SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER 8-DARWIN

By: Lhia Zarel haha cute [medj marami to kaya small font lang]

I.​ MATTER
-​ Matter is anything that has mass and volume.
-​ The definition of matter is often taken to mean
anything composed of atoms and molecules.
-​ Thus, matter is anything made of protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
Structure Of Matter
-​ The atom is the “building block of matter”.
-​ All substances are composed of invisible particles
called atoms.
-​ Atoms are the building blocks of matter and are in
constant motion. The combination of atoms leads to
millions of materials with different properties.
Atoms
-​ Atoms are composed of three types of particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
-​ The electrons of an atom are found orbiting the
nucleus of the atom
-​ Electrons have a negative charge
Nucleus
-​ Atoms are made up of a positively charged center, the
nucleus, containing:
- Protons with a positive charge
- Neutrons with no charge (neutral)
II.​ HISTORY OF ATOMS (ATOMIC
Phases of Matter THEORY)
Matter is classified into four phases or states
●​ Solid 1.​ DEMOCRITUS (400 BC) - Greek philosopher
●​ Liquid -​ First to propose the idea of atoms, which he
●​ Gas called "atomos" (meaning indivisible).
●​ Plasma -​ if you take a piece of matter and divide it and
continue to divide it you will eventually come
Solid - have definite : to a point where you could not divide it
●​ Mass anymore
●​ Volume -​ His ideas were largely ignored for over 2000
●​ Shape years.
THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE
Liquid - have definite
●​ Mass 1. All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of matter too
●​ Volume small to be seen.
2. There is an empty space between atoms.
Gas - have NO definite
●​ Mass 3. Atoms are completely solid.
●​ Volume
4. Atoms have no internal structure. Each atom (of a different
●​ Shape
substance) is different in size, weight and shape.
Plasma - is the form of matter that exists when the atoms are -​ ATOMS were small, hard particles with
in an excited state. different shapes and sizes.
-​ Stars (the sun is a star) exist in the plasma state -​ ATOMS were always moving and infinite in
because of nuclear fusion. number
Some examples of plasma found on Earth are: lightning,
auroras, and neon.
2.​ JOHN DALTON (1800) - an english chemist
AMORPHOUS SOLID - any noncrystalline solid in which the -​ His theory became one of the foundations of
atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite lattice modern chemistry.
pattern
ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER
1. All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
properties. Atoms of different elements have different masses
and different properties.
3. Compounds are formed by a combination of 2 or more
atoms.
4. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or converted into
other kinds of atoms during chemical reactions.
THE BILLIARD BALL MODEL
- proposed by John Dalton in 1804
-​ this theory proposed that matter was composed of
small, spherical particles
-​ but evidence was later gathered that matter was
composed of even smaller bits NUCLEAR MODEL
1. The nucleus of the atom is a dense mass of positively
charged particles.
3.​ JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON (1890) - A physicist who
discovered the electron using cathode ray tube 2. The electrons orbit the nucleus.
technology. 3. A problem raised was: Why are the negatively charged
-​ He was able to predict the mass of this particles not attracted by the positively charged nucleus.
charge. He then found out that this charge
was 1000 times lighter that a hydrogen atom. 4. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a mini solar system
-​ Corpuscles (negative charge) is now called and that the electrons orbited the nucleus in a wide orbit. That
ELECTRON is why it is known as the planetary model.
-​ Proposed the "Plum Pudding" model,
suggesting that atoms are positively charged
spheres with negatively charged electrons 5. NIELS BOHR (1910) hauf ayuq na lowkey 😵
embedded within them (like plums in a -​ Agreed with Rutherford's planetary model but
pudding). improved upon it by incorporating the concept of
quantized energy levels.
-​ proposed that electrons revolve around the central
4.​ ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1910) positive nucleus (like planets in the solar system)
-​ Conducted the famous Gold Foil Experiment, which -​ Proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific
showed that most alpha particles passed through a energy levels or shells. (quantized)
thin gold foil, but some were deflected at large angles.
PLANETARY MODEL
1. He fired alpha particles (positively charged) at a gold foil.
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and
2. He measured the deflection as the particles came out the energy.
other side.
2. The lower the energy of the electron, the lower the orbit.
3. Most of the particles did not deflect at all. Every now and
then a particle would deflect all the way back. 3. This means that as electrons fill up the orbitals, they will fill
the lower energy level first.
4. He said that there must be a positive center of the foil. He
called this center the nucleus 4. If that energy level is at fill (or at capacity), a new energy
level will begin.
CONCLUSIONS:
5. Radiation is when an electron moves from one level to
1.​ The nucleus is small another. However, here is the problem with this theory:
2.​ The nucleus is dense Electrons do not travel on a specific orbit or path.
3.​ The nucleus is POSITIVELY CHARGED
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6. ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER (1920S) - a revolutionary physicist
who used Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to come up with
the atomic model that we still use today.
-​ Proposed that electrons don't orbit the nucleus in a
definite path, but rather exist in a cloud-like region
around the nucleus.
-​ Found that Electrons live in fuzzy regions or “clouds”
not distinct orbits
-​ Electron location can not be predicted (they’re still
quantized though)
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL ●​ ELECTRONS - are very small (have basically NO mass)
-​ orbit the nucleus of the atom • have a negative charge
1. An electron does not travel in an exact orbit. -​ in a neutral atom, there are the same number of
protons and electrons
2. We can predict where it will probably be.
3. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought
to be. WHAT FORCE HOLDS ALL THE PARTS TOGETHER?

4. The type of probability orbit is dependent on the energy level • It is the electromagnetic force of attraction between the
positive protons in the nucleus and the negative electrons
described by Bohr.
orbiting around the nucleus that holds the atom together.
ELECTRON CLOUD IMAGE NOTES:
● A space in which electrons are likely to be found.
● Electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of times in one
second
● They are not moving around in random patterns.
● Location of electrons depends upon how much energy the
electron has.
● Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain
area in the cloud.
● Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy
level closest to the nucleus
● Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost
energy levels, farther from the nucleus. Atomic Number (Z) - Elements contain one or more of the
IMAGE NOTES: same type of atom.
• Elements can be identified by their atomic number.
• The atomic number is the number of PROTONS in the atoms
of an element.
• It can be used like a social security number for people.
• It is used to IDENTIFY the element from the Periodic Table.
Mass Number (A) - The atomic mass number includes the
number of protons and neutrons, since they are the two largest
particles in the atom.
• Since they are both located in the nucleus, the mass of the
atom is located in the nucleus.
Atomic Mass Number = protons + neutrons
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III. SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

ATOMS are primarily made of these subatomic particles:
●​ PROTONS - Located in the nucleus
-​ Have a positive charge
ION - an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative
-​ Have a mass of one
charge.
●​ NEUTRONS - Located in the nucleus
-​ Have no charge -​ A particle with a neutral charge has the same number
-​ Have a mass of one –similar to the proton of protons and electrons.
-​ An ion does not have the same number of electrons
and protons.
• H+ - A hydrogen atom that is missing one electron. The atom
has one more proton than an electron, and must have a
positive charge.
•CO3 2- - Carbonate has two more electrons than protons
Examples of ions:
▪ Cations – ion with positive charge, formed when the electron
is removed from an atom
▪ Anions – ion with negative charge, formed when the electron
is added to an atom

NONMETALS - gain/accept electrons

-​ Negative charge
METALS - lose/donate electrons
-​ Positive charge
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IV. BOHR’S MODEL

• The basic feature of quantum mechanics that is incorporated
in the Bohr Model in the Bohr atom is restricted to certain
discrete values.
• One says that the energy is quantized. This means that only
certain orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in between
simply don't exist.
ISOTOPES - Atoms with the same number of protons but • The lowest energy state is generally termed the ground state.
different numbers of neutrons The states with more energy than the ground state are called
-​ Another way to say – atoms of the same element with the excited state.
different numbers of neutrons -​ The fixed energies an electron can have are called
-​ An element's mass number is the number of protons energy levels.
plus the number of neutrons -​ A quantum of energy is the amount of energy
-​ An isotope is just a heavier form of the same element required to move an electron from one energy level to
-​ Carbon will always have 6 protons in its nucleus another energy level.
• REVIEW: to determine the number of neutrons subtract the -​ Electrons fill the orbits closest to the nucleus
atomic number from the mass number
• Mass # – atomic # = # of neutrons
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 VI. PERIODIC TABLE AND ITS PERIODICITY
Elements
-​ Science has come a long way since Aristotle’s theory
of Air, Water, Fire, and Earth.
-​ Scientists have identified 90 naturally occurring
elements, and created about 28 others.
-​ The elements, alone or in combinations, make up our
bodies, our world, our sun, and in fact, the entire
universe .
-​ The most abundant element in the earth’s crust is
oxygen .

Periodic Table
V. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
- The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way
Three Principles to Locate Electrons . A great deal of information about an element can be gathered
1.​ AUFBAU Principle - comes from the German word, from its position in the periodic table .
aufbauen which means to “build up.” - Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic
-​ Electrons are added one at a time to the number, usually found near the top of the square.
lowest energy orbitals available until all the
electrons of the atoms are counted for. ○ The atomic number refers to how many protons an
atom of that element has.
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○ The atomic number is unique to that element. No
two elements have the same atomic number.
What’s in a square?
● Different periodic tables can include various bits of
information, but usually:
○ atomic number
○ symbol
○ atomic mass
○ number of valence electrons
2.​ Pauli Exclusion Principle - proposed by Wolfgang
Pauli ○ state of matter at room temperature.
-​ No two electrons can occupy the same
quantum state simultaneously in an atom.
-​ An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) - The unit of measurement for an
-​ The 2 electrons can occupy the same orbital if they atom is an AMU . It stands for atomic mass unit .
spin in opposite directions
-​ Electrons are said to be paired -​ One AMU is equal to the mass of one proton .
● There are 6 X 10 or
600 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 amus in one gram .
● (Remember that electrons are2000 times smaller than one
3.​ Hund’s Rule - when electrons occupy orbitals of equal amu) .
energy, one electron enters of equal energy, one
electron enters each orbital until all the orbitals Symbols - All elements have their own unique symbol .
contain one electron with parallel spins. Second
-​ It can consist of a single capital letter, or a
electrons then add to each orbital pairing the spins of
capital letter and one
the first electron.

Valence Electrons - The number of valence electrons an atom

has may also appear in a square.
-​ Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer
energy level of an atom.
-​ These are the electrons that are transferred or shared
when atoms bond together.
Properties of Metals
-​ Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
-​ Metals are shiny.
-​ Metals are ductile (can be stretched into thin wires).
-​ Metals are malleable (can be pounded into thin
sheets).
 -​ A chemical property of metal is its reaction with water What makes an element reactive?
which results in corrosion.
○ An incomplete valence electron level.
Properties of Non - Metals
○ All atoms (except hydrogen) want to have 8 electrons in
-​ Non - metals are poor conductors of heat and their very outermost energy level (This is called the rule of
electricity. octet.)
-​ Non - metals are not ductile or malleable.
-​ Solid non - metals are brittle and break easily. ○ Atoms bond until this level is complete. Atoms with few
-​ They are dull. valence electrons lose them during bonding. Atoms with 6, 7,
-​ Many non - metals are gases. or 8 valence electrons gain electrons during bonding.

Properties of Metalloids
-​ Metalloids (metal - like) have properties of both Alkaline Earth Metals
metals and non -metals . ● They are never found uncombined in nature.
-​ They are solids that can be shiny or dull .
-​ They conduct heat and electricity better than non - ● They have two valence electrons.
metals but not as well as metals . ● Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and calcium,
-​ They are ductile and malleable . among others.

FAMILIES PERIODS Transition Metals

● Transition Elements include those elements in the B
Columns of elements are Each horizontal row of families.
called groups or families. elements is called a period.
● These are the metals you are probably most familiar
Elements in each family The elements in a period are with: copper, tin, zinc, iron, nickel, gold, and silver.
have similar but not identical not alike in properties. ● They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
properties.
Transition Metals
For example, lithium (Li), In fact, the properties ● The compounds of transition metals are usually brightly
sodium (Na), potassium (K), change greatly across even colored and are often used to color paints .
and other members of family given rows.
IA are all soft, white, shiny ● Transition elements have 1 or 2 valence electrons, which
metals. they lose when they form bonds with other atoms . Some
transition elements can lose electrons in their next - to -
All elements in a family have The first element in a period outermost level .
the same number of valence is always an extremely
Transition Elements
electrons. active solid. The last
element in a period is ● Transition elements have properties similar to one
always an inactive gas. another and to other metals, but their properties do not fit
in with those of any other family.
FAMILIES
● Many transition metals combine chemically with oxygen
Hydrogen to form compounds called oxides.
-​ The hydrogen square sits atop Family AI, but it is not a Boron Family
member of that family . Hydrogen is in a class of its own .
● The Boron Family is named after the first element in the
-​ It’s a gas at room temperature .
family.
-​ It has one proton and one electron in its one and only
energy level . ● Atoms in this family have 3 valence electrons.
-​ Hydrogen only needs 2 electrons to fill up its valence shell
. ● This family includes a metalloid (boron), and the rest are
metals.
Alkali Metals
● This family includes the most abundant metal in the
-​ The alkali family is found in the first column of the periodic earth’s crust (aluminum).
table .
-​ Atoms of the alkali metals have a single electron in their Carbon Family
outermost level, in other words, 1 valence electron . ● Atoms of this family have 4 valence electrons.
-​ They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are
easily cut with a knife . ● This family includes a non - metal (carbon), metalloids,
-​ They are the most reactive metals . and metals.
-​ They react violently with water . ● The element carbon is called the “basis of life.” There is
-​ Alkali metals are never found as free elements in nature an entire branch of chemistry devoted to carbon
-​ They are always bonded with another element . compounds called organic chemistry.
What does it mean to be reactive?
● Elements that are reactive bond easily with other
elements to make compounds. Nitrogen Family
● Some elements are only found in nature bonded ● The nitrogen family is named after the element that makes
with other elements. up 78% of our atmosphere.
 ● This family includes non - metals, metalloids, and metals. ● Each has eight elements corresponding to the eight
electrons in the s - and p - sublevels
● Atoms in the nitrogen family have 5 valence electrons.
They tend to share electrons when they bond. Periods 4 and 5
● Other elements in this family are phosphorus, arsenic, ● From K - Kr and Rb - Xe
antimony, and bismuth.
● Each has 18 elements corresponding to the 18 electrons
Oxygen Family/Chalcogens in the s - , p - , and d - sublevels
● Atoms of this family have 6 valence electrons. Period 6
● Most elements in this family share electrons when ● Has 32 elements corresponding to 32 electrons in the s -
forming compounds. , p - , d - , and f - sublevels
● Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. ● To make this period fit the 18 - member maximum
It is extremely active and combines with almost all arrangement of elements, the 14 elements from atomic
elements. numbers 58 - 71 are removed and placed at the bottom of
the table to form the lanthanides series
Halogen Family
Period 7
● The elements in this family are fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and astatine . ● Also includes 14 elements(from the atomic number 90 to
103 ) which were placed at the bottom part of the table to
● Halogens have 7 valence form the actinide series
-​ Halogen atoms only need to gain electrons, which explains ● This period is still incomplete, waiting for some more
gain 1 electron to fill their why they are the most outermost elements to be discovered
energy level. They react with alkali metals active non -
metals . They are to form salts, never found free in nature . INNER TRANSITION METALS
Noble / Inert Gases ● Lanthanide series is also called rare - earth elements
● Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un - ● Actinide series, the heavy rare - earth elements
reactive .
Blocks
● One important property of the noble gases is their
inactivity . They are inactive because their outermost ● The elements belonging to the same group have similar
energy level is full . last sublevel configuration ( lsc )

● Because they do not readily combine with other elements ● Four regions or blocks : s - , p - , d - , f - block
to form compounds, the noble gases are called inert . S - block
● The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon, ● Consist of only two groups
krypton, xenon, and radon .
● Group IA and Group IIA because it can hold only two
● All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the electrons
earth's atmosphere .
● This is also the reason period 1 has only two elements
Rare Earth Elements
● The lsc are ns1 and ns2
● The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the
lanthanide and actinide series . ● Have their valence electron in their s - orbitals

● One element of the lanthanide series and most of the P - block

elements in the actinide series are called trans - ● Consist of Group IIIA - Group VIIIA
uranium, which means synthetic or man - made .
● The lsc are np1, np2, np3, np4, np5, np6.
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
● Elements have their valence electrons in their p -
● Mixtures can be separated by physical means . orbitals
● Compounds can only be separated by chemical means ● This block has 6 groups because there are three p -
● Elements are pure substances . When the subatomic orbitals, in which each orbital has 2 electrons
particles of an element are separated from its atom, it D - block
no longer retains the properties of that element .
● Consists of Groups 3 B - 8 B and 1 B to 2 B
● Elements have their valence electrons in their d -
PERIODS orbitals
Period 1 ● This block constitutes the transition metals
● Has two elements corresponding to the numbers of ● Has 10 groups and separates IIA from Group IIIA since
electrons in the s - sublevel that has electrons the elements from left to right fill the d - orbitals .
occupying only one main energy level . F - block
Periods 2 and 3 ● Consist of 28 elements grouped into lanthanides
● Lithium to Neon and Sodium to Argon and actinides
METALS,NONMETAL, AND METALLOIDS
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VII. THE PERIODIC TABLE TRENDS

History of the Periodic Table
-​ 1871 – Mendeleev arranged the elements according
to:
1. Increasing atomic mass
2. Elements w/ similar properties were put in the
same row.
-​ 1913 – Moseley arranged the elements according to:
1. Increasing atomic number
2. Elements w/ similar properties were put in the
same column.
Periodic Groups
● Elements in the same column have similar
chemical and physical properties .
● These similarities are observed because elements
in a column have similar e- configurations (same
amount of electrons in outermost shell).
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