µ = 5
   −1     
λ 4 −4 −2 1 5 4 −2
⇒ = = .
µ 2 5 5 28 −2 4 5

7.2 Lines in 3-dimensions

Lines in 3-dimensions are more complicated. Any line can be determined by two points on it. Also
it can be described by a point and a direction vector. Moreover, a line can be interpreted as the
intersection of two planes.

61
7.2.1 Parametric equation of a line
In terms of affine combination the line AB joining the points A and B can be described as follows:
−→
(1 − λ)A + λB = A + λAB
Theorem 7.2.1 Let A and B be two points on a line l. Then the parametric equation of l is
−→
A + λ direction vector AB
Note 7.2.1 Parametric equation of a line is not unique, it is highly non unique.

Example 7.2.1 Parametric equation of a line passing through the points (2, 0) and (6, 2) is
(x, y) = ((2, 0) + λ[(6, 2) − (2, 0)])
= ((2, 0) + λ(4, 2))
= (2 + 4λ, 2λ)
That is x = 2 + 4λ and y = 2λ.

Example 7.2.2 Parametric equation of the line passing through the points A(3, 1, 1) and B(2, 2, −1)
is
 −→
(3, 1, 1) + λ direction vectorBA , where λ is a parameter
= (3, 1, 1) + λ(3 − 2, 1 − 2, 1 − (−1))
= (3, 1, 1) + λ(−1, −1, 2).
Question 7.2.1 How many parametric equations of a line do exist?

Answer Infinitely many.

Question 7.2.2 How many parameters are involved in the parametric equation of a straight line?

Answer One.

7.2.2 General equation of a straight line

In general, a line is treated as the intersection of two planes.
Let a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 be two nonparallel planes. Then they
meet at a straight line with equation
a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 = a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ,
which is called the general form of the a straight line.

Note 7.2.2 Equation of the x-axis is y = 0 = z, equation of the y-axis is x = 0 = z and equation
of the z-axis is x = 0 = y.

7.2.3 Symmetrical equation of a straight line

Let a, b, c be direction ratios (or the components of the direction vectors) of a straight line and
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) be a point on it, then its standard equation is of the form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
a b c
This equation is also referred as the symmetrical form of a straight line.

62
Problem 7.2.1 Express the equation of the line x − 4y + 2z + 7 = 0 = 3x + 3y − z − 2 in the
symmetrical form.

Solution

x − 4y + 2z = −7
3x + 3y − z = 2
z=λ

Problem 7.2.2 Show that the equation of the straight line perpendicular to the plane 3x + 4y −
x−1 y−2 z−3
z − 7 = 0 and passing through the point (1, 2, 3) is = = .
3 4 −1
Solution The direction ratios of the normal to the plane 2x + y + 2z + 5 = 0 are 2, 1, and 2. So 2,
1, and 2 are the direction ratios of any straight line perpendicular to the plane 2x + y + 2z + 5 = 0.
Thus 2, 1, and 2 are the direction ratios of the required straight line. Again, the required straight
x−1
line passes through the point (1, 2, 3). Hence the equation of the required straight line is =
3
y−2 z−3
= .
4 −1

7.2.4 Deriving cartesian equation of a line from its parametric equation

A line has also cartesian equation. In a cartesian equation of line, there are actually two separate
equations of planes which meet at a line. Those two planes are also non-unique, because same line
can be found by the intersection of infinitely many pairs of planes.

Problem 7.2.3 Find the cartesian equation of the line

(3, 1, 1) + λ(−1, −1, 2), where λ is a parameter.

Solution Let

(x, y, z) = (3, 1, 1) + λ(−1, −1, 2)

⇒ x = 3 − λ, y = 1 − λ, z = 1 + 2λ
z−1
⇒ λ = 3 − x, λ = 1 − y, λ =
2
z−1
⇒3−x=1−y = =λ
2
x−3 y−1 z−1
⇒ = = ,
−1 −1 2
which is the required cartesian equation of the given straight line.

Problem 7.2.4 Write the parametric equation for the y-axis.

Solution x = 0, y = α, z = 0.
x−3 y−1 y−1 z−1
Note 7.2.3 In the above problem, = is a plane and = is another plane.
−1 −1 −1 2
Note 7.2.4 Observe that the coordinates of the point (3, 1, 1) are respectively subtracted from
x, y and z in the numerator. Moreover, the components of the direction vector (−1, −1, 2) are in
the corresponding denominators.

63
Note 7.2.5 Cartesian equation of a line is also highly non-unique. Because

(i) we can subtract the coordinates of any point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) lying on the line respectively from x,
y and z in the numerator and

(ii) we can place the corresponding components of any scalar multiple of the direction vector
in the corresponding denominators, as any scalar multiple of a direction vector is again a
direction vector.

Problem 7.2.5 Find the cartesian equation of the line

l : (3, −4, 9) + λ(7, 0, −2), where λ is a parameter.

x−3 z−9
Solution = , y = −4.
7 −2

7.3 Different Properties of Lines

7.3.1 Meet of a line and a plane
If a line and a plane meet, then we get a point.

Problem 7.3.1 Find the meet of the line l : (−1, 2, −3)+λ(0, 4, 6) and the plane p : x−2y+3z = 6.

Solution From the parametric equation of l,

x = −1, y = 2 + 4λ, z = −3 + 6λ.

Substituting these expressions in the equation of p,

− 1 − 2(2 + 4λ) + 3(−3 + 6λ) = 6 ⇒ 10λ = 20 ∴ λ = 2.

Therefore the intersecting point is

(x, y, z) = (−1, 2 + 4 × 2, −3 + 6 × 2) = (−1, 10, 9).

Problem 7.3.2 Calculate the distance between the point (1, 1, 1) and the intersection of the
x−1 y−1 z−2
straight line = = with the plane 4x − 3y + 2z + 6 = 0.
2 3 6
x−1 y−1 z−2
Solution Let = = = λ. So any point on the given straight line is of the form
2 3 6
√ λ = −1.
(x, y, z) = (2λ + 1, 3λ + 1, 6λ + 2). Here
Therefore the required distance is 38 unit.

Problem 7.3.3 Find the distance between the point (−1, −5, −10) and the intersection of the
straight line 6(x − 2) = 3(y + 1) = z − 2 with the plane x − y + z − 5 = 0.
x−2 y+1 z−2
Solution Given equation of the straight line can be written as = = . Let
1 2 6
x−2 y+1 z−2
= = = λ. So
1 2 6
Here λ =
Therefore the required distance is 13 unit.

64
7.3.2 Direction ratio
Theorem 7.3.1 Direction ratios of the straight line

a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 = a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2

are b1 c2 − b2 c1 , c1 a2 − c2 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 .

Mnemonic to memorize the formula

a1 b 1 c 1 a1 b 1
a2 b 2 c 2 a2 b 2

Problem 7.3.4 Determine the direction ratios of the line 2x + 3y + 5z + 6 = 0 = 3x + 2y + 4z + 3.

Solution 2, 7 , −5.

Note 7.3.1 Direction ratios of two parallel straight lines are equal.

Problem 7.3.5 Show that the equation of the straight line passing through the point (1, 2, 3)
x−1 y−2 z−3
and parallel to the straight line x − y + 2z − 5 = 0 = 3x + y + z − 6 is = = .
−3 5 4
Solution Direction ratios of the straight line x − y + 2z − 5 = 0 = 3x + y + z − 6 are −3, 5
and 4. So the direction ratios of the required straight lines are −3, 5 and 4. Again the required
straight line passes through the point (1, 2, 3). Therefore, the required equation of the straight line
x−1 y−2 z−3
is = = .
−3 5 4

7.3.3 Angle between a straight line a plane

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Theorem 7.3.2 If the angle between the line = = and the plane ax + by +
a1 b1 c1
aa1 + bb1 + cc1
cz + d = 0 is θ, then sin θ = p 2 √ . The condition for the line and the plane
a1 + b21 + c21 a2 + b2 + c2
to be

(i) parallel is aa1 + bb1 + cc1 = 0 .

a b c
(ii) perpendicular is = = .
a1 b1 c1

x−3 y−2 z+1

Problem 7.3.6 Find the angle between the straight line = = and the plane
6 3 −2
2x + y + 2z + 5 = 0.
x−3 y−2 z+1
Solution Direction ratios of the straight line = = are 6, 3, and −2. The
6 3 −2
direction ratios of the normal to the plane 2x + y + 2z + 5 = 0 are 2, 1, and 2.

65
7.3.4 Coplanar straight lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2
Theorem 7.3.3 The condition for the lines = = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
z − z2
to be coplanar is a1 b1 c1 =0.
c2
a2 b2 c2

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Theorem 7.3.4 The equation of the plane containing the lines = = and
a1 b1 c1
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = is a1 b1 c1 =0.
a2 b2 c2
a2 b2 c2

x−5 y−7 z+3 x−8 y−4 z−5

Problem 7.3.7 Show that the lines = = and = = are
4 4 −5 7 1 3
coplanar and the equation of the plane containing them is 17x − 47y − 24z + 172 = 0.

Solution Here x1 = 5, y1 = 7, z1 = −3, x2 = 8, y2 = 4, z2 = 5, a1 = 4, b1 = 4, c1 = −5, a2 = 7,

b2 = 1 and c2 = 3. So

x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 8−5 4−7 5 − (−3)

a1 b1 c1 = 4 4 −5 = 0.
a2 b2 c2 7 1 3

Thus the given straight lines are coplanar and the equation of the plane containing the given two
straight lines is

x−5 y−7 z − (−3)

4 4 −5 =0 ⇒ 17x − 47y − 24z + 172 = 0.
7 1 3

x−1 y−2
Exercise 7.3.1 Show that the plane x − 2y + z = 0 contains the straight lines = =
2 3
z−3 x−2 y−3 z−4
and = = .
4 3 4 5
Hints At first show that the given lines are coplanar. Then deduce the equation of the plane.
x−4 y−1
Problem 7.3.8 Show that the lines = = z −3 and x+y +2z −4 = 0 = 3x−2y −z −3
3 2
are coplanar.
11 9
x− y−
Solution Symmetrical form of x + y + 2z − 4 = 0 = 3x − 2y − z − 3 is 5 = 5 = z .
3 7 −5
Problem 7.3.9 Find the straight line passing through (−1, 0, 1) and the intersecting point of
(the straight lines) 4x − 3y + 3 = 0 = y − 4z + 13, 2x − y − 2 = 0 = z − 5.

Solution Let the required straight line be

4x − 3y + 3 + k1 (y − 4z + 13) = 0 = 2x − y − 2 + k2 (z − 5), (7.1)

where k1 and k2 are two constants.

66
 Since (7.1) passes through (−1, 0, 1),
1
−4 + 3 + k1 (−4 + 13) = 0 = −2 − 2 + k2 (1 − 5) ⇒ k1 = , k2 = −1.
9
Therefore the required straight line is 18x − 12y − 2z + 20 = 0 = 2x − y − z + 3.

7.3.5 Shortest distance between two straight lines

The shortest distance between two straight lines means the perpendicular distance them.

Definition 7.3.1 (Skew straight lines) In 3-dimensional space, two nonintersecting nonparallel
straight lines are called skew straight lines.

Two coplanar straight lines must either cross each other, or be parallel [Skew lines, Wikipedia].
So skew lines only can exist in three or higher dimensions.

Definition 7.3.2 (Shortest distance) If two skew straight lines are perpendicular at two end
points of a line segment, then the length of the line segment is called the shortest distance
between the skew lines.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Theorem 7.3.5 The shortest distance between the straight lines = = and
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = is
a2 b2 c2

x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 X
a1 b1 c1 ÷ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 .
a2 b2 c2

Moreover, the equation of the straight line indicating the shortest distance is

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
a1 b1 c1 =0= a1 b1 c1 ,
l m n l m n

where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the shortest distance line, defined respectively as
b 1 c 2 − b2 c 1 b1 c 2 − b2 c 1
l=p = pP ,
(b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2
c 1 a2 − c 2 a1 c 1 a2 − c 2 a1
m= p = pP
2 2
(b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 ) + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2
and
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 a1 b 2 − a2 b 1
n= p = pP .
(b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2
Exercise 7.3.2 Determine the shortest distance between the following two lines:
x−2 y−3 z−4 x−3 y−5 z−6
(i) = = and = = .
2 −3 2 4 1 −3
x−1 y−2 z−3 x y+1 z−1
(ii) = = and = = .
1 2 3 1 3 2

67
 x+3 y−6 z−3 x y−6 z
(iii) = = and = = .
−2 3 2 2 −2 −1
Solution (i) 3 unit. (ii) 0 unit. (iii) 3 unit
x−3 y−8 z−3
Problem 7.3.10 Find the feet of the shortest distance between the lines = =
3 −1 1
x+3 y+7 z−6
and = = . Hence obtain the length and equation of the shortest distance.
−3 2 4
Solution Given straight lines are
x−3 y−8 z−3
= = (7.2)
3 −1 1
x+3 y+7 z−6
= = . (7.3)
−3 2 4
x−3 y−8 z−3 x+3 y+7 z−6
Say = = = λ and = = = µ. This implies that any point
3 −1 1 −3 2 4
lying on (7.2) is of the form P (3λ + 3, −λ + 8, λ + 3) and any point lying on (7.3) is of the form
Q(−3µ − 3, 2µ − 7, 4µ + 6). So the direction ratios of P Q are

(−3µ − 3) − (3λ + 3), (2µ − 7) − (−λ + 8), (4µ + 6) − (λ + 3)

= − 3µ − 3λ − 6, 2µ + λ − 15, 4µ − λ + 3.

Since both (7.2) and (7.3) are perpendicular to P Q, we obtain respectively,

3(−3µ − 3λ − 6) + (−1)(2µ + λ − 15) + 1(4µ − λ + 3) = 0

and − 3(−3µ − 3λ − 6) + 2(2µ + λ − 15) + 4(4µ − λ + 3) = 0
(
−7µ − 11λ = 0
⇒ ⇒ µ = 0, λ = 0.
29µ + 7λ = 0

Therefore, the feet of the shortest distance are P (3, 8, 3) and Q(−3, −7, 6), the shortest distance is
p √
P Q = (3 − (−3))2 + (8 − (−7))2 + (3 − 6)2 = 3 30 unit

and the required equation of P Q is

x−3 y−8 z−3 x−3 y−8 z−3
= = ⇒ = = .
3 − (−3) 8 − (−7) 3−6 2 5 −1
Exercise 7.3.3 Find the coordinates of the points where the shortest distance meets the lines
x−3 y−5 z−7 x+1 y+1 z+1
= = and = = . Hence obtain the length and equation of the
1 −2 1 7 −6 1
shortest distance.
√ x−3 y−5 z−7
Solution (3, 5, 7), (−1, −1, −1); 116 unit, = = .
2 3 4
Exercise 7.3.4 Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between the straight lines
x−1 y−2 z−4 x−2 y−4 z−5
= = and = = .
2 3 4 2 4 5
Solution 1 unit. 14x − 8y − z + 6 = 0 = 2x − y.

Problem 7.3.11 Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between the straight lines
x−1 y−2 z − 36
with equations = = and x + y = 0, z = 4.
4 3 −6

68
Solution 22 unit, 57x − 64y + 6z − 145 = 0 = 7x + 7y − 12z + 48.
y z
Problem 7.3.12 Show that equation of the plane containing the line + = 1, x = 0 and
b c
x z x y z
parallel to − = 1, y = 0 is − − + 1 = 0. Also, show that if the shortest distance between
a c a b c
1 1 1 1
the lines is 2d, then 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 .
d a b c
Solution Given straight lines are
y z
+ = 1, x = 0 (7.4)
b c
x z
− = 1, y = 0. (7.5)
a c
Let the equation of the plane containing (7.4) be
x y z
+ + =1 (7.6)
α b c
1 1 1
with direction ratios, , of its normal.
α b c
x z+c
Symmetrical form of (7.5) is = , y = 0. So the direction ratios of (7.5) are a, 0, c.
a c
Since plane (7.6) and line (7.5) are parallel,
1 1 1
a· +0· +c· =0 ⇒ α = −a.
α b c
Therefore the required equation of the plane (from (7.6)) is
x y z x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ − − + 1 = 0.
−a b c a b c
y z−c
Second part Symmetrical form of (7.4) is x = 0, = . So the direction ratios of (7.4)
b −c
are 0, b, −c. Thus, the shortest distance between the straight lines (7.4) and (7.5) is

0 − 0 0 − 0 c − (−c)
0 b −c
a 0 c (−1)1+3 · 2c · (0 − ab) −2abc
p =p =p .
2 2
(bc − 0) + (0 − ca) + (0 − ab) 2 2 2
(bc) + (ca) + (ab) 2 (bc) + (ca)2 + (ab)2
2

According to the question,

−2abc 1 (bc)2 + (ca)2 + (ab)2 1 1 1 1

2d = p ⇒ 2 = ∴ = 2 + 2 + 2.
(bc)2 + (ca)2 + (ab)2 d (abc)2 d 2 a b c

69
Chapter 8

Spheres

For this chapter the reader is referred to [8].

8.1 Ball
Definition 8.1.1 Let P ∈ Rn . Then a ball centered at P with radius r is denoted by B n and
defined as
B n (P, r) = {X ∈ Rn : d(P, X) ≤ r}.

Clearly, B 2 is a disk and its boundary is a circle. So P ∈ R2 , then a circle centered at P with
radius r is defined as
{X ∈ R2 : d(P, X) = r}.
Again, B 3 is a closed ball and its boundary is a sphere. So if P ∈ R3 , then a sphere centered at P
with radius r is defined as
{X ∈ R3 : d(P, X) = r}.

8.2 Spheres
A 3-dimensional ball is a sphere.

8.2.1 General equation of a sphere

The general√equation of a sphere is x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vx + 2wz + d = 0 with center (−u, −v, −w)
and radius u2 + v 2 + w2 − d.

Problem 8.2.1 If a plane passes through the fixed point (a, b, c) and cuts the coordinate axes at
a b z
the points A, B, C, then show that the locus of the center of the sphere OABC is + + = 2,
x y c
where O is the origin.

Solution Let the equation of the sphere OABC be x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vx + 2wz = 0 with
(−u, −v, −w). Here d = 0, as it passes through the origin O.
Clearly, the sphere OABC intersects the coordinate axes at the points A(−2u, 0, 0), B(0, −2v, 0)
and C(0, 0, −2w). Thus the equation of the plane passing through A, B and C is
x y z x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ + + = 2.
−2u −2v −2w −u −v −w

70
 a b c
This plane passes through the point (a, b, c). So + + = 2. Since (−u, −v, −w) is the
−u −v −w
a b c
center of the sphere OABC, the equation of this center is + + = 2.
x y z

8.2.2 Standard equation of a sphere

The standard equation of a sphere is (x − u)2 + (y − v)2 + (z − w)2 = r2 with center (u, v, w) and
radius r.

8.2.3 Properties of a sphere’s equation

(i) second degree equation of x, y and z.

(ii) the coefficients of x2 , y 2 and z 2 must be equal.

(iii) there will no terms containing xy, yz, zx.

Question 8.2.1 In 3-dimension what do x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 and x2 + y 2 = a2 represent?

Answer Sphere. Cylinder.

Problem 8.2.2 Find the equation of the sphere centered at (2, 1, −3) and tangential to the plane
2x − 4y + 5z = 0.

Hints Distance from the center of a sphere to the tangent plane equals to the radius of the sphere.

4 − 4 − 15 √
Solution Radius of the required sphere is p = 5. Therefore required equation
22 + (−4)2 + 52
√
2
of the sphere centered at (2, 1, −3) is (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 + (z + 3)2 = 5 .

Problem 8.2.3 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (0, 0, 0), (1, −1, 0),
(2, 0, −2) and (0, 1, 2).

Solution Let the required sphere be

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vx + 2wz + d = 0. (8.1)

Since (8.1) passes through (0, 0, 0), we have d = 0. Again, since (8.1) passes through (1, −1, 0),
(2, 0, −2) and (0, 1, 2), we obtain respectively

2u − 2v + d = −2 (8.2)
4u + 4w + d = −8 (8.3)
2v + 4w + d = −5. (8.4)

Solving Equations (8.2), (8.3) and (8.4), we get

5 3 1
u=− , v=− , w=− .
2 2 2
Therefore required sphere is x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 5x − 3y − z = 0.

Problem 8.2.4 Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0),
(0, b, 0) and (0, 0, c).

71
Solution Let the required sphere be

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vx + 2wz + d = 0. (8.5)

Since (8.5) passes through (0, 0, 0), we have d = 0. Again, since (8.5) passes through (a, 0, 0),
(0, b, 0) and (0, 0, c), we obtain respectively

a2 + 2au = 0 (8.6)
b2 + 2bv = 0 (8.7)
c2 + 2wc = 0. (8.8)

Solving Equations (8.6), (8.7) and (8.8), we get

a b c
u=− , v=− , w=− .
2 2 2
Therefore required sphere is x2 + y 2 + z 2 − ax − by − cz = 0.

Problem 8.2.5 Show that the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 2y − 2z + 1 = 0 touches the coordinate

axes and hence find the point of contact also.

Solution When y = 0 and z = 0, then x = 1, 1. So there is only one common point between the
sphere and the x-axis. Thus the sphere touches the x-axis and the point of contact is (1, 0, 0).
When z = 0 and x = 0, then y = 1, 1. So there is only one common point between the sphere
and the y-axis. Thus the sphere touches the y-axis and the point of contact is (0, 1, 0).
When x = 0 and y = 0, then z = 1, 1. So there is only one common point between the sphere
and the z-axis. Thus the sphere touches the z-axis and the point of contact is (0, 0, 1).

8.2.4 Tangent plane of a sphere

Problem 8.2.6 Find the equation of the plane, which is a tangent to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 −
2x − 4y + 6z + 5 = 0 and parallel to another plane x + 2y + 2z = 8.

Solution Let the required plane be x + 2y + 2z + k = 0, where k is a constant. Here the center
and radius of the given sphere are respectively (1, 2, −3) and 3 unit. According to the question,

1+4−6+k
√ =3 ⇒ k = −8, 10.
1+4+4
Therefore the required planes are x + 2y + 2z − 8 = 0 and x + 2y + 2z + 10 = 0.

Problem 8.2.7 Show that the plane x + 2y + 2z = 8 is a tangent to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 −

2x − 4y + 6z + 5 = 0 and hence find the point of contact.

Hints The straight line passing through the center of a sphere and perpendicular to a tangent
plane of the sphere, must passes through the point of contact of the tangent plane and the sphere.
So by solving equations of the straight line passing through the center of a sphere and tangential
plane, point of contact can be obtained.

Solution Here the center and radius of the given sphere are respectively (1, 2, −3) and 3 unit.
Again, distance between x + 2y + 2z = 8 and the center (1, 2, −3) of the stated sphere is

1+4−6−8
√ = 3 = radius of the sphere.
1+4+4

72
Thus the plane x + 2y + 2z = 8 is a tangent to the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 6z + 5 = 0.
Any normal to the plane x + 2y + 2z = 8 have the direction ratios 1, 2 and 2. So the equation
of the straight line perpendicular to x + 2y + 2z = 8 and passing through the center (1, 2, −3) of
the sphere is
x−1 y−2 z+3
= = .
1 2 2
x−1 y−2 z+3
Let = = = λ, where λ is a parameter. Thus any point on the straight line
1 2 2
x−1 y−2 z+3
= = is of the form (x, y, z) = (λ + 1, 2λ + 2, 2λ − 3). With the help of
1 2 2
(x, y, z) = (λ + 1, 2λ + 2, 2λ − 3), from x + 2y + 2z = 8 we obtain that

λ + 1 + 2(2λ + 2) + 2(2λ − 3) = 8 ⇒ λ = 1.

Therefore the point of contact is (x, y, z) = (1 + 1, 2 × 1 + 2, 2 × 1 − 3) = (2, 4, −1).

Problem 8.2.8 If x-, y- and z-intercepts of the tangent plane to the sphere x2 +y 2 +(z −2)2 = 25
   2
1 1 1 2
are a, b and c respectively, then show that 25 + + = −1 .
a2 b 2 c 2 c

Solution Here the center and radius of the described sphere are (0, 0, 2) and 5 unit. According to
x y z
the description, the equation of the tangent plane is + + = 1. So according to the question,
a b c
2 2
0+0+ −1 −1 
1 1 1
 
2
2
r c =5 ⇒ r c = ±5 ∴ 25 + + = −1 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 a2 b 2 c 2 c
+ + + +
a2 b 2 c 2 a2 b 2 c 2

8.2.5 Sphere through the intersection of a sphere and a plane

Theorem 8.2.1 The equation of a sphere passing through the intersection of the sphere x2 +
y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vx + 2wz + d = 0 and the plane lx + my + nz − p = 0 is x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux +
2vx + 2wz + d + λ(lx + my + nz − p) = 0, where λ is a constant.

Problem 8.2.9 Obtain the equation of the sphere passing through the circle x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 9 = 0,
2x + 3y + 4z − 5 = 0 and the point (1, 2, 3).

Solution 3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − (2x + 3y + 4z) − 22 = 0.

Problem 8.2.10 What does x2 + y 2 = a2 represent in three dimensional geometry? Show that
the equation of the sphere passing through the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 , z = 0 and the point (a, b, c) is
c(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − r2 ) = z(a2 + b2 + c2 − r2 ).

Solution Cylinder with axis as z-axis.

Let the equation of the sphere be x2 + y 2 + z 2 − r2 + λz = 0, where λ is a constant. Since this
sphere passes through the point (a, b, c),

a2 + b 2 + c 2 − r 2
a2 + b2 + c2 − r2 + λc = 0 ⇒λ=− .
c
Therefore the equation of the sphere is

a2 + b 2 + c 2 − r 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − r 2 − ×z =0 ⇒ c(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − r2 ) = z(a2 + b2 + c2 − r2 ).
c

73
8.2.6 Circle in terms of sphere
Definition 8.2.1 (Circle and great circle) In 3-dimension, a circle is described as the intersection
of a sphere with a plane. If the center and the radius of the circle and the sphere are same, then
the circle is called the great circle.

Note 8.2.1 The intersection of two sphere is a circle.

Problem 8.2.11 Find the center and radius of the following circles:

(i) x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y − 6z − 2 = 0, x + 2y + 2z − 20 = 0.

(ii) x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2y − 4z − 11 = 0, x + 2y + 2z − 15 = 0.

Solution (i) Direction ratios of the normal to the plane x + 2y + 2z − 20 = 0 are 1, 2, 2. One of
x−1 y−2 z−3
this type of normal line passes through (1, 2, 3) also. = = = λ. The intersecting
1 2 2
x−1 y−2 z−3
point of = = and the plane x + 2y + 2z − 20 = 0 is the center of the circle. So
1 2 2
λ = 1. Therefore the center is (2, 4, 5).

Problem 8.2.12 Find the equation of the sphere for which x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 7y − 2z + 2 = 0,

2x + 3y + 4z − 8 = 0 is a great circle.
2
Solution Let the required sphere be x + y 2 + z 2 + 7y − 2z + 2
+ k(2x + 3y + 4z − 8) = 0, where k is
2k 7 + 3k 2 − 4k
a constant. The center of this sphere is − , , . Since the given circle is the great
2 2 2
circle of the required sphere, center of both are same. So this center lies on 2x + 3y + 4z − 8 = 0.
So k = −1.

8.2.7 Angle of intersection of two spheres

Definition 8.2.2 (Angle of intersection of two spheres) The angle of intersection of two spheres
is nothing, but the angle between the two tangent planes at the point of intersection of the spheres.

In other words, the angle between two radii of two intersecting spheres is called the angle of
intersection between these two spheres.

Definition 8.2.3 (Orthogonal spheres) If the angle of intersection of two planes is a right angle,
then the spheres are called orthogonal.

74
Chapter 9

Conicoids

For this chapter the reader is referred to [8].

9.1 Conicoids and Its Classification

9.1.1 General equation of coinicoids
The general second degree is ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.
This equation represents a conicoid.

9.1.2 Types of conicoids

There are two types of conicoids. They are:
(i) central conicoids
(ii) non-central conicoids

9.1.3 Central conicoids

The general equation of the central conicoids is ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 1. Ellipsoid, hyperboloid of one
sheet, hyperboloid of two sheets are the examples of central conicoids.
The equation ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 1 represents a
(i) ellipsoid, if each of a, b and c is positive.
(ii) hyperboloid of one sheet, if two of a, b and c is positive and the remaining one is negative.
(iii) hyperboloid of two sheets, if two of a, b and c is negative and the remaining one is positive.

9.1.4 Non-central conicoids

The general equation of the non-central conicoids is ax2 +by 2 = 2cz. Elliptic paraboloid, hyperbolic
paraboloid are the examples of non-central conicoids.

9.2 Standard Form of the Central Conicoids

9.2.1 Standard equation of the ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c

75
9.2.2 Standard equation of the hyperboloid of one sheet
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c

9.2.3 Standard equation of the hyperboloid of two sheets

x2 y 2 z 2
− 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c

9.2.4 Reduction of general equation to standard equation

The standard form of ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 is
λ1 x2 + λ2 y 2 + λ3 z 2 = µ, where λ1 , λ2 , λ3 are the roots of

a−λ h g
h b−λ f = 0,
g f c−λ

∂F ∂F
µ = −(uα + vβ + wγ + d) and (α, β, γ) is the intersecting point of the planes = 0, = 0,
∂x ∂y
∂F
= 0 when F (x, y, z) = ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2f yz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d.
∂z
Problem 9.2.1 Reduce the equation 3x2 + 5y 2 + 3z 2 + 2yz + 2zx + 2xy − 4x − 8z + 5 = 0 into
its standard form and determine the nature.

Problem 9.2.2 Reduce the equation x2 + 2y 2 − 3z 2 − 4yz + 8zx − 12xy + 1 = 0 into its standard
form and determine the nature.

Problem 9.2.3 Reduce the equation 3x2 + 7y 2 + 3z 2 + 10yz − 2zx + 10xy + 4x − 12y − 4z + 1 = 0
into its standard form and determine the nature.

76
Part III

Vectors

77
Chapter 10

Vectors

For detail explanations and solving more problems readers are referred to

10.1 Vector Triple Product

10.1.1
→
− →
− →
−
Theorem 10.1.1 (Relation between dot and cross product : my opinion) A × (B × C ) =
→
− → − →− →
− → − →−
(A · C )B − (A · B )C

10.2 Grad, Divergence and Curl

→
− →
− →
− →
− →
− → −
Theorem 10.2.1 ∇ · (ϕ A ) = ( ∇ϕ) · A + ϕ( ∇ · A )
→
− →
− →
− →
− →
− → −
Theorem 10.2.2 ∇ × (ϕ A ) = ( ∇ϕ) × A + ϕ( ∇ × A )

10.2.1 Solenoidal
→
− →
− → −
V is solenoidal, if ∇ · V = 0. Equation of continuity for incompressible fluid.

10.2.2 Irrotational or conservative

→
− →
− → −
V is irrotational or conservative, if ∇ × V = 0.

Theorem 10.2.3 If ϕ(x, y, z) is any solution of the Laplace equation ∇2 ϕ = 0, then the vector
→
−
∇ϕ is both solenoidal and irrotational.

10.2.3 Vortex or rotational

→
− →
− → −
V is vortex or rotational, if ∇ × V ̸= 0

10.2.4 Wave equation

∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = 2
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t

78
Constants, Parameters and Variables
Constants are fixed, never changes like π, 4 etc. In any given context, they would be of same value.
A parameter is a constant that defines a class of equation, like a and b in f (x) = ax + b. They
never with respect to the function. For instance, a and b in f (x) = ax + b.
A variable is associated with the domain and range of a relation.
All parameters are constants, but the converse is not true. By constant, we mean a specific
constant like 3. By parameter, we mean arbitrary constant.

79
Bibliography

[1] E. H. Askwith, The Analytic Geometry of the Conic Sections, A. and C. Black, 1908.

[2] R. J. T. Bell, An Elementary Treatise on Coordinate Geometry of Three Dimensions, Third

ed., Macmillanand Company Limited, London, 1937.

[3] G. Fuller and D. Tarwater, Analytic Geometry, Seventh ed., Addison-Wesley, 1993.

[4] R. K. Khan, Analytic Geometry of Two and Three Dimensions and Vector Analysis, Revised
ed., New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, London, 2019.

[5] K. Mohammad, A Text Book on Co-ordinate Geometry (Two and Three Dimensions) and
Vector Analysis, Third (revised and enlarged) ed., The University Press, Ideal Library, 1975.

[6] A. F. M. Abdur Rahman, and P. K. Bhattacharjee, A Text Book on Co-ordinate Geometry

(Two and Three Dimensions) with Vector Analysis, Revised Fifth ed., New Book Palace,
Reprint 2014.

[7] M. Abdur Rahman, University Analytic and Vector Geometry : Two and Three Dimensions -
Coordinates and Vectors, First ed., Nahar Book Depot and Publications, Dhaka, 2016.

[8] M. Fazlur Rahman, E. Hossain, M. Hafizur Rahman and P. K. Bhattacharjee, Analytic and
Vector Geometry, Fifteenth ed., Titas Publications, Dhaka, 2022-23.

[9] M. R. Spiegel, Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis and An Introduction to Tensor Anal-
ysis, SI (metric) ed., Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 2012.

[10] P. R. Vittal, Analytic Geometry: 2D and 3D, Pearson, Chennai, Delhi, 2013.

80
Appendix A

A.1 Trigonometric Formulae

Formula A.1.1 sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

Formula A.1.2 sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Formula A.1.3 cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Formula A.1.4 cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B
Formula A.1.5 tan(A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
Formula A.1.6 tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
Formula A.1.7 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)

Formula A.1.8 2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)

Formula A.1.9 2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

Formula A.1.10 2 sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)

   
C +D C −D
Formula A.1.11 sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
C +D C −D
Formula A.1.12 sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
C +D C −D
Formula A.1.13 cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
C +D D−C
Formula A.1.14 cos C − cos D = 2 sin sin
2 2
Formula A.1.15 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

Formula A.1.16 cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A

Formula A.1.17 1 − cos 2A = 2 sin2 A

Formula A.1.18 1 + cos 2A = 2 cos2 A

Formula A.1.19 sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

81
Formula A.1.20 cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A

82