Chapter 1: A Preview of Language and Linguistics

- Language is a unique human trait, complex yet systematic and rule-

governed.

- Language reflects identity, aids social connections, and records history. It is

essential for describing experiences, expressing ideas, and conveying
emotions.

- Distinguishing Humans from Animals

- Language sets humans apart. Humans produce and interpret a wide range
of sounds to communicate meaning, a skill linked to specific brain areas.
Other species cannot acquire human language.

Universal Properties of Language

- Languages share fundamental traits despite differences in sounds, words,

and structures. - Sound systems: More consonants than vowels; vowels are
syllable nuclei.

- Word and sentence structure: Words are categorized (nouns, verbs, etc.),
and subjects typically precede objects (SVO, SOV, VSO).

- There are 5 properties of Language:

Creativity: Language allows novelty and innovation in response to new

thoughts, experiences, and situations.

Arbitrariness: There is no natural, inherent relationship between the form

of a word and its meaning.

Discreteness: Elements in language have definable boundaries; larger

linguistic units are composed of distinct smaller linguistic units.

Mutability: Features of language are subject to change over time.

Inaccessibility: Linguistic knowledge is largely subconscious.

1.1 Creativity

- Creativity is a key feature of language, enabling "novelty and innovation in

response to new thoughts, experiences, and situations" (O'Grady et al.
2001:3). It allows languages to expand their resources to meet the changing
communicative demands of speakers.

- Recursion: The ability to repeatedly apply rules to produce an infinite

variety of larger linguistic units.
Example: Combining words in different ways to create unlimited novel
sentences.

1.2 Arbitrariness

Table 1.2 shows cross-linguistic examples of onomatopoeia words, such as

[wãwã] for dog barking in Japanese and [miaw] for cat meowing in Spanish.
Sound symbolism is another exception to language arbitrariness, where word
forms suggest meanings. For example, words with the vowel [i] often denote
smallness (e.g., English "teeny," French "petit," Thai "níd"). Similarly, words
starting with "fl-" (e.g., "fly," "flee") often relate to lightness and quickness.
However, sound symbolism has arbitrary aspects, as not all words with [i] or
"fl-" align with these meanings. The association of [i] with smallness is
thought to stem from the high-pitched sound of small objects.

1.3 Discreteness

Discreteness is a key property of human language, meaning linguistic

elements have definable boundaries and can be broken into smaller units like
sounds, words, and sentences. For example, English speakers can identify
distinct sounds in "pin" or recognize sentences in "Be careful! There's a pin
on the floor." However, what is discrete varies across languages. For
instance, English distinguishes between "ship" and "sip," while Korean does
not. Similarly, languages divide the color spectrum differently, with some
using only "light" and "dark," while others, like English, have more color
terms. Despite these variations, all languages allow speakers to distinguish
discrete units in continuous speech.

1.4 Mutability

All languages evolve over time, a phenomenon known as linguistic

mutability. Changes occur at all levels of language, ranging from minor
additions like new words (e.g., "email," "biotechnology") to significant shifts
in grammar. For example, the process of negation in English has transformed
over centuries. Before 1200, negation involved placing "ne" before the verb
and "not" after it (e.g., "I ne seye not"). By 1400, "ne" became rare, and
"not" stood alone after the verb (e.g., "I seye not the wordes"). Today,
negation is formed by placing "not" after auxiliary verbs (e.g., "I will not
say"). These gradual changes often go unnoticed until a new form is
established. In the 18th century, scholars like Jonathan Swift and Bishop
Robert Lowth criticized such changes as corruptions of language, opposing
practices like double negatives (e.g., "I don't want none") and contractions
(e.g., "she's"). Despite their efforts, many of these forms persist,
demonstrating that language is shaped by usage rather than rigid rules.

1.5 Inaccessibility

Linguistic knowledge is mostly subconscious. Speakers know how to use their

language intuitively but struggle to explain the rules. For example, English
speakers accept "Harry almost finished" but reject "Harry very finished,"
even if they can’t explain why. Unlike subjects like math, language is
acquired gradually and intuitively, making it difficult to articulate the
underlying principles.

Summary Of The Chapter

Language is a distinctive attribute of the human species. Human language is

characterized by a number of fundamental features. These universal
properties include creativity, arbitrariness, discreteness, mutability, and
inaccessibility. In order to understand the nature of language, linguists pay
attention to a grammar, i.e., a mental system which represents speakers'
linguistic competence. Moreover, linguists take an objective approach to
study language; they view that the grammars of all languages are equal, and
they try to describe language as the way it is used.

Question 1, 2, 3/14:

1. One well-known example of sound symbolism in English is the initial

sequence **gl-** which is said to possess the meaning related to 'sight', as
illustrated in (a) - (f) below.

- a. glare - d. glaze

- b. gleam - e. glance

- c. glint - f. glossy

Think of other English words which begin with this cluster. Then, think of
other English words whose meanings are associated with 'sight.' Also, think
of words in other languages that contain this initial cluster or whose
meanings are related to 'sight.' Can we make use of this **gl-** example as
strong evidence for non-arbitrariness in language?

 More English words starting with "gl-":

  glow

 glitter

 glisten

 glacier (related to the gleam of ice)

 globe (related to how we view the world)

 gladiator (related to the spectacle of fighting)

 glamour (related to the allure of visual beauty)

More English words related to sight (not necessarily starting with

"gl-"):

 see

 look

 watch

 observe

 view

 gaze

 stare

 peek

 glimpse

 scan

 sight

 vision

 spectacle

 image

 picture

 focus

Words in other languages related to sight or containing a similar

sound cluster:
  German: glanz (glamour, brilliance), blick (glance, look), sehen (see)

 Spanish: ver (see), mirar (look at), vista (sight, view)

 French: voir (see), regarder (look at), vue (view, sight)

 Italian: vedere (see), guardare (look at), vista (sight, view)

 Japanese: 見る (miru) (see) While not a "gl-" sound, the "mi" has a
similar feel to the "vi" in "vision"

 Chinese: 看 (kàn) (see, look)

The "gl-" cluster and its association with sight is a moderate example
of sound symbolism, but it's not strong evidence for complete non-
arbitrariness in language. Here's why:

 Not universally applicable: While "gl-" often relates to sight, it's not
a rigid rule. "Glue" or "glutton" don't fit the pattern. This weakens the
argument for a direct, inherent link between the sound and the
meaning.

 Limited scope: Sound symbolism exists, but it's not the dominant
force in language. Most words are arbitrary. The "gl-" cluster is a
relatively isolated example. There aren't many other clusters with such
a clear and consistent association.

 Possible explanations other than direct symbolism: Some argue

that the "gl-" connection is due to historical sound changes and
coincidences, not a direct symbolic link. Words might have acquired
the "gl-" over time, and then we retroactively associate it with sight.

 Cross-linguistic variation: While some other languages have similar-

sounding words related to sight, this isn't a universal phenomenon.
Many languages use completely different sounds for sight-related
concepts.

2. An English speaker's linguistic competence includes the knowledge of

permitted sound sequences of the language. Which of the following forms
are possible words of English and which are not? Give your reason(s).

- a. pmool - c. frain

- b. cafb - d. glube
- e. fask - g. kgrill

- f. firdm - h. spraw

a. pmool: Not a possible word. English words rarely, if ever, begin with
the consonant cluster "pm." The "p" and "m" together at the beginning feel
un-English.

b. cafb: Not a possible word. While "caf" could conceivably start a word
(like "cafe"), the addition of "b" and "f" in that order creates an unlikely and
difficult-to-pronounce consonant cluster at the end. Final "fb" is not a typical
English ending.

c. frain: Possible word. This could be a word, although it's not currently
one. The "fr" beginning is common (e.g., "frame," "free"), and the "-ain"
ending exists in words like "train," "brain," and "sprain." It fits the
phonotactic rules of English.

d. glube: Possible word. The "gl-" beginning is common (e.g., "globe,"

"glue"), and the "-ube" ending is also found in words like "cube" and "tube."
It sounds pronounceable and follows English sound patterns.

e. fask: Possible word. While not an existing word, it could be. The "f-" and
"-sk" are both permissible in English words

f. firdm: Not a possible word. The final consonant cluster "rdm" is highly
unusual and difficult to pronounce in English. It violates typical English
syllable structure.

g. kgrill: Not a possible word. The initial cluster "kgr" is very awkward
and not found at the beginnings of English words. English words can start
with "gr" (e.g: "grill"), but the "k" before it makes it unacceptable.

h. spraw: Possible word. This is already a word! "Sprawl" is a perfectly

acceptable English word. The "spr-" beginning and "-awl" ending are both
common.

3. Based on the examples given in the previous question, create four new
possible forms of words and four new impossible forms of words in English.

Possible Words:

1. splonk: The "spl-" beginning is acceptable (e.g., "splash," "splinter"),

and "-onk" is a plausible ending (think "bonk," "conk").
 2. zandle: The "z-" beginning is allowed, and "-andle" is similar to
existing endings like "-handle" or "-candle."

3. flurb: The "fl-" beginning is frequent (e.g., "flower," "flurry"), and "-
urb" sounds like it could be a word.

Impossible Words:

1. ptral: The initial consonant cluster "ptr-" is extremely difficult to

pronounce in English and violates typical English phonotactics.

2. zlkf: This combination has multiple issues. The final cluster "lkf" is
nearly impossible in English, and while "z" can start a word, it's rare.

3. ghbbt: This word is a string of consonant clusters that are not found in
English words. The "gh" at the beginning is already problematic, and
the repetition of "b" and "t" makes it even less likely.