ENG 331 MODULE 1

ENG 331: INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

(3 Credit Units)

MODULE 1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF SEMANTICS

Unit 1 Definition and Brief History of Semantics

Unit 2 The Scope of Semantics
Unit 3 Approaches to the Study of Semantics

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND BRIEF HISTORY OF

SEMANTICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of Semantics
3.2 The Definition of Semantics
3.3 The Brief History of Semantics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Semantics simply implies the study of how meaning in language is

produced or created. Semantics encompasses how words, phrases and
sentences come together to make meaning in language. The term semantics
simply means the study of meanings. It has been the subject of discourse
for many years by philosophers and other scholars but later was introduced
formally in literature in the late 1800s. Hence, we have philosophical
semantics, linguistic semantics among other varieties of semantics.

For the purpose of the present discourse, we shall be focusing on the

development and nature of semantics. Hence, we shall be learning the
definition and beginnings of linguistic semantics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define and explain the meaning of semantics; and

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

 trace the beginnings of linguistic semantics.

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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as you
can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers to
Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the unit to
derive the answers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of Semantics

Semantics is the area of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words or

the meaning attached to words or symbols. This view places semantics at
the core of communication in language. Indeed, there is no communication
without the sharing of meaning.

3.2 The Definition of Semantics

Semantics as a term was first formally used by Breal in 1897. Hence, we

can deduce that Breal was the first to bring to the fore in a formally
acceptable way, the nature of meaning in language. Though the quest for
the understanding of meaning has always been of interest to scholars,
semantics was not mentioned as a term and did not come up in literature
until 1897 when it was first used by Breal. This first attempt to study
meanings by philosophers brought about the area of semantics called
philosophical semantics, which examines the relationship between
linguistic expressions and the phenomena they refer to in the external
world. Philosophical semantics focuses on examining the conditions under
which such linguistic expressions and the phenomena they refer to are true
or false. This can be traced to as far back as Plato and Aristotle’s works.

However, contemporary philosophical semantics can be traced to the works

of the following authors: Rudolf Carnap (1891 - 1970), Alfred Tarski (Born
1902) and Charles Peirce (1839 - 1914). According to Peirce, philosophical
semantics developed as Semiotics in America while with the influence of
Saussure in France, the term “semiology” was used. However, the idea of
truth-based semantics was Tarski’s major contribution.
Linguistic semantics emphasises the properties of natural languages while
pure or logical semantics is the study of the meaning of expressions using
logical systems or calculi. Examining semantics in this dimension makes it
more mathematically related than linguistic in nature. It is important to note

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that the discussion of semantics as a branch of linguistics began recently

and this shall be our next focus.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What do you understand by the word “semantics?” Read 3.1 above for the
correct answer

3.3 Brief History of Semantics

Alfred Korzybski was the first person to attempt studying semantics as a

distinct discipline, separate from the discipline of philosophy. Incidentally,
Korzybski was a non-linguist who was passionate about introducing a
generally acceptable science of communication. Prior to the work of
Korzybski, semantics has been looked at from a non-scientific perspective
but Korzybski’s work was the first formal attempt at bringing in a scientific
model to the study of semantics.

Korzybski started by describing all entities and realities by assigning labels

to them. He went further to group the names into three. He had names for
common objects such as chair, stone, cow and so on. He also had labels for
groups and collections like nations, animals, people and so on. Korzybski’s
third group of labels do not have identifiable referents in the outside world.

These labels are highly abstract and do not readily lend themselves to the
assignment of concrete reality. These labels are only assignable to concrete
realities by imagination. Such labels include but are not limited to freedom,
love, and democracy among others. They feature in aesthetics, philosophy
and politics. However, this is not the same with common objects since there
seems to be a direct correspondence between items and linguistic
expressions. It is interesting to also know that a serious difficulty tends to
be posed by labels for groups as a result of the wide range of items within
the group. The main challenge with abstract labels stems from the fact that
meaning does not have an objective reference in reality because different
people will react to different words differently. For instance, the word
“love” would be viewed differently by different people as a result of their
circumstance or present reality. One person who probably is in a loving
relationship will view it positively while another in an unfulfilled
relationship will view it negatively. Hence, their reactions will be different
and will therefore evoke different emotions from them.

Two other scholars, Odgen and Richards came very close to the analysis of
meaning by combining philosophical processes and linguistic
methodologies. How did they do this? They introduced the concept
“referent” to describe the physical object or situation which the word
identifies in the real world. They pointed out that the representation or
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situation should be seen as a referent while the actual pronunciation or

orthographic representation will constitute the symbol. For example, the
figure or silhouette of an adult female human being will be the referent
while the word used to describe the referent will constitute the symbol. The
symbol is similar to Korzybski’s concept of label.
Since the world is dynamic, the study of semantics has not been left out.
One of such areas that have remained dynamic among others is the concept
of change in meaning. Semantics has been at the fore in the study of change
in meaning. As early as 1933, Bloomfield observed a system of change in
the meaning of words. Instances of change in meaning of words overtime:

1. Meat used to represent all types of food.

2. Bitter derives from the metaphor of biting.
3. The meaning of astound derives from the weakened meaning of
thunder.
4. The meaning of knight has been an elevation of the concept of boy
5. The word “money” relates to the Latin word moneo (warn) or
admonish because money was made in Rome at the temple of the
goddess, Junto Moneta.
6. Tanks in modern warfare derived their names from the 1914 – 1918
war in which the Germans were deceived into believing that the
structures being moved around were just water tanks.
7. The modern word “car” originated from the word “chariot”.

Etymology, which focuses on the discovery of the origin and earlier

meanings of words, also played an important role in earlier studies in
semantics. However, it should be noted that there is a challenge with
etymological studies. The major one being that no one can state with
certainty the origin of the meaning of any word.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Mention five scholars who have been associated with the development of
semantics. Read 3.3 above to locate the answer to the question.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have tried to explain the concept of semantics as the study
of how words, phrases and sentences come together to create meaning in
language. We have also tried to examine the history of semantics from its
first appearance in literature and the contributions of scholars like Breal,
Bloomfield and Korzybski among others.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

 the definition and explanation of the word semantics,

 the history of semantics , and
 how scholars contributed and what they contributed to the history of
linguistic semantics.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Trace the development of linguistic semantics.

ii. Briefly describe with appropriate examples how change in meaning
overtime has occurred in linguistic semantics.
iii. What are the contributions of Alfred Korzybski to the development
of semantics?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ogbulogo, C. U. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publications.

Microsoft Encarta. (2009). “Semantics." Microsoft® Student 2008 [DVD].

Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2007.

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UNIT 2 THE SCOPE OF SEMANTICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature of Semantics
3.2 Semantics and Other Disciplines
3.3 Major Concerns of Semantics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have noted that semantics has its origin in philosophy. Earlier scholars
in philosophical semantics were interested in pointing out the relationship
between linguistic expressions and identified phenomena in the external
world. In the contemporary world, especially in the United States (US),
philosophical semantics has led to the development of semiotics. In some
other parts of the world, and especially, France, the term “semiology” has
been favoured. The reliance on logical calculations in issues of meaning has
led to the development of logical semantics. However, for our purpose in
this course, emphasis is on linguistic semantics – with our interest on the
properties of natural languages. We shall see how this study relates to other
disciplines. We shall also examine the real issues in linguistic semantics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain how semantics relates to other discipline; and
 discuss the main areas of focus in semantics.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as you
can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers to
Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the unit to
derive the answers.
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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Nature of Semantics

In semantics, we study the meaning of words and sentences of languages.

Linguistic semantics studies meaning in a systematic and objective way.
Since meaning as a concept is not static, a great deal of the idea of meaning
still depends on the context and participants in the act of communication.

There is a strong connection between meaning and communication.

Communication as used here is the exchange or relay of information,
message, attitude, feelings or values from one person to another. This is
done mainly by the use of language. It is often expressed that language is a
system, which uses a set of symbols agreed upon by a group. These
symbols can be spoken or written, expressed as gestures or drawings.

The symbols employed in language must be patterned in a systematic way.

Indeed language is organised at four principal levels – sounds (that is
phonetics/phonology), words (that is phonology, sentences (that is syntax)
and meaning (that is semantics). Indeed, phonology and syntax are
concerned with the expressive power of language while semantics studies
the meaning of what has been expressed. Knowledge of grammar is an
aspect of the innate cognitive ability of human beings. The power of
interpretation complements that innate ability. Interpretation is an aspect of
semantics. Therefore, language acquisition or learning includes not only the
knowledge of the organisation of sounds and structures, but also how to
associate meaning to the structures. Semantics can, therefore, be
characterised as the scientific study of meaning in language.

3. 2 Semantics and other Related Disciplines

We recall that philosophy has been linked to the earliest postulation about
meaning. There are still other disciplines that are relevant to semantics. A
very strong ally of semantics is logic- a branch of philosophy. Logical
systems are known to exhibit coherent and consistent models for evaluating
thought. Thus, logical postulations are the ideal but may not always reflect
the real world in matters of language.

Semantics is also related to sociology and anthropology because of the

connection between language and culture. The whole essence of cultural
relevance in language justified the reliance on context for the meaning of
expressions. Of particular interest to semantics is the intricate system of
kinship terms and colour expressions.

By relying on the distinction between deep and surface meaning and the
power of the human brain to generate many paraphrases of a single
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structure, semantics is related to psychology. Indeed, the mentalistic

approach to meaning and language use in the tradition of generative
grammar is a psychological issue. Furthermore, the approaches adopted by
behavioural semantics in the stimulus – response connection in meaning are
a purely psychological affair.

Semantics is also related to communication theory. Information is carried

and processed in the communication system passing through the channel
and the medium. The minimalisation of noise and the processing of
feedback are aspects of the communication system. These are achieved by
ensuring logical thinking.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List other disciplines related to semantics. Read 3.2 above for answer to the
question.

3.3 Major Concerns of Semantics

Semantics is associated with different issues related to meaning including

naming, concept, sense and reference. Naming as a semantic process
derives from the understanding that words are names or labels for things.
The major problem with this naming view of semantics is that, it is only
nouns and nominal expressions that can be analysed semantically. In
addition, abstract nouns like: love, hatred, truth will be difficult to explain
since they are not living things.

(i) There is a red bull in the park.

This will have meaning, only if there is a red bull in a particular park.
Thus, sentences that are lies may not be interpreted.

Concepts mediate between what the mind constructs and objects in the real
world. Saussure’s sign theory and Ogden and Richards, semantic triangle
derives from the conceptual approach to semantics. The approach
emphasises the power of the mind to make images and to associate these
images to objects and ideas. The approach is highly mentalistic, relying on
the ability to associate one thing with another. This ability of association
may not yield universal understanding. That explains why language experts
develop dictionaries to aggregate meaning on a universal basis.
Interestingly, the production of dictionaries relies heavily on denotations
and connotations, two major angles to the study of meaning.

Reference relates to things, people and events in the world. It is the object
or entity to which a linguistic expression relates. Thus, the referent of the
word “boy” is a human being called boy. If meaning were restricted to

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reference, many words without obvious referents will be left out. It will be
difficult to explain the meaning of prepositions, conjunctions and other
grammatical unit.

Again, several linguistic expressions may relate to single referents. To

avoid these limitations, semanticists use the words denotation and
connotation to distinguish between meaning based on ostensiveness (that is,
pointing) or reference and extension.

Another interesting area of concern for semantics is sense. Sense explains

the system of linguistic relationships, which a lexical item contracts with
others. If that relationship is paradigmatic, we have synonymy, antonymic,
and so on. However, if the relationship is syntagmatic, we have collocation.

The scope of semantics covers a wide range of issues related to meaning.

These issues are discussed in the different segments of this manual.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What are the main areas of the concern of semantics?

Answer: naming, concept, sense and reference.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Semantics has been found to be related to a wide range of disciplines

because of the general interest in meaning. In specific terms, semantics has
been formed to be relevant to naming, reference and sense. It is also
concerned with the interpretation of sentences.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the following:

 the place of linguistic semantics in the study of meaning,
 semantics and other related disciplines,
 the major concerns of semantics.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Discuss how semantics relates to other disciplines.

ii. Identify the major areas of emphasis in the study of semantics.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lech, G. (1981). Semantics. London: Penguin Books.

Ndimele, O. M. (1998). Semantics and Frontiers of Communication. Port

Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publications.

Palner, F.R. (1996). Semantics. London: Cambridge University Press.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

UNIT 3 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

SEMANTICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Transitional Semantics
3.2 Behavioural Semantics
3.3 Structural Semantics
3.4 Generative Semantics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You have learnt that the study of meaning in language has been of interest
to both the linguist and the philosopher. It has also interested the general
communicator. Since meaning has occupied a central position in
communication, there have been different perspectives to the study of
meaning. That means over the ages, different approaches to the study of
semantics have emerged. In this unit, we shall focus on some of the time-
tested approaches to the study of semantics.

The study of semantics has developed from the earliest times to the modern
period, giving it a historical view. That way, we can focus on four major
approaches – traditional, behavioural, structural and generative
perspectives.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 highlight the different approaches to the study of semantics; and
 point out the merits and demerits of each of the approaches.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.

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ENG 331 MODULE 1

e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as you

can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers to
Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the unit to
derive the answers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Traditional Semantics

Traditional semantics is associated with the works of such great

philosophers as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle as well as many others who
came after them. Their focus was on the nature of human language itself.
Based on their views of the nature of human language, these early
philosophers were divided into two – the naturalists and the nurturists.

To the naturalists, language was God-given such that there was hardly
anything anybody could do to understand language. Man was not expected
to make alterations, but should concern himself with merely observing and
describing the rules of language. The Greek language was perceived to be
the chosen language upon which all other languages should be based.
Later, Latin became the focus of philosophical analysis.

The nurturists on the other hand viewed language as a social property

common to a speech community. Language was therefore perceived to be
man’s creation for the convenience of communication. Thus, in spite of
difference in languages, the uniting point is that they are all for
communication.

Traditional semantics was also concerned with the relationship between

form and meaning. Following Carnap (1927), Firth (1957) and Ayer
(1936), the meaning of a word is actually what it refers to. Ogden and
Richards (1933) have also shared this view. There have also been later
scholars – Grice (1957) and Katz (1972) who believed that the image of a
word takes shape in the speaker’s or hearer’s mind. Another major view of
traditional semantics is that the meaning of a word can be decoded from its
shape or sound. Words in this category are onomatopoeic. The major ideas
in traditional semantics are reference, concepts, truth conditions, and so on.

3.2 Behavioural Semantics

This approach has been influenced by the works of Watson Bloomfield and
Skinner. Idealism or mentalism in traditional semantics looks at meaning as
something established in the hearer’s or speaker’s mind. There is usually a
non-physical process of thought, concept or feeling generating a mental
experience. On the other hand, behaviourism relies on observables and

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records of utterances. These observables and records are linked to their

relationships with the immediate situations that produce them.

To the behaviourist, there is no belief in such mentalistic constructs as

mind, concept and ideas. As a result, there is no room for introspection as a
means of obtaining valid information since thoughts and feelings are
usually personal. As a result of the highly psychological dimension of this
theory, human and animal behaviour is identical. Experiences coming
through the senses are the major sources of knowledge. There is
determinism in the affairs of the world. There are universal laws governing
every situation. As a result of this reliance on determinism, there is no
predictability in evaluating human behaviour. The external environment is
perceived to be the major stimulus to all human utterances. The stimulus-
response scenario is synonymous with the cause and effect connection in
most natural situations.

Those who favour the behavioural approach to semantics have argued that
by reducing meaning to observable entities, language, as an aspect of
human favour can lend itself to examination. They also argue that meaning
is influenced by reinforcement. The theory stresses nurture rather than
nature. Thus, the physical environment is perceived to contribute to
meaning rather than the internal thought processes.

Though behaviourism tends to lend meaning to experimental explanation, it

has been criticised for its rejection of introspection, concepts and ideas. It is
not everything in language that can be observed physically. The over-
reliance on reinforcement tends to present animal and human behaviour as
identical.

3.3 Structural Semantics

The father of structuralism is Ferdinand de Saussure. Structuralism as a

linguistic theory considers the structures and systems in language.
Emphasis is on the process of segmenting and classifying the features of
utterances.

Under structuralism, emphasis is on the analysis of sense relations that

connect words and meaning. Sense is an expression of the system of
semantic relationships a given word keeps with other expressions in a given
language. This relationship is usually paradigmatic in terms of similarity
and dissimilarity. The relationship of similarity occurs as synonymy, while
the relationship of dissimilarity is referred to as antonymy. Structural
processes are useful in lexical relations in the study of words.

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3.4 Generative Semantics

Noam Chomsky is the father of generative grammar. According to the

theory of transformational generative grammar, knowledge of language is
generated in the mind. A language user has a finite set of rules from which
he can generate an infinite number of sentences. This power of generations
is facilitated by the power of transformational rules, which convert deep
structure sentence types into other various forms via transformations. At
the beginning of Chomsky’s generative grammar, there was the assertion
that syntax was autonomous and independent of semantics. It was only later
in Aspects of the theory of Syntax (1965) that Chomsky pointed out that the
semantic component specifies the rules necessary for the interpretation of
deep structures. This observation enhanced the semantic representation of
sentences. Deep structures specify the original meaning of sentences before
the application of transformations.
There was the immediate problem of explaining the meaning of multiple
paraphrases from a single deep structure. Thus, generative semantics would
be concerned with sentence meaning and interpretation. This will require
the interpretation of functional roles in sentences. This interpretation has
been explained by the Case theory as propounded by Charles Fillmore, and
further elaborated in Chomsky’s case theory and thematic theory.

The semantic component has been presented as being partially dependent

on syntax and at the same time distinct. This produces a composite
relationship between grammar and meaning. The deep structure is deemed
to determine how sentence parts combine to make meaning for the whole.
The syntactic component is the generative source of grammar. Thus, the
output of syntax forms the input to the semantic component. The semantic
component is perceived to operate on the structural description of sentences
to provide a representation of the meaning of sentences. Grammar as used
here is the totality of the mechanism and rules of language organisation
including meaning. As a result of the complexity of this theory, we shall
have a more elaborate discussion of its implication in another unit. Perhaps
the philosophical postulations of Aristotle provided impetus to critical
thinking in semantics. Based on the major areas of concern, there have been
traditional semantics, behavioural semantics, structural semantics and
generative semantics.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. List the different approaches to the study of semantics.

ii. State the contribution of the naturalists and the nurturists to the study
of semantics.

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Answers:
i. Tradition, behavioural, structural and generative
ii. Read 3.1 (traditional Semantics) for the correct answer

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have observed the progression in the development of semantic thought.

We have noted the positive relationship between semantics and other
components of the language system. We can safely conclude that while
syntax, for instance provides the basis for the structure of the sentence, it is
semantics that holds the key to meaning. This means that semantics is
critical to communication.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the approaches of the traditionalists, the
behaviourists, the structuralists and the generativists to the study of
semantics. You learnt that the traditionalists were related to the early
philosophers, while the behaviourists were more concerned with
psychology, with the object of study being what is observed. Structuralists
emphasised the sense relations between words while the generativists
depended on the deep structures of sentences for meaning. It would be
possible to identify the essential ingredients of these approaches to the
study of semantics.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Discuss the contributions of the traditionalists to the development of

semantics.
ii. Explore how generative grammar has featured in the study of
semantics.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Barnwell, K. (1980). Introduction to semantics and translation. Summer

Institute of Linguistics.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: M.I.T

Press.

Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publications.

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