RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS (Colour Code: Deleted portion formulae)

1. Relation : ' R '⊆ A × B

A relation from a set A to a set B is a subset of A×B
2. Total number of relations from a set consisting of m elements to a set consisting of n
elements in 2mn.
3. Empty relation : R = φ ⊂ A × A
4. Universal relation: R = A × A ⊆ A × A
5. Identify relation: I A = {( a , a ) : a ∈ A}
(if every element of A is related to itself)
6. Reflexive : A relation R on set ‘A’ is said to be reflexive if (a , a ) ∈ R for all a ∈ A
7. Symmetric : if (a , b) ∈ R ⇒(b, a ) ∈ R for all a, b ∈ A
8. Transitive : if (a , b) ∈ R (b, c) ∈ R ⇒(a, c) ∈ R for all a, b, c ∈ A
9. EQUIVALENCE RELATION :
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive.
10. Equivalence Class:[a] containing a ∈ X for an equivalence relation R in X is the
subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
11. Anti symmetric relation : if (a , b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R ⇒a = b
12. Function : If A and B are two non empty sets then a subset F of A×B is a function
from A to B. We denote if as F : A F : A → B if x ∈ A then f(x) ∈ B
13. The set A is called domain of f and the set B is called its codomain. The set of images
elements of A is known as range of f.
14. A function whose domain and codomain are the set of real valued function i,e
f :R →R
15. Identify function : if f(x) = x, for all x ∈ R
16. Constant function : if f ( x ) = C
17. Rational function : f ( x ) = p( x ); 0 ≠q( x )
18. x, x ≥0
Absolute value function : f ( x ) = x {
- x, x < 0
19. Greatest integer function: 20. Signum function:
f ( x ) = [ x ], x ∈ R; R F = Int x , x ≠0 - 1, x < 0
- 2 - 2 ≤ x < -1 f ( x ) = { x, ⇒{ 0, x = 0
[x] = { -1 -1 ≤ x < 0 0, x = 0 1, x > 0
0 0 ≤x < 1
21. Exponential function :
f ( x ) = e x , x ∈ R , 2 < e < 3 Df = R; R f = R +
22. Logarithmic function: (iv ) log m ab = log m a + log m b
f ( x ) = log e x , x > 0 (or) f(x) = In x > 0. a
+ ( v)log m = log m a - log m b
D f = R ; R f = (-∞, ∞) b
Properties: ( vi )log a m n = nlog a m
b
(i) if a = M then log a M = b
(ii ) log a a = 1 (iii) log a 1 = 0

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23. An even function : if f(-x) = f ( x ) 24. An odd function : if f(-x) = -f(x)
25. Algebra of functions: One -One function (INJECTIVE)
(i) (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x) if f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y ∀ x, y ∈ A
(ii) (fg)(x) = f(x).g(x) 26. [f : A → B]
f f (x) (OR) if f(x) ≠ f(y) ⇒ x ≠ y
(iii)( )(x ) =
g g( x )
27. Many one function:
if a ≠ b ⇒f(a) = f(b) ∀ a, b ∈ A
If two or more elements of A are associated with same elements of B
28. Onto function (SURJECTIVE):A function f : A→B is onto function if for given
y ∈ B , there exists x ∈ A such that f(x) = y. Range of f = Codomain

29. Into function : R F ⊆ codomain , if there is atleast one element in B

which is not an image of any element in A.

30. Bijective : If ‘f’ is both one - one and onto.

31. Composition of functions: Let f: A→B and y : B →C. The composition of f and y is the
function gof : A →C given by gof ( x ) = g(f ( x )) for all x ∈ A.
32. The composition of two bijections is a bijection.
33. Invertible : (i) Let f : A→B is said to be invertible, if there exists a function
g : B→A such that gof = IA and fog = IB. The function g is called the inverse of function f
and is denoted by f-1.
(ii)For a function to be invertible, it must be one-one and onto is bijective.
34. Let f : A→B and g : B→A
(i) If gof = IA and f is an 1-1 and g is a onto
(ii) If fog = IB and f is onto then g is 1-1.
35. Let f : A→B and g : B→C
(i)gof : A → C is onto ⇒g is onto
(ii) gof : A → C is 1 - 1 ⇒f is 1 - 1
(iii)gof : A → C is onto and g : B → C is one - one ⇒f : A → B is onto
(iv)gof : A → C is 1 - 1 and f : A → B onto ⇒g : B → C is one - one.
36. Binary operation : An operation involving the two elements of a given set. A binary
operation * on set A is a function * : A × A→A and is denoted by a*b.
37. Commutativ e : If a * b = b * a
Associativ e : if a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
Identity : if a * e = e * a = a
Invertible : if a * b = e. b = a - 1 for all a, b, e ∈ A
Distributi ve : * over a binary operation o on A if a * (boc) = (a * b)o(a * c)
2
No. of binary on A : ' n' elements n(B) = n n

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 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
BASIC CONCEPTS
1. sin( x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
2. sin( x - y) = sin x cos y - cos x sin y
3. cos( x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
4. cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
5. tan x ± tan y
tan(x ± y) =
1  tan x tan y
6. 2 tan x
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1 + tan 2 x
7. 1 - tan 2 x
cos 2x = cos2 x - sin 2 x = = 2 cos2 x - 1 = 1 - 2sin 2 x
1 + tan 2 x
8. 1 ± sin 2x = (sin x ± cos)2
9. x
1 + cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x;1 + cos x = 2 cos 2
2
10. x
1 - cos 2 x = 2 sin 2 x; 1 - cosx = 2 sin 2
2
11. x x
sin x = 2 sin cos
2 2
12. sin 3x = 3 sin x - 4sin 3 x
13. cos 3x = 4 cos3 x - 3cos x
14. 3 tan x - tan3 x
tan 3x =
1 - 3tan2 x
15. π cos x ± sin x
tan( ± x ) =
4 cos x  sin x
16. Substituti ons
(i) a 2 + x 2 : x = a tan θ a cot θ
(ii ) a 2 - x 2 : x = a sin θ / a cos θ
(iii ) x 2 - a 2 : x = a sec θ / a cos ecθ
(iv ) a - x a + x : x = a cos 2θ
( v) a 2 - x 2 a 2 + x 2 : x 2 = a 2 cos 2θ
17. y = sin -1 x gives us x = sin y
18. sin(sin -1 x ) = x and sin -1 (sin x ) = x
cos(cos-1 x ) x = x and cos-1 cos x = x
19. sin -1 (-x ) = - sin -1 x; cos-1 (-x ) = π - cos-1 x
tan -1 (-x ) = - tan -1 x; cot -1 (-x ) = π - cot -1 x
cos ec-1 (-x ) = - cos ec-1x; sec-1 (-x ) = π - sec-1 x

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20. 1 1 1
sin -1 ( ) = cos ec-1x; cos-1 ( ) = sec-1 x ; tan -1 ( ) = cot -1 x
x x x
21. π 22. Principal Value Branches
sin -1 x + cos-1 x = FUNCTION DOMAIN RANGE
2
π π π
tan -1 x + cot -1 x = sin -1 [-1,1] [- , ]
2 2 2
π cos -1 [-1,1] [0, π]
sec-1 x + cos ec-1x =
2 π π
tan -1 R [-, , ]
23. -1 -1 -1 x + y 2 2
tan x + tan y = tan , xy < 1
1 - xy cot -1 R [0, π]
x-y π π
tan -1 x - tan -1 y = tan -1 , xy > -1 cosec-1 R - (-1,1) [- , ],{0}
1 + xy 2 2
π
sec-1 R - (-1,1) [0, π] - { }
2
24. 2x 25.
2 tan -1 x = tan -1 , -1 < x < 1
1- x 2
2x
2 tan -1 x = sin -1 , x ≤1
1+ x2
1- x 2
2 tan -1 x = cos -1 , x ≥0
1+ x2
opp adj opp
sin θ = ; cos θ = ; tan θ = ;
hyp hyp hyp
(3,4,5) (16,63,65)
(5,12,13) (33,56,65)
(8,15,17) (13,84,85)
(36,77,85) (7,24,25)
26. sin (180 - θ) = sin θ; sin (90 + θ) = cos θ

27. π π π π 3π
θ 0 30° = 45° = 60° = 90° = 180° = π 270° = 360° = 2π
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin θ 0 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 0 -1 0 1
2 2 2
1 1
tan θ 0 1 ∞ 0 ∞ 0
3 3

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5
 MATRICES

1. A matrix is a rectangular array ie arrangement of rows and columns.

2. a11 a12 .... a1n Identity matrix or unit matrix(I)
a 21 a 22 .... a 2 n 1 0 0
A = a ij [ ]m×n 3. I = [1 0] I = I = [0 1 0]
a 31 a 32 .... a mn 2×2
0 1 3×3 3
0 0 1
m → no.of rows; n → no. of columns
4. Row matrix : Only one row [2 4 1]
5. 2 6. Square matrix :
Column Matrix: [4] 2 -6
m=n [ ]
1 0 1 2×2
7. 5 0 8. Scalar matrix :
[ ] a ij = 0; i ≠ j 4 0
Diagonal matrix : 0 - 7 m=n [ ] a = 0, i ≠ j; a ij = k; i = j
a ij ≠0; i = j 0 4 ij
9. 0 0
Zero matrix: [ ]
0 0
10. Transpose : if A = [aij]m×n then its AT = A1 = [aij]n×m
11. Properties 12. Symmetric:
(i)(A' )' = A if aij = aji; A = AT
(ii )(a + B)' = A'+b'
13. Skew symmetric:
(iii )(AB)' = B' A'
if aij = -aji ie AT = -A
(iv )(KA)' = KA'
14. Diagonal elements of a skew symmetric 15. Square matrix : = S.M+S.SM
matrix are always zeroes 1 1
A = (A + A T ) + (A - A T )
2 2

16. Addition of two matrices: 17. Properties:

If A = [aij] m×n , B = [bij]m×n then (i)A + B = B + A
A + B = (aij) m×n + (bij) m×n = (cij) m×n (ii )A + 0 = A(i( j)A + (-A) = 0

18. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar: 19. Multiplication of matrices:

KA = [Kaij]m×n If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bjk]n×p
thenAB = [cik ]m×p [m × n : n × p]
20. Properties: 21. Elementary operations of a matrix:
(i)AB ≠ BA (i)Ri ↔ Rj (or) Ci ↔ Cj
(ii )A(BC) = (AB)C (ii)Ri → KRi (or) Ci → KCj
(iii )IA = AI = A (iii)Ri → Ri + KRj (or) Ci → Ci + KCj
(iv)AB = BA = I(B = A -1 )

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 DETERMINANTS

Let A be a square matrix. Then the determinant function associate with A exactly one numerical value called
the det(A) and is denoted by A .
“Every s.m A is associated with a unique number called the determinant of A”.
1. Determinant of a matrix of order one : 2. a b
if A = [a]1×1 then A = a = a If A = [ ] then A = (ad - bc)
c d 2×2
3. a b c
If A = [d e f ] then A = a (ei - fh) - b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)
g h i
4. Properties of derterminants:
(i) A T = A
(ii) If each element in a row (or column) of a determinant is zero then A = 0
(iii) If two adjacent rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged. The sign of the determinant
is changed.
(iv) IF A is a s.m of order n, then KA = K n A
a + a' b + b' c + c' a b c a ' b ' c'
(v) d e f = d e f + d ' e' f '
g h i g h i g ' h' i'
Ri → Ri + KRj
(vi)
Ci → Ci + KCj
(vii) If two rows (columns) are identical then A = 0
5. Minors: The value of the det(A) obtained by deleting ith row and jth column of |A| denoted by
6. Cofactors : Aij=(-1)i+j Mij
7. The sum of the product of the element of any row(column) of a determinant with cofactors of the
corresponding elements of any other row (column) is zero.
a11A21 + a12A22 + a13A23 = 0
a11A21 + a12A22 + a13A23 = ∆=|A|
8. (i) Area of a triangle with vertices (x1 y1),(x2 y2) and (x3 y3)
x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1
1
Mij Δ = x 2 y 2 1 (ii) Colinear x 2 y 2 1 = 0 (iii)Equation of line = x 2 y2 1 = 0
2
x 3 y3 1 x 3 y3 1 x 3 y3 1

9. Singular matrix |A|=0 ; Non singular matrix A ≠ 0 (Inverse exists)

10. Adjoint of a square matrix:
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors of elements of |A| is called the adjoint of A.
a b
A=( ) ⇒adj A = ( d - a ) adj A = [Aij] T
c d -c a
11. Properties: ( vi ) | adj A | = A
n -1

(i) AB = A B
( vii ) KA = K n A
(ii )A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I n -2
( viii )adj(adj A) = A A
(iii )adj(AB) = (adj(B) (adjA ) ( n -1) 2
T T (ix ) adj(adjA ) = A
(iv )adj(A ) = (adj A)
n
( v) adj(KA) = K n -1 (adj A) ( x ) A.adjA = A

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12. Inverse of a matrix: 13. Properties:
AB = BA = I (B = A ) -1
(i)AA -1 = A -1A = I (ii)(AB) -1 = B-1A -1
A11 A 21 A 31 (iii )(A -1 ) = A(iv)(KA) -1 = KA -1
adjA 1
A -1 = = [ ]
A12 A 22 A 32
( v)(A T ) = (A -1 ) T (vi) A -1 =
1
A A
A13 A 23 A 33 A
( vii ) Every skew symmetric matrix of order (odd) is singular
14. Solution of system of linear equation (inverse method)
a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1
a 2 x + b2 y + c2z = d 2
a 3 x + b3 y + c3z = d 3
It can be written as
a1 b1 c1 x d1
[ a 2 b 2 c 2 ][ y ] = [ d 2 ]
a 3 b3 c3 z d3
A× = B ⇒ x = A -1B
Calculate A
If A ≠ 0 If A = 0
Consistent Find adj A.B
Unique sol
x = A -1B

If adj A.B ≠ 0 If adj A.B = 0

inconsiste nt and consistent and it has
it has no solution infinetly many solutions

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 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY
1. Let f is said to be continuous at x=a if
...., x ≠a lim
f (x) = { } x → a f(x) = f(a)
...., x = a
.... x > a lim lim
f(x) = { .... a = a } x → a - f(x) = x → a + f(x) = f(a)
.... x < a

A function is discontinous at x=a if

(i) F(a) does not exist (or)
lim lim
(ii) x → A f ( x ) ≠ x → a + f ( x )
-

A function f is said to be continous if it is continous at every point in the domain of f.

Polynomial functions, exponential,logarithmic, trignometric,absolute value function,rational
function defined within their domains are continous.
f
fg; f ± g; ; kf are also continuous
g
Fog is cont. At x=a
lim f(x + h) - f(x)
RHD = Rf ' ( x ) = h → 0
+h
lim f(x - h) - f(x)
LHD = Lf ' ( x ) = h → 0
-h
Every differentiable function is continuous. But converse may not be true.
lim lim
x → a - f ( x ) = h → 0 f(a - h)
lim lim
x → a + f ( x ) = h → 0 f(a + h)

Some standard results on limit

limxn - an n -1
(i) x → a = na
x -a
lim sinx lim tanx
(ii ) x → 0 =1= x → 0
x x
lim a x -1
lim
(iii ) x → 0 cos x = 1 (iv) x → 0 = log e a
x
lim e x -1 lim log(1 + x)
(iv ) x → 0 = 1 (vi) x → 0 =1
x x
lim sin -1x lim tan -1
( vii ) x → 0 =1= x → 0
x x
Derivatives of standard functions
1. d n d du 2. d
( x ) = nx n -1 ; (u n ) = nu n -1 (c) = 0
dx dx dx dx
3. d 4. d du dv
(uv) = uv'+ vu ' ( u ± v) = ±
dx dx dx dx
5. d du 6. d d
(ku ) = k (k (f ( x ) = k f ( x ) = kf ' ( x )
dx dx dx dx

9
7. d d du 8. d d du
(sin x ) = cos x; (sin u) = cos u (cos x ) = -sin x; (cos u ) = -sin u
dx dx dx dx dx dx
9. d du 10. d d
(tan u ) sec 2 u (a x ) = a x log a; (a f ( x ) = a f ( x ) . log af ' ( x )
dx dx dx dx
11. d 1 12. d af ( x )
(log f ( x ) = .f ' ( x ) (e ) = e af ( x ) .af ' ( x )
dx f (x) dx
13. d 1 14. d -1
(sin -1 x ) = (cos-1 x ) =
dx 1- x 2 dx 1- x 2
15. d 1 16. d 1
(tan -1 x ) = 2 (cot -1 x ) =
dx 1+ x dx 1+ x2
17. d 1 18. d 1
(sec-1 x ) = x 2 (cos ec-1x ) =
dx x -1 dx x x 2 -1
19. dy dy du 20. dy dy dx
if y = f (u ); u = g( x ) then = × If x = f(t); y = g(t) then = ÷
dx du dx dx dt dt
21. d x 22. d 1 1
x= (loga x ) = .
dx x dx log a x
23. If y = u(x) v(x) w(x) then log y = log u + log v + 24. if y = f(x) g(x) then logy = g(x).log f(x)
log w.
25. u(x) 26. d 1 dy
If y = then log y = logu(x) - log v(x) - logw(x) (log y) =
v(x)w(x) dx y dx
27. F(x , y ) = 0 where y→implicit function 28. dy dy dx
If y = f(x) and z = g(x) then =
dz dz dx
29. Infinite series: If y = f(x) + f(x) + ...∞ then y = f(x) + y
30. Second order derivative:
dy
Let y = f(x) then = f ' ( x ) = y' = y1
dx
d dy d2y
( )= 2
dx dx dx = y' ' = y 2 = f ' ' ( x )
31. Rolle’s theorem : If function f:[a,b]→R is such that
(i) F is aontinuous in [a,b]
(ii) F is derivable in (a,b)
(iii) F(a)=f(b) then there exists atleast one c Є (a,b) such that f’(c)=0
32. Lagrange’s mean value theorem:
If function f: [a,b]→R is such that
(i) F is continuous in [a,b]
f (b) - f(a)
(ii) F is derivable in (a,b) then there exists atleast one c Є (a, b) such that = f ' ( c)
b-a

10
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
1. Rate of change of quantities :
dy
Let g=f(x) be a relation between two variables x and y . Then represents the rate of change
dx
dy
of y w.r.to x and ]
x=x0
represents the rate of change of y w.r.to x at x=x0.
dx
2. dy 3. Increasing function
is + ve if y increases as x increases (i) If x1 < x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≤ f(x2)
dx
dy (ii) Strictly increasing if x1 < x2 ⇒f(x1) < f(x2)
is - ve if y decreases as x decreases (iii) If f’(x)>0 for all x Є (a,b)
dx
4. Decreasing function:
(i)If x1 < x 2 ⇒f(x1 ) ≥f ( x 2 )
(ii) x1 < x 2 ⇒f ( x1 ) > f ( x 2 )
(iii )if f' (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b)
5. Turning ( critical) points:
The values of x for which f’(x)=0 give us points which are called turning points.
6. Tangents and normals:
(i) M=tan θ
(ii) slope of line parallel to x axis tan θ = 0
(iii) Slope of line parallel to y axis tan 90 = ∞
(iv) Slope of line equally inclined to axes tan 45° = tan 135°= ± 1
y -y
(v) Having 2 points A and B : m = 2 1
x 2 - x1
(vi) Slope of line : ax+by+c=0 m =-a/b
m - m2
(vii) Angle between two lines with slopes m1 and m2 is given by tan θ = ± 1
1 + m1m 2
(viii) Parallel lines: m1 = m2
(ix) Two lines are perpendicular if m1.m2 = - 1
(x) Equation of line in one point y - y1 = m ( x - x1 )
y -y
(xi) Two point form of line: y - y1 = 2 1 ( x - x1 )
x 2 - x1
dy
(xii) Let y = f (x) m = is the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at (x1, y1)
dx
dy
(xiii) Equation of tangent to the curve y - y1 = ( x - x1 )
dx
dy
✓ Tangents parallel to x axis =0
dx
dy
✓ Tangents parallel to y axis =0
dx
-1
(iv) Equation of normal to the curve y - y1 = ( x - x1 )
dy
dx
7. Approximations
f ( x + Δx ) = f ( x ) + f ' ( x )Δx
dy
dx = Δx; dy = Δx
dx

11
8. Absolute maximum/minimum in a closed interval: of all the values of f(x) for which f(x)=0 and at
end point, the greatest value is called absolute maximum and the least value is absolute minimum.
Working rule
LEt f be derivable in [a, b] except at finitely many points.
Step 1 : calculate f(a) and f(b)
Step 2: Find f’(x)=0
Step 3: Calculate f(x) at points. The maximum value of f from these 3 steps is absolute maximum
and minimum value of f from ….. abs.minimum.
9. Local Maxima and Minima
A function f is said to have l.max at c ∈ D f such that f(x) ≦f(c) where f(c) →max.value
The function f is said to have l.minima at d ∈ D f f ( x ) ≥f (d) f(d) → l.min.valu e
10. Working rule for finding points of local maxima 11 First derivative test :
and minima . (i) x<c, slightly f’ (x) +ve
(i) Given function is f(X) x>c, slightly , f’(x)-ve l.min
(ii) Calculate f’(x) (ii) x<c, slightly f’(x) -ve
(iii) Find critical points x>c, slightly f’(x) +ve l.min at x=0
nd
(iv) Use 2 derivative test:
(v) F’(c) = 0⇒ f’’(c)<0 f has local minima at x=c
(vi) If f’’ (c) =0 then and derivative test fails.
12. Useful results (x) Volume of cuboid = lbh
(i) Area of a circle = πr 2
Area of 4 walls = 2h(l+b)
Circumference = 2πr Area of floor = area of roof = lb
(ii) Volume of a cube = x 3 S. area =2(lb+bh+hl)
S.Area of a cube = 6x 2 (xi) Distance between (x,y) and (a,b) : D=
(iii) Area of a rectangle = l x b ( x - a) 2 + ( y - b) 2
Perimeter = 2(l+b) (xii) For real roots in ax2 + bx + c = 0; b2- 4ac ≥ 0.
4 1
(iv) Volume of a sphere = πr 3 (xiii) Area of a triangle = × b × h
3 2
S.area of a sphere = 4 πr 2
3 2
(v) Pythagoras theorem : (hyp)2 = (base)2+ Equilateral triangle = a
(altitude)2 4
1 2 a +b+c
(vi) Volume of cone : πr h s =
3 Heron’s formula : 2
Curved surface : πrl (l2 = h 2 + r 2 ) Δ = s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
T.S.A of cone : πrl + πr 2 1
(xiv)Area of a trapezium = h (d1 + d 2 )
(vii) Marginal cost : dc/dx 2
(viii) Marginal revenue : dR/dx
(ix) Volume of cylinder : πr 2 h
S.A of cylinder : 2πrh + 2πr 2
C.A of cylinder : 2πrh

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 INTEGRATION
Some integration formulae
1. x n +1 2. (ax + b) n +1
∫x n
dx =
n +1
+C ∫(ax + b)n dx = n +1
+C
3. 4.
∫sin xdx = - cos x + C ∫cos xdx = sin x + C
- cosf(x) sin f(x)
∫sin f (x)dx = f' (x)
+C ∫cos f (x)dx = f' (x)
+C

5. 6.
∫sec xdx = tan x + C
2
∫cos ec xdx = -cotx + C
2

7. 8.
∫sec x tan xdx = sec x + C ∫cos ecx cot xdx = -cosecx + C
9. dx 10. dx
∫ 1- x 2
= sin -1 x + C ∫1 + x 2 = tan -1 x + C

11. dx 12. dx x
∫x x -1 2
= sec-1 x + C ∫a -x 2 a
+C
2
= sin -1

13. dx 1 x 14. dx 1 x
∫a 2 + x 2 = a tan -1 a + C ∫x x 2 - a 2 = a sec-1 a + C
15. dx 16.
∫x = log x + C ∫kdx = kx + C
17. 18.
∫tan xdx = log sec x + C ∫sec xdx = log sec x + tan x1 + C
19. 20.
∫cos ecxdx = log cos ec - cotx1+ C ∫cot xdx = log sin x + C
21. dx log( ax + b) 22. eax
∫ax + b = a + C ∫e dx = e + C; ∫e dx = a + C
x x ax

23. ax a mx 24. f ' (x)

∫a x dx = log e a
+ C; ∫a mx dx =
m log e a
+C ∫f (x) dx = log f (x) + C
25. dx 1 a+x 26. dx 1 a+x
∫x 2
-a 2 =
2a
log
a-x
+C ∫a 2
-x 2 =
2a
log
a-x
+C

27. dx 28. dx
∫ 2
x +a 2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C ∫ 2
x -a 2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C

29. x 2 2 a2 x 30. x 2 2 1 2
∫ a 2 - x 2 dx = a - x + sin -1 + C ∫x 2
- a 2 dx =
2
x - a - a log x + x 2 - a 2 + C
2
2 2 a
31. x 2 a2 32. Forms of partial fractions
∫ a 2 + x 2dx =
2
a + x 2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2 px + q A B
33. (i) ; +
∫udv = uv - ∫vdu ( x - a)(x - b) x - a x - b
Choose 1st functin and 2nd function px + q A B
(ii ) 2 ; +
according to ILATE ( x - a) x - a ( x - b) 2
I- Inverse trigonometric function px 2 + qx + x A B C
L- Logarithmic function (iii ) ; + +
( x - a)( x - b)(x - c) x - a x - b x - c
A-algebric function
T-trigonometric function px 2 + qx + x A B C
(iv ) 2 ; + 2 +
E-Exponential function ( x - a) ( x - b) x - a ( x - a) x - b
px + q A Bx + C
( v) 2 ; + 2
( x - a)(x + bx + c) x - a x + bx + C
where x 2 + bx + C cannot be factorised .

13
34. 35. Special type I
∫e x
(f ( x ) + f ' ( x )dx = e x f ( x ) + C
dx dx dx
36. Special type II
∫a + b cos x ; ∫a + b sin x ; ∫a cos x + b sin x
dx dx dx x 2tdt
∫a + b sin 2 x ; ∫a + bcos 2 x ; ∫asin 2 x + b cos2 x put t = tan , dx =
2 1+ t2
Divide N and D by cos 2 x 2t 1- t 2
sin x = ; cosx =
put t = tanx and sec 2 xdx = dt 1+ t2 1+ t2
37. Special type III 38. Special type IV
px + q px 2 + qx + x
px + q 2
dx ∫ ax 2
dx
∫ax 2 +bx + c dx; ∫ ax + bx + c dx + bx + c
; ∫(px + q) ax + bx + c
2 d
Let px 2 + qx + x = A(ax 2 + bx + c) + B
d dx
Letpx + q = A (ax 2 + bx + c) + B (ax 2 + bx + c) + C
dx

39. Special type V: 40. Special type VI

1 f ' (x)
∫x(x n + k) dx Multiply N and D by xn-1 ∫f (x ) dx (or ) ∫(f(x) n f ' (x )dx
put f ( x ) = t ⇒nx n -1dx = dt putf ( x ) = t ⇒f ' ( x )dx = dt
41. Special type VII 42. Special type VIII
x 2 ±1 a sin x + b cos x
∫x 4 ± kx 2 + 1 dx Divide N & D by x. ∫c sin x + d cos x dx
Make perfect square d
Put, a sin x + b cos x = A (c sin x + d cos x )
dx
1 1 f(x) B( sinx + d cos x)
x ± = t ⇒(1  2 ) dx = if p(x) ≥g(X)
x x g(x) 43. Special type IX
Numerator Re mainder x 2 dx
Deno min ator
= Quotient +
Deno min ator ∫(x 2 + a 2 )(x 2 + b 2 )
y
Let x 2 = y to get 2
(y + a )( y + b 2 )
Resolve it into partial fraction
Replace y by x2 and integrate .
44. dx 45. Special type XI:
Special type X: ∫P
Q ∫sin m
x cosn xdx
(i) P is linear or quadratic and Q is linear then (i) If m is +ve odd int. Put cos x= t
put Q = t (ii) If n is +ve odd int. Put sin x = t
(ii) If P is linear and Q is quadratic then put (iii) If m & n +ve even int.
1 1 - cos2x 1 + cos 2x
P= . sin 2 x = ; cos 2 x =
t 2 2
(iii) If P & Q are quadratic then (iv) If m +n is -ve even put tan x =t
1
x = and then Q = Z
t
xdx
Note : ∫ If P & Q → quad then Q = t
P Q

14
46. Special type XII: 47.
∫(cos x ± sin x)f (sin 2x)dx
(i) ∫sin n xdx , n + ve odd put cos x = t
put t = sin x  cos x
(ii ) ∫cos xdx , n + ve odd put sin x = t
n
48. ax
put x = a cos 2θ
(iii ) ∫sec n xdx , n + ve even put tan x = t a±x
49. x -α
(iv ) ∫cos ecn xdx , n + ve even put cot x = t (OR ) (x - α)(x - β)
β-x
x = α cos 2 θ + β sin 2θ
1. Definite Integrals :F(b)-F(a) 2. Properties of Definite integration
b b a
lim
∫f (x) dx = h → 0 h[f(a) + f (a + h) +
a
(i) ∫f ( x )dx = -∫f(x)dx
a b

.........+ F(a + n - 1)h] b b

(ii ) ∫f ( x )dx = ∫f ( t )dt

where nh = b - a a a
Results : a

1 + 2 + 3 + ........+ (n - 1) =
n(n - 1) (iii )a ∫f ( x )dx = 0 (a < c < b)
2 a
b c b
n(n - 1)(2n - 1)
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ........+ (n - 1) 2 = (iv ) ∫f ( x )dx = ∫f ( x )dx + ∫f ( x )dx
6 a a c
n(n - 1) 2 b b
13 + 23 + 33 + ........+ (n - 1) 3 = ( )
2 ( v) ∫f ( x )dx = ∫f (a + b - x)dx
a a
a (r n - 1)
a + ar + .........+ ar n -1 = a a
r -1 ( vi ) ∫f ( x )dx = ∫f (a - x )dx
nh 0 0
sin 2a a a
sin a + sin( a + h ) + .......sin( a + (n - 1)h ) = 2
h ( vii ) ∫f ( x )dx = ∫f ( x )dx + ∫f (2a - x)dx
sin 0 0 0
2 a
h = 2∫f ( x )dx if f (2a - x) = f(x)
sin{a + (n - 1) }
2 0

nh = 0 if f(2a - x) = -f(x)
sin
cos a + cos(a + n ) + ........+ = 2 .{cos a + (n - 1) n } a a

sin
h 2 (viii) ∫
-a
f ( x ) dx = 2 ∫0
f ( x )dx
2
b = f(-x) = f(x) even function
∫f (x )dx = f (b) - f(a)
a
= 0 if f(-x) = -f(x) odd f

e ax
∫eax sin bxdx =
a 2 + b2
(a sin bx - b cos bx) + C

e ax
∫e cos bxdx = a 2 + b 2 (a cos bx + b sin bx ) + C
ax

15
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

1. Area under simple curves d

b A = ∫x = x = f ( y)dy
A = ∫y = f ( x )dx c

Below x axis a b

b A = ∫y = f ( x ) + ∫f ( x )dx
A = ∫ydx 0 a

Area between curves:

b

A = ∫[f ( x ) - g(x)]dx
a

1. Sketches of some standard 2. Y=b and y=-b

curves
X=a and x=-a

3. Y=x and y=-x 4. x y

+ = 1; x + y = a, a = b
a b
5. x x ≥0 6. ( x - 0) 2 + ( y - 0) 2 =a 2
Y= y = x y = {
-x x < 0 c(0,0), r = a

7. (x - h)2 + ( y - k) 2 = r 2 8.

9. 10. x 2 y2
+ = 1, a > b
a 2 b2
11. x 2 y2 12. Y=sin x
+ = 1, a > b
b2 a 2
13. Y=cos x 14.

16
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Let x → independent variable ; Y → dependent variable
1. Ordinary differential eqn.: An eqn. involving derivative of the dependent variable w.r.to only one
independent variable is called an o.d.eqn.
Order : Highest order derivative.
Degree : When it is a polynomial eqn. In derivatives is defined as the highest order derivative
involved in the given d.eqn.
Solution of a differential equation:
General solution Particular sol.
If the sol.of a eqn of order n The sol. of a d.eqn. Obtained by giving
Contains n arbitrary constants then particular values to the constants in the g.sol.
It is called q.s (free from const)

Procedure to form a D.eqn:

When given eqn. Has one ar.cons f(x, y, a) = 0→(1) ⇒g( x, y, y’,a)=0→(2)
Solving (1) & (2) we get F(x, y, y’)=0
When given eqn. has two arbitrary constants : f(x, y, a,b) = 0 →(1)
G(x, y, y’,a, b)=0; h(x, y, y’, y’’,a, b)=0
Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get F(x, y , y’, y’’)=0
Variables separables
dy dy
= f ( x , y) = h ( x ) g ( x ) ⇒ ∫
h ( y) ∫
= g( x )dx ⇒H( y) = G( x ) + c
dx

D. eqn reducible to variable separable form

dy dz
= f (ax + by + c) let ax + by + c = z ⇒ = a + bf (z)
dx dx
y x
Homogenous differential eqns: f ( x, y) = x n g( ) (or) y n h ( )
x y
We check degree of each term of numerator and denominator of f(x, y). If degree is same then it
is homogenous otherwise not.
y x
Note: Either g ( ) or h ( ) form also we can apply homo mtd:
x y
Solution of homogenous d.eqn
dy dv dx dv
Let y = vx or x = vy = v+x = v+y
dx dx dy dy
Write the eqn obtained in v. separable form then integrate.
Linear differential equation
dy dx
+ P( x ) y = Q( x ); + P ( y ) x = Q( y )
dx dy

I.Factor e ∫ I.F e ∫
Pdx Pdy

y I.F = ∫Q(I.F)dx + C (or) x.(I.F) = ∫Q(I.F)dy + C

17
 VECTOR

1. Vectors have magnitude and direction whereas scalars have only magnitude
2. A directed line segment represents a vector PQ. P→initial point; Q→terminal point
3. Magnitude : PQ → length of line segment 4. Zero vector : AA = 0
5. a 6. Line of support : A line of which the vector PQ
Unit vector : a = 1; a =
a forms a part is called line of support for vector PQ
7. Like vectors: If they have (i) same or llel lines of support (ii) same direction
8. Unlike vectors : (i) their lines of support are same or parallel (ii) opp. Direction.
9. Equal vectors : (i) same or parallel lines of support (ii) same direction (ii) equal mag
10. Coinitial vectors :

11. Collinear vectors : if they have the same or parallel lines of support. b = da
12. Coplanar vectors: If they ien the same plane or parallel lines.
13.

14. Negative vector: AB = a; BA = - a

15. Triangle law: OB = a + b
16. Parallelogram law: OA + OC = OB

17. (i) a + b = b + a (ii) a + o = a (iii) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

Properties:
(iv )a + (-a ) = 0 (v) AB + BA = AA = 0
18. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar :k a 19. a parallel to b ⇒a = db(collinear )
20. l(a + b) = la + lb ; (l + m)(a ) = la + ma 21. AB = OB - OA = b - a
22. r = x 2 + y2 23. Components of vector : r = a + b
24. Direction cosines: 25. Direction Ration:
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
r = xi + yj+ xk; r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 AB = ( x 2 - x1 ) i + ( y 2 - y1 ) j+ (z 2 - z1 )
x x x
cosα = ; cosβ = ; cosγ =
r r r
26. Section formula : 27. a+b
mb + n a mb - n a Mid point r =
r= ; r= 2
m+n m-n 28. Scalar (or dot) product of two
(externally m : n) vectors:
a.b = a b cos θ, 0 ≤θ ≤ x

18
29. (i)a.b = 0 iff a ⊥ b (ii) if θ = 0 then a.a = a
2
30. Vector (or cross) product of two vectors:
^

(iii ) if θ = π then a.(-a ) = - a

a × b = a b sin θ n
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a×b
(iv) i . i = j. j = k . k = 1 and i . j = j. k = k . i = 0 n=
a×b
a.b
( v) cos θ = (vi) a.b = a1b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3b 3 2 2 2
ab (a.b) 2 + a × b = a b
^ a.b
( vii ) Pr ojection of a on b = a. b =
b
31. Properties: 32. Scalar triple product:
(i) a.(b × c) (or) (a × b).c (or) [a , b, c]
a1 b1 c1
= a 2 b2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
(ii) [a b c] = -[a c b]
(iii ) [a a b] = 0; [a b b] = 0
(iv )If [a b c] = 0 then vectors
a , b, c are coplanar.
(v) [a b c] → volume of a parallelop iped.
AB
(vi) 4 points : AC
AD

33. Distributive law :

a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

34. Lagrange’s identity:

2 2
(a × b) 2 = a b - (a.b) 2
Remark :
(i) sum (resultant) a + b
(ii ) β || el to α ⇒β = λα
(iii ) β ⊥ r to α ⇒β.α = 0
( ) 2
(iv ) a + b + c = 0 ⇒ a + b + c
2 2 2

+ 2(a.b + b.c + c.a )

( v)a + b + c = 0 ⇒a + b = -c
^ λa
( vi ) Unit vector λa =
a
(a × b )
( vii ) Unit vector perpendicular : λ
a×b
( viii )[a + b, c, d] = [a , c, d] + [b, c, d]

19
(i)a × b = 0 ⇔a || b
(ii )if θ = 0, a × a = 0 and
if θ = π, a × -a = 0
π
if θ = , a × b = a b
2
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
(iii ) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
i × j = k ; j× i = - k
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
j× k = i ; k × j = - i
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
k × i = j; i × k = - i
a×b
(iv) sin θ =
a b
( v) Vectors of magnitude & normal to
λ (a × b )
the plane of a and b is given as ±
a×b
( vi )a × b = -(b × a )
( vii ) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)
^ ^ ^
i j k
20
( viii )a × b = a 1 a 2 a 3
b1 b 2 b 3
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

1. Basic concepts 2. Section formula:

2 2
D = AB = ( x 2 - x1 ) + ( y 2 - y1 ) + (z 2 - z1 ) 2 If a point P which divides the line seg. AB
in the ratio m:n internally.
3. Mid point: mx + nx1 my 2 + ny1 mz 2 + nz1
x + x 2 y1 + y 2 z1 + z 2 ( 2 , , )
( 1 , , ) m+n m-n m+n
2 2 2 externally ,
4. Direction cosines of a line:
mx - nx1 my 2 - ny1 mz 2 - nz1
(i) If a line makes angles α, β, γ with x axis, y ( 2 , , )
axis, z axis then m-n m-n m-n
cos α = l; cos β = m; cos γ = n 5. Angle between two lines:
(i) D.c = l1,m1,n1 & l2,m2,n2
(ii) L2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
(ii ) d.r = a1 , b1 , c1 & a 2 , b 2 , c 2
(iii) Direction ratio : ( x 2 - x1 , y 2 - y1 , z 2 - z1 )
x -x y -y z -z a1a 2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2
(iv) d. cos : 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 1 cos θ =
AB AB AB a12 + b12 + c12
^ ^ ^ (iii ) d.c of two lines ⇒|| el
a = a1 i + a 2 j+ a 3 k; d.r = a1 , a 2 , a 3
if l1 = l 2 , m1 = m 2 , n1 = n 2
(v) a1 a2 a3
d.c = + + (iv )d.c of two lines ⇒⊥ r
a a a
l1l 2 + m1m 2 + n1n 2 = 0
6. Vector equation of a line 7. Equation of a line with 2 given points:
r = a + λb r = a + λ(b - a )
a → given po int; b → parallel x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
cartesian form = =
x 2 - x1 y 2 - y1 z 2 - z1
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
= = =λ 8. Angle between two lines:
a b c
(aλ + x , bλ + y1 , cλ + z1 ) r = a1 + λ b1 & r = a 2 + λ b 2

9. x - x1 y - y1 z - z1 b1.b 2
= = and cos θ = ( )
a1 b1 c1 b1 b 2
x - x 2 y - y2 z - z2 10. Shortest distance b/w two lines:
= =
a2 b2 c2
(b1 × b 2 ).(a1 × a 2 )
a1a 2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 d=
cos θ = b1 × b 2
a12 + b12 + c12 a 2 2 + b 2 2 + c 2 2

21
11 Intersection of two lines: 12 Distance between ||el lines:
. Coplanar: . r = a1 + λ b & r = a 2 + λ b
(b1 × b 2 ).(a 2 - a1 ) = 0
Equation of a plane : b × (a 2 - a1)
d=
b
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0 13 Equation of a plane:
. (i)r.n = d (n → normal to unit vecto r)
a2 b2 c2
14 Angle between two planes: Ax + By + Cz = D (d → Distance from origin)
. ^ ^ (ii) a given point and ⊥r to given vect or
r. n1 = d1 and r. n 2 = d 2
(a) (r - a ).n = 0
n1.n 2 (b)A( x - x1 ) + B( y - y1 ) + C(z - z1 ) = 0
cos θ =
n1 n 2 (iii )Plane passing thro 3 points (non collinear)
a1x + b1 y + c1x = d1 (r - a ).[(b - a ) × (c - a )] = 0
a 2 x + b2 y + c2 x = d 2 x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
a1a 2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 x 2 - x1 y 2 - y1 z 2 - z1 = 0
cos θ = 2
a1 + b12 + c12 a 2 2 + b 2 2 + c 2 2 x 3 - x1 y 3 - y1 z 3 - z1
Two planes are ⊥r if a1a 2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 = 0 (iv )Inter sec tion of 2 planes : (P1 + λP2 = 0)
15 Angle between a line and a plane: r1.(n1 + λ n 2 ) = d1 + λd 2 (OR)
. (i)r.n1 = d and r = a + λd (A1x + B1 y + C1z + D1 ) +
λ(A 2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D 2 ) = 0
b.n
sin θ = x (A1 + λA 2 ) + y(B1 + λB2 )
bn
+ z(C1 + λC 2 ) + (D1 + λD 2 ) = 0
(ii ) l x + m y + n z + d = 0 x y z
( v)Intercept form : + + =1
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1 a b c
l = =
a b c
al + bm + nc
sin θ =
a 2 + b2 + c2 l2 + m2 + n 2
16 Distance of a point from a plane: 17 When eqn. Of a line is
. (i)r.n = d & a . x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
= = and plane is
a1 b1 c1
a.n ± d Ax + By + Cz = D
d=
n If line is ⊥r to plane: then
(ii )ax + by + cz + d = 0 & (x1 , y, z) a b c
n = μ b (or) 1 = 1 = 1
A B C
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
d= If line is ||el to plane then
a 2 + b2 + c2 n.b = 0 (Or) a1a 2 + b1b 2 + c1c 2 = 0

22
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS
BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Linear inequations: The inequalities of the form ax + by ≤ c, ax + by < c, ax + by ≥ c and
ax + by > c are called l.ineqns.
2. Linear programming: It is the method used in decision making in business for obtaining the least
cost and maximum profits thro’ linear expressions subject to certain given conditions called
linear constraints
3. Objective functions : A linear function of the involved variables which we want to minimise or
maximise subject to the given linear constraints is known as objective function
4. Optimal value: The maximum (minimum) value of an objective function as its optimal value.
5. Feasible solution : A set of values of the variables satisfying all constraints is known as a feasible
solution.
6. Linear Programming Problem : A L.P.P consists of maximising or minimising an objective
function subject to certain constraints
7. Mathematically : The objective function max/min z = ax + by subject to the constraints
a1x + b1 y ≥or ≤ c1
a 2 x + b 2 y ≥or ≤ c 2
............x ≥0 or y ≥0
8. Corner point method
(i) Transform all constraints to linear inequations
(ii) Solve these inequations and find the feasible region.
(iii) Determine the corner points of the feasible region.
(iv) Let M and m be the largest and smallest values at these points.
(v) IF the feasible region is bounded M and m are respectively maximum and minimum values
of the objective function.
9. If the feasible region is unbounded then
(i) M is the maximum value of the obj. Function if the open half plane determined by ax+by>m
has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise the objective function has no
maximum value.
(ii) m is the minimum value : if ax+by<m has no point in commom with the feasible region.
Otherwise the obj fun has no minimum value.

23
 PROBABILITY
1 no. of favourable cases to event A 9. Law of total probability
P(a)=
. Total number of equallylike cases P(A) = P(E1 ).P(A / E1 ) + ......
+ P(E n ).P(A / E n )
2 Sample space : IT is a set of all possible 10 Baye’s Theorem
. outcomes of random experiments. . P( E i ) P( A / E i )
P( E i / A ) =
3 Event : It is a subset of s.s {P(E j )P(A / E j )}
.
4 Mutually exclusive events: two or more events 11 Probability of distribution
. are said to be M.E when all of them cannot . x x1 x 2 x 3 ......x n
happen simultaneously in a single trial. P(x) P1 P2 P3 ...... Pn
0 ≤ Pi ≤1; Pi > 0
5 Exhaustive events: It is the total no. of possible 12 Mean(exp ected value)
. outcomes of random experiment. .
μ = E(x) = ∑ xipi
6 Independent events : if the occurrence of one
. does not depend upon the occurrence of σ 2 = ∑ xi 2 pi - μ 2
others.
S.D = σ 2
7 Random variable : It is a real valued function 13 Binomial distribution:
. having domain as sample space. . B(n,p)=n(x P2 Qn-x, 0 ≤ x ≤ n
Properties: Where n - no. Of trials
P+q=1; p - successes; q-failure
8 (i)P(A ∪B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
14 Mean μ = np
. (ii) P(A ∪B) = P(A) + P(B) (P(A ∩ B) = 0 M.E.E) . variance σ 2 = npq
(iii)P(A ∩ B) = P(A).P(B) (Independent E)
S.D = npq
(iv)P(A ∪B) = P(A).P(B) = 1
(A ∪B ∪C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) -
(v) P(A) + P(A' ) = 1
P(A ∩ B) - P(B ∩ C) - P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(vi) P(A'∩B) = P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
P(A' /B) = 1 - P(A/B)
(vii)P(A ∩ B' ) = P(A) - P(A ∩ B)
(viii)P( A ∪B) = P(A ∩ B) = 1 - P(A ∪B)
(ix) 0 ≤ P(A) ≤1
(x)Prob. of impossible event is zero
(xi) Prob. of sure event is one.
P(A ∩ B)
(xii) P(A/B) =
P(B) ≠ 0
P(A ∩ B)
( xiii )P(A / B) =
P(B)
P(A ∩ B)
( xiv )P(A / B) =
P(B)

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