Chapter 3.

1- Database:
● Database:
○ A database is a collection of data or information which is held together in an
organised or logical way
○ Database Management Systems: the software used to create and maintain
databases is known as Database Management System (DBMS) or Relational
Database Management System (RDBMS)
○ Uses of databases:
■ Vast amounts of information can be stored
■ Queries can be run to search for specific records or groups of records
■ Reports can be produced from the data stored or queries run
■ Information can be extracted from the database and exported into a word
processing package for mail merging
■ Validation can be used to reduce errors
○ Types of data:
■ Text: data that can hold any letter, number, symbol or punctuation mark. It
is sometimes referred to as alphanumeric or string. This data can be a
pure text or a combination of text, numbers and symbols
■ Number: data that contains numbers. Integers are +ve and -ve numbers with
no decimal place. Real or floating point means you may need to use
decimals. Currency is real or floating point with the currency symbol
■ Boolean: data that holds only two values. E.g. yes/no, true/false, etc
■ Date/time: data that is used to store any data that is related to date or time.
Another reason to use this type of data is that it can provide some basic
validation on the data being entered
■ Image: data that is any graphical images
○ Databases, continued:
■ Databases are used when storing large amounts of data need to be
collected and organised
■ A database is a structured set of data, that is structured using tables
■ A record is a collection of data from one object, person or thing
■ Fields are used in a database to provide category headings for each piece
of data in the database
■ Flat file database:
● Flat file database: is a database that contains a single table
● A table holds a collection of records for a particular theme
● The naming convention for a table always begins with “tbl” followed
by the name of the table
● A table has a number of fields. Fields are basically the columns of
the table
● A record can be thought of as the row of a table
● Each record has a unique identifier
 ● A primary key is used to give each record a unique code. A primary
key can never be repeated. This ensures that each record in the
table is unique
■ Relational database:
● A relational database has more than one table
● The data in the tables are linked using relationships
● Relationships can be:
○ One to one: means that one record in a table relates to a
single record in another table
○ One to many: means that one record in a table relates to
multiple records in another table
○ Many to many: means that multiple records in a table relates
to multiple records in another table
● A benefit of a relational database is that all data can be updated at the
original source
● Data doesn’t need to be repeated and relationships can be made
using the source tables unique identifier
● When you link to a source tables primary key you use a foreign key
● A foreign key can be repeated because it is a link back to the primary
key in the source table
○ Data normalisation:
■ Data normalisation: is a technique for designing relational database tables
to minimise duplication of information and, in so doing, to safeguard the
database against certain types of logical or structural problems
■ Data normalisation provides rules that help:
● Organise the data efficiently
● Eliminate redundant data
● Ensure that only related data are stored in a table
■ Benefits of data normalisation:
● The database does not have redundant data, it is smaller in size so
less money needs to be spent on storage
● Much faster to run a query on the data, because there is less data to
search through
● Better data integrity and less risk of mistakes, because there is no
data duplication
● Less chance of storing two or more different copies of the data,
because there is no data duplication
● Once change can be made, which can be instantly cascaded across
any related records
■ Problems with data normalisation:
● You cannot always make the data atomic, because sometimes the
data cannot be made smaller
● You can end up with more tables than an unnormalised database
 ● The more tables and more complex the database, the slower
queries can be to run
● It is necessary to assign more relationships to interact with larger
numbers of tables
● With more tables, setting up queries can become more complex
○ Data verification and validation:
■ Data integrity: is the overall accuracy, completeness and consistency of data
■ Data validation techniques:
● Data type check: checks that the value entered is of the required
data type
● Range check: checks that the data is between an upper limit and a
lower limit
● Limit check: used to check either the upper limit or the lower limit
● Length check: checks that a specific number of characters or digits
has been entered
● Format check: used to check that the data is in a specified format.
Regular expressions can be useful here to match a string against a
pattern
● Presence check: checks that something has been entered into a field
and the field has not been left blank
● Existence check: used to check that a piece of data or name of a file
actually exists
● Consistency check: checks that pieces of data from two or more
fields are compatible with each other
● Digit check: a digit that helps confirm that a code is correct
■ Data verification techniques:
● Visual check: is when a person checks that the data being entered
from one document into another is the same
● Double entry: requires a user to input the same information twice into
two separate fields and the two values are compared to check if they
are the same
Chapter 3.2- Algorithms:
● Characteristics of an algorithm:
○ Algorithm: a procedure or formula for solving a problem that is based on a
sequence of steps
○ Characteristics:
■ Well defined: each step of the procedure should be well defined, making
very specific steps to be taken and in what order. Details of each step must
be explicit, including how to handle any errors
■ Unambiguous: each of the steps should be clear and only have one
meaning (not open to any other interpretations)
■ Input: must have 0 or more well defined inputs
■ Output: should have 1 or more well defined outputs and should match the
desired output
■ Finiteness: algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps
■ Feasibility: should be feasible with the available resources
■ Independent: should have step by step directions, which should be
independent of any programming code
● Components of an algorithm:
○ Sequencing: an algorithm is a step by step process and the order of those steps are
crucial to ensuring that the desired output is achieved
○ Selection: algorithms can use selection to determine a different set of steps to
execute based on a Boolean expression
○ Iteration: algorithms often use repetition to execute steps a certain number of times
or until a certain condition is met
● Ways to represent an algorithm:
○ Pseudocode: is not a programming language. It is a simple way of describing a set
of instructions that does not have to use specific syntax. Usually instructions are
written in uppercase, variables in lowercase and messages in sentence case.
Input asks a question and output prints a message on screen
○ Flowchart: is a diagram that represents a set of instructions. Flowchart symbols:
 ■
○ Black box algorithm: basically, you put an input into the algorithm and it produces
an output. But, it does not show you what process it followed to get to that output
○ White box algorithm: basically, you put an input into the algorithm and it produces
an output. However, unlike black box it is transparent and shows you the process it
followed to reach that output
● Uses of algorithms:
○ Sorting:
■ This is done using a bubble sort algorithm
■ This type of algorithm is comparison based in which each pair of adjacent
elements is compared and the elements are swapped if they are not in order
○ Searching
○ Filtering
○ Counting
○ Prioritisation: is a sorting algorithm which prioritises to do tasks
○ Association rule: uncovers how items are associated with each other and reveals
relationships between items in large databases. Is also used in machine learning and
market basket analysis (probability of how likely someone will purchase a product
based on their recent purchases)
● Algorithmic dilemmas:
○ Algorithms replacing human judgement- reasons for why algorithms make
wrong decisions:
■ Trained on data that may contain biases: this leads to the algorithm
making decisions that are unfair or discriminatory
■ Can be fooled by adversarial data: adversarial data is data that is designed
to trick the algorithm into making a wrong decision
○ Algorithmic bias:
■ Human algorithm: developers unknowingly introduce a bias into their
models
■ The training data set includes biased data or is incomplete. A bias in data
is an error that occurs when certain elements of a data set are overweighted
or overrepresented
■ Black box algorithms and the lack of transparency: an algorithm that
provides insight without clarity on how the conclusions were reached from the
data input is called black box algorithm. Hence transparency in an algorithm
is important
Chapter 3.3- Computing devices:
● Types of computers:
○ Supercomputers:
■ They are the fastest and most expensive computers in the world
■ Can cost over 100 million pounds to build and very few organisations can
afford to purchase one
■ Mainly used by governments, such as military, security services and weather
office and also large uni’s for scientific research
■ Large commercial organisations also use them
■ They generate so much heat that they need to be housed in specifically
designed rooms with environmental controls and air conditioning systems.
The atmosphere must be kept free of dust particles and special filters are
used to keep the air clean
■ Many miles of cables which connect the computer to various peripherals
■ They usually need their own backup electricity generator which ensures
that they are still able to work in the event of a power failure
○ Mainframes:
■ Are large, powerful computers that can carry out many different tasks for
many different people at the same time
■ They are slower than a supercomputer but they are far less expensive,
around 4 million pounds
■ They can execute billions of instructions per second and can process large
amounts of data simultaneously
■ They are usually connected to a large number of peripherals, e.g. printers,
terminals, disk drives, etc
■ Used by large companies
■ Need to be operated by specialist, trained staff
■ Usually kept in an air conditioned room away from the office or factory floor
○ Personal computers:
■ Are very powerful and relatively inexpensive
■ Can carry out millions of calculations per second and store large amounts
of data, typically 120GB-1TB
■ Not intended to be mobile or carried around with you
■ Useful for:
● Running office applications
● CAD design
● Editing videos
● Creating and playing music
● Using internet for research, work and entertainment
○ Laptops:
■ Is a portable computer which is mobile and small enough to carry around
with you
■ They have an integrated keyboard and touchpad with buttons
 ■ Screen is attached to the base of the laptop
■ Laptops have a battery inside that allows it to be used anywhere
■ Modern laptops are just as powerful as PC’s. They have the same
processing power, memory and hard disks
■ They can also be connected to the internet
■ Downsides:
● Is they they feel heavy after being carried for some time
● Battery life is an issue as it has to be regularly charged
● Keyboard is also quite small
○ Netbooks:
■ They are much smaller in size and weight
■ They still have an integrated keyboard, touchpad and screen
■ Specifically designed to be ultra lightweight and small enough to carry with
one hand
■ Typically 10 inches in size, but are becoming smaller
■ May not have a traditional hard disk, instead flash memory is used, this
significantly reduces their storage capacity to 20-120GB
■ Less RAM, typically 512MB-1GB. This means that they are slower at
processing data, but battery life is longer
○ Tablet computers:
■ Is a mobile, thin and flat device
■ Contains a touch screen which is operated using your fingers
■ Screen view is changed automatically from landscape to portrait due to the
built in three axis gyroscope
■ Other sensors are an accelerometer, magnetometer and cameras. Can also
receive GPS signals for mapping and geo location
■ Can connect to the internet
■ Storage within the tablet is a SSD
■ They run from internal battery which needs to be recharged after some time
○ Smartphones:
■ Type of mobile phone, but with more sensors and capability
■ Contains GPS chips to pick up your exact location and comes with touch
screen technology
■ Apps
○ Embedded computers:
■ Is a single chip that contains all of the elements, such as:
● RAM
● ROM
● CPU
● Input
● Output
● Clock
■ Is also called a micro controller
■ Examples of things with an embedded computer:
 ● Telephones
● TV’s
● Cameras
● Washing machines
● Microwave cookers
● Dishwashers
● Cars
● Embedded system:
○ Consist of both computer hardware and software components which combined are
designed to perform a specific task
○ Are task specific- they are built to perform only one task
○ Types:
■ Standalone
■ Mobile
■ Networked
■ Real-time
○ Benefits:
■ Highly customisable and low cost- making them easy and affordable to
tailor to exact functional and performance requirements
○ Applications:
■ Military
■ Life sciences
■ Healthcare
■ Industrial automation
● Parts of a computer:
○ Motherboard:
■ All components of a computer communicate through a circuit board called
the motherboard
■ The motherboard is the glue that holds everything together
■ The motherboards video card and CPU are contained in the chipset
■ Input/output devices are plugged in the motherboard
○ CPU:
■ Is the brain of a computer, due to its direct plug connection to the
motherboard and communication with all of the computers other
components
■ The CPU breaks down any code into assembly language which is a
language that the processor can understand. It fetches, decodes and
executes these instructions
■ All processes a computer handles is done by the CPU
○ GPU:
■ Makes it possible for computers to generate high end visuals
■ Useful for gamers, 3D modellers, etc
■ The graphics card communicates directly with the display monitor
○ RAM:
 ■ RAM is also known as volatile memory (memory is erased after every
restart of the computer)
■ RAM helps programs and games start up and close quickly
○ Storage:
■ Data is stored in either a SSD or HDD
■ HDD’s are made of an actual disk onto which data is stored. The disk is
read by a mechanical arm
■ SSD’s have no moving parts and are faster than a hard drive, because no
time is spent waiting for a mechanical arm to find data on a physical
location of a disk
● Types of software:
○ Two main categories:
■ System software- OS, utility programs and drivers
■ Application software- everyday programs that are installed
○ Operating software:
■ Is a part of the system software
■ All computers have one and cannot function without one
■ The OS is a program that allows applications software to communicate with
the hardware
■ Tasks carried out by the OS:
● Sorting out where to store data on disk drives
● Dealing with security- user names and passwords
● Organising files and folders
● Managing data transfer from the CPU to the peripherals
● Deals with saving, deleting, opening, closing files
○ User interface:
■ Is the software that enables you to provide instructions and control the
device
■ Utility software:
● Is designed to do one or two tasks very well and nothing else
● Common tasks:
○ File sorting
○ File renaming
○ File conversion
○ File repair
○ Disk monitoring and defragmentation
○ Printing jobs
○ Backing up data
○ Anti-virus
■ Application software:
● Carries out tasks that the user is interested in doing
● Software applications work through the OS to gain access to the
hardware
● 3 main categories:
 ○ General purpose software:
■ Provides many features that the majority of users
want
■ Storage size is large
■ Advantages:
● Relatively cheap
● Easily available from most computer shops
● Thoroughly tested- no bugs or serious problems
● Lots of support
■ Examples:
● Word processing
● Database application
● Spreadsheet application
● Desktop publishing application
● Presentation software
● Graphics application
● Web design application
○ Specialist software
○ Bespoke (tailor made) software:
■ Software system that is designed and developed
specifically for an organisation
■ Advantages:
● The company will get the exact software that
they want
● The software will work how they want
● The software will only have relevant features to
the business
■ Disadvantages:
● Long time to develop
● Very expensive
● May need to employ a whole team of people
● Little user support and online help
● Computer generations:
○ Key terms:
■ Vacuum tube- an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a
vacuum. Used as a switch, amplifier or display screen in many older devices
■ Transistor- an electronic component that can be used as an amplifier or as a
switch. Used to control the flow of electricity in radios, TV’s, computers, etc
■ Integrated circuit- a small electronic circuit printed on a chip, usually made
of silicon that contains many circuit elements; transistors, diodes, resistors,
etc
■ Microprocessor- an electronic component held on an integrated circuit that
contains the CPU and other associated circuits
 ■ CPU- brain of the computer where most of the processing and operations
take place. Is part of the microprocessor
■ Magnetic drum- cylinder coated with magnetic material on which data and
programs can be stored
■ Magnetic core- uses arrays of small rings of magnetised material called
cores to store information
■ Memory- is a physical device that is used to store data, information and
programs in a computer
■ AI- area of computer science that deals with the simulation and creation of
intelligent machines or intelligent behaviour in computers
○ Evolution:

■
■ Characteristics of the first gen of computers (1940’s-1950’s):
● Main electronic component is the vacuum tube
● Main memory is magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
● Programming language is machine language
● Consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat
● Very slow and large in size
● input/output devices are punched cards and paper tapes
■ Characteristics of second gen of computers (1950’s-1960’s):
● Main electronic component is transistor
● Memory is magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk
● Programming language is assembly language
● Low power consumption, less heat and smaller size
● Improved speed and reliability than first gen
● input/output devices are punched cards and magnetic tapes
■ Characteristics of third gen of computers (1960’s-1970’s):
● Main electronic component are integrated circuits
● Memory is large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk
● Programming language is high level language
● Smaller, cheaper and more efficient than second gen
● Improved speed and reliability than second gen
■ Characteristics of fourth gen of computers (1970’s-present):
● Main electronic component is very large scale integration and
microprocessor
 ● VLSI (very large scale integration)- thousands of transistors on a
single microchip
● Memory- semiconductor memory:
○ RAM- used in computers that temporarily store programs and
data- volatile
○ ROM used in computers that permanently stores data and
programs- non volatile
● Programming language is high level language
● Smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third gen
● Improved speed, accuracy and reliability compared to third gen
● Input/output devices- keyboard, etc
● Network is a group of two or more computer systems linked
together
■ Characteristics of fifth gen of computers (present-future):
● Main electronic component is AI. Uses ultra large scale integration
technology and parallel processing method
○ ULSI- millions of transistors on a single microchip
○ Parallel processing method- two or more microprocessors
to run tasks simultaneously
● Language is natural (human)
● Consume less power and generate less heat
● Remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability
compared to fourth gen
● Portable and small in size and have a huge storage capacity
● input/output device- keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc
Chapter 3.4- Networks and internet:
● Types of computing networks:
○ A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided
by network nodes
■ A physical node is an electronic device that is attached to a network and is
capable of creating, receiving or transmitting information over a
communication channel
○ Types of computer networks:
■ Personal Area Network (PAN):
● Is the most basic type of computer network
● Restrained to a single person, meaning communication between
the computer devices is centred only on an individuals workspace
● Offers a network range of 1-100m from person to device providing
communication
● Transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and
very low cost
● Examples are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, etc

●
■ Local Area Network (LAN):
● Is most frequently used network
● Is a computer network that connects computers through a common
communication path, contained within a limited area, which is local
● Encomposses two or more computers connected over a server
● Two important technologies involved are ethernet and wifi
● Range is 2km and transmission speed is very high with easy
maintenance and low cost
● Examples are homes, schools, libraries, laboratories, college, office,
etc
 ●
■ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
● Is larger than LAN, but smaller than WAN
● Type of computer network that connects computers over a
geographical distance through a shared communication path over a
city, town or metropolitan area
● Range is 5km-50km
● Its transmission speed is average
● It is difficult to maintain and comes with high cost
● Examples are in towns, cities, single large city, large area within
multiple buildings

●
■ Wide Area Network (WAN):
● Type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path
● Is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations
● Can also be defined as a group of LANs that communicates with
each other with a range over 50km
● Its transmission speed is very low and comes with high
maintenance and very high cost
● Most common example is the internet

●
● Wired and wireless networks:
○ World Wide Web:
■ WWW is an internet-based service that distributes documents across the
internet using a standard set of rules known as protocols
■ Is the internet's most popular information retrieval service
■ Hypertext or hypermedia links provide users with access to a huge array of
documents that are connected to each other over the web
■ Is a collection of web servers that use hyperlinks to move between
websites using a program called a web browser, making the internet
accessible and available to everyone, anywhere, at any any time
■ A web browser is a document creation, organising and linking system
■ A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is an internet address given to a web
page
■ A website is a collection of online pages that belong to a given URL
○ Network:
■ Collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together
■ A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media
■ Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any
network
■ A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. For example, servers,
networking hardware, personal computers and other
specialised/general-purpose hosts
■ Wired/wireless networking:
● Wired- refers to any physical medium made up of cables. Copper
wire, twisted pair or fibre optic cables are all options. A wired network
employs wires to link devices to the internet or another network,
such as laptops or desktop PC’s
● Wireless- media that is made up of electromagnetic or infrared
waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices.
For example, cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite
disc receivers and laptops with WLAN cards. For data or voice
communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves
■ Types of networks:
● Wifi:
○ Industry-standard WLAN technology for linking computers
and other electronic devices to one another and the internet
○ Wifi is a wireless variant of a wired Ethernet network that is
frequently used in conjunction with it
○ Wifi is a type of wireless networking that uses radio
frequencies to send and receive data
○ Allows users to connect to the internet at high speeds without
the need for cables
○ Wifi stands for wireless fidelity
 ○ When connecting to wifi, you’re connecting to a wireless router
that connects a wifi enabled device to the internet
● Bluetooth:
○ Telecommunications industry standard
○ Enables wireless communication among mobile devices,
PC’s and other equipment over short distances
○ Facilitates communication between Bluetooth-enabled
devices
○ Compatible with desktops, laptops, PDA’s, digital cameras,
scanners, cellular phones and printers
■ Advantages:
● Based on radio waves, allowing items or walls
between devices without disrupting
communication
● Uses a common 2.4GHz frequency for
interoperability
● Consumes less energy and less expensive
than wifi
● Less likely to cause interference with other
devices on the same 2.4GHz band
■ Disadvantages:
● Disruptions if objects are placed between
communicating devices
● Slow transmission and frequent
incompatibility between devices
● Limited to 30 feet range due to its high
frequency
○ Cloud computing:
■ Data centre- physical site for a common pool of computer resources. Houses
hardware, software and services such as servers and internet storage
■ Cloud service providers- operate data centres worldwide. Provide
on-demand network access to shared computing resources
■ Cloud computing methodology- on-demand network access to a
programmable computing resource pool. Rapid supply and release of
resources with no administration effort or service provider contact
■ Utilises network connections and computer systems
■ Provides online services over the internet
■ Users at a distance with internet access can readily use cloud services
■ Services and information can be shared among linked computers and
users
■ Types of clouds:
● Public- makes it possible for anybody to access systems and
services. Because of its openness, the public cloud may be less
secure. The public cloud is one in which cloud infrastructure services
 are made available through the Internet to the public or large
industrial groups. Examples are Microsoft Azure and Google App
Engine
● Private- infrastructure is set aside for a single organisation's
exclusive use. Organisations, third parties or both own, manage and
operate it. The cloud infrastructure is provisioned on the
organisation's premises but hosted in a third party data centre.
Gives more flexibility and control over cloud resources. Example is
Ebay
● Hybrid- blend of different cloud models, such as public, private and
community. This model utilises all the models that are a component of
it, thus combining the scalability, economic efficiency and data
security into a single model. It is too complex, which is seen as a
downside
● Community- distributes cloud infrastructure among numerous
organisations to support a specific community with shared issues.
Cloud infrastructure is delivered on premises or at a third party
data centre in this manner. Participating organisations or a third party
manage this
● Client server and peer-to-peer network:
○ Client server network:
■ Two main parts are clients and servers. Clients are the devices or
computers and request services and servers are the devices that provide
those services
■ Clients and servers: two types of devices in the network. Clients are the
ones that want something (information or a service) and servers are the ones
that provide what the clients want
■ Centralised server: in this type of network there is a special central server.
This server is like a big boss that manages and stores all the important
information. Its centralised because all the information is kept in one central
location
■ Data storage: important data is stored on this central server. Think of having
a giant safe where all valuable stuff is kept
■ Service requests: when a client wants something, like a file or information, it
asks the server. The server then responds by providing the requested service
or information
■ Increase in nodes causes the server to become overloaded
 ■
○ Peer-to-peer network:
■ This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers
■ Each and every node is itself a client and server
■ Each node can do both request and respond for the services
■ Often creed by collections of 12 or fewer machines. All use unique security
to keep their data, but also share data with every other node
■ Nodes both consume and produce resources. As the number of nodes
grow, so does the peer-to-peer networks capability for resource sharing
■ Challenging to give nodes in peer-to-peer networks proper security
because they function as both clients and servers
■ Windows and MacOS use this
○ Difference between client-server and peer-to-peer network:

■
● Components of a computer network:
○ Hub:
■ Is a hardware device that connects multiple computers together in a
network and allows them to share data packets
■ Each computer is connected to one port in the hub
■ When a data packet arrives at a hub port, it transmits it to every other port. It
does not examine data packets
 ■ Re-transmitting every packet to every port means that data collisions are
more frequent
■ Network protocol can deal with collisions, but it will slow down during the
process
■ Data security may also be an issue because every computer encounters
every data packet, even if it was not intended
■ Hub is a good cheap solution for simple, low-medium bandwidth network
■ Daisy chain hubs allow even more computers to join the network
■ The only network topology using a hub is star
○ Switch:
■ Is a network cable that can only have one data packet in it at any instant
■ If two or more computers want to place a data packet onto the network at
the same time, then data collision will take place
■ The network protocol is put in place to deal with data collisions. What it does
is it declares the collided data as unusable and forces the two computers
to re-send their data packets at a slightly different time
■ Small delay due to data collisions
■ A switch has a number of ports and it stores the addresses of all devices
that are direct/indirectly connected to it on each port
■ As a data packet comes into the switch, its destination address is examined
and a direct connection is made between the two machines
■ Virtual networks can be set up where only a subset of connected computers
can see each other. According to the computers no other machines are on
the network
■ Virtual networks are very useful
■ Some switches are able to control the bandwidth of each port
■ A switch can also prioritise some ports over others
○ Router:
■ Is a device that transfers data between networks intelligently
■ Forwards data packets to their destination via the most efficient route
■ Contains a microcomputer
■ Stores real time information on network path congestion
■ Reads the destination address of arriving data packets
■ Looks up available paths to the destination
■ Checks the congestion on each path
■ Sends the packet along the least congested (fastest) path
■ Exchanges protocol information across networks
■ Filters traffic to prevent unauthorised intrusion by malware
■ Essential for connecting computers to the internet
■ Routes data packets with destination addresses outside local networks to the
internet modem
■ If the destination address is outside local networks, the router may send it to
the internet modem
■ The internet modem forwards the packet to the ISP’s router
 ■ The ISP’s router continues forwarding the packet towards its final destination
■ Facilitates efficient data transfer between networks
■ Enables internet connectivity for connected devices
○ Repeater:
■ Addresses signal weakening
■ Used when network cable lengths exceed maximum limits
■ Network cables are divided into segments, each segment is shorter than
the cables maximum allowed length
■ A repeater joins cable segments together and acts as a signal booster
■ Weak singles due to long cable lengths. So, a repeater amplifies and
restores the signal to its original strength
■ Essential for networks with computers more than 200m apart
■ Enables reliable communication across extended network infrastructures
○ Bridge:
■ Joins two networks together, it looks like one large network
■ Not as capable as a router, but it is less expensive
■ Both networks need to use the same protocol, otherwise you cannot use a
bridge
○ Network interface card:
■ They are needed if the computer does not have a built in network chip on the
motherboard
■ A NIC allows data packets to travel back and forth between computer and
network
■ Each network card has a unique 48 bit identification code, known as MAC
(Media Access Control) address
■ If the network card senses that the destination address within the data packet
matches its MAC address, it allows the packet through, otherwise it ignores it
■ MAC address is useful if a network manager wants to only allow certain
authorised machines to connect to the network
■ Can be in the form of a dongle
○ Wireless access point:
■ Local Area Networks (LAN) commonly use Ethernet cables, however the
alternative is Wi-FI which employs radio technology
■ Computers/laptops with built in Wi-Fi search for a wireless access point
(WAP)
■ WAP is a hardware device facilitating Wi-Fi connections. It has dedicated
radio channels for Wi-Fi devices. It also routes data from Wi-Fi into supported
hard-wired networks
■ Private networks require security, in the form of a password, ensuring
restricted access to the Wi-Fi network
■ Disadvantages:
● Slower compared to dedicated cabled networks
● Limited radio channels, restricting simultaneous connections
● Less secure due to reliance on password secrecy
 ■ Suitable for temporary connections
■ Used by companies for visiting personnel
○ Modem:
■ Converts the digital data from the computer into a continuous analogue
wave-form that the telephone system is designed to deal with
■ Converts analogue signals from the telephone network back into digital data
■ The term “modem” comes from the process of MODulation and
DEmodulation
■ Modems role is crucial because the telephone system was initially designed
for continuous signals (human voice)
■ Two forms- external box (connects via USB or network cable) or internal
(plugged directly into the computers motherboard)
■ Facilitates communication between computer and the telephone system
■ Wi-FI Modems:
● Complement traditional telephone modems
● Enable internet connectivity via radio (Wi-Fi)
● Often used for wireless connections to the internet
● Network standards and protocols:
○ TCP/IP layer model:
■ Application layer- provides applications with standardised data exchange.
Its protocols include HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP and Simple Network
Management. At this layer, the payload is the actual application data
■ Transport layer- is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications
across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and
provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. Protocols include TCP and
User Datagram
■ Network layer- deals with packets and connects independent networks to
transport the packets across network boundaries. Protocols are IP and intern
control message (used for error reporting)
■ Physical/network interface/data link layer- consist of protocols that operate
only on a link- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in
the network. The protocols include Ethernet for LAN and Address Resolution
■ Uses of the model:
● Provide remote login over the network for interactive file transfer to
deliver email and webpages over the network and to remotely access
a server hosts file system
● Used to represent how information changes form as it travels over a
network from the concrete physical layer to the abstract application
layer
■ Advantages:
● Helps establish connection between different types of computers
● Works independently of the OS
● Supports many routing protocols
● Uses client-server architecture that is highly scalable
 ●Can be operated independently
●Lightweight and doesn’t place unnecessary strain on a network or
computer
■ Disadvantages:
● Complicated to set up and manage
● Transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets
● Not easy to replace protocols in TCP and IP
● Does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces and
protocols, so it is not suitable for describing new technologies in new
networks
● Especially vulnerable to a synchronisation attack (type of
denial-of-service attack)
○ Network capacity and security:
■ Factors affecting the performance of networks:
● Number of devices on the network
● Bandwidth (amount of data that can transfer through a
communications channel over a given period of time) of the
transmission medium
● Type of network traffic
● Network latency- hub based network has higher latency than switch
based network because hubs broadcast all messages to all devices
and switch based networks transmit messages only to the intended
recipient
● Number of transmission errors
■ Data compression:
● Is the process of reducing the amount of data needed for the storage
or transmission of a given piece of information
● Lossy compression:
○ Irreversible compression method
○ Achieves higher compression ratios
○ Eliminates some data during compression
○ Results in a reduction in file size
○ Commonly used for audio, video and image
○ Quality loss occurs, but often imperceptible
○ Examples and JPEG and MP3
● Lossless compression:
○ Reversible compression method
○ Maintains original data integrity after compression and
decompression
○ Achieves lower compression ratios compared to lossy
○ Preserves all data, ensuring no quality loss
○ Commonly used for text, executable files and archival
purposes
 ○ Suitable for scenarios when maintaining data accuracy is
crucial
○ Examples include ZIP and PNG
■ Net neutrality:
● Net neutrality: the idea that all internet traffic should be treated
equally, without discrimination or preference based on the type of
content, website or user. It ensures an open and level playing field for
all online information and services
● Pros:
○ Equal access- ensures equal access to all online content and
services, preventing discrimination against specific websites or
applications
○ Innovation: fosters innovation by providing a level playing
field for both established and emerging online services,
allowing new ideas to thrive without discrimination
○ Consumer choice- protects consumer choice by preventing
ISPs from favouring or throttling certain content, ensuring
users have the freedom to choose what they access
○ Free expression- supports free expression and diverse
viewpoints by preventing ISPs from blocking or limiting access
to websites based on their content or opinions
○ Competition- encourages healthy competition among online
services by preventing ISPs from creating “fast lanes” that only
benefit those who can afford to pay for better access
● Cons:
○ Infrastructure investment- without the ability to charge
differently for different types of content, ISPs might have less
incentive to invest in improving network infrastructure
○ Quality of service- without the ability to prioritise certain types
of traffic, there may be challenges in delivering quality of
service for time sensitive applications like video streaming or
online gaming
○ Costs- opponents argue that net neutrality regulations could
lead to increased costs for consumers if ISPs pass on the
expenses of managing network traffic
○ Innovation constraints- some argue that the strict net
neutrality rules might limit ISPs ability to experiment with new
business models that could lead to innovate services
○ Network management- ISPs claim that net neutrality rules
may limit their ability to manage network efficiently, potentially
impacting the overall performance of the internet
■ Protection methods for network security:
● Authentication:
 ○ Is the process of recognising or identifying a users identity
whether it is true, real or not
○ Its simply a verification of claim of whether you are who you
say you are or not
○ Example are password authentication, physical authentication-
scannable card or smart card or digital certificate, biometric
authentication- signatures and fingerprints or visual
identification
● Authorisation:
○ Ensuring whether you have permission to access on network
or not
○ Its simply a verification of permission either user has access or
not
○ Examples are ACLs (access control lists), secure objects and
methods, access control for URLs
● Biometric system:
○ Most secure systems, as it provides high security to the
computer network
○ Verifies user identity based on some important characteristics
that are physiological and behavioural features
○ Physiological features- face, eyes, fingerprints and hand
○ Behavioural features- voice, signatures, etc
● Firewall:
○ Method of network security that prevents the computer
network from users that are not authorised to have access to a
network
○ Firewalls can either be hardware or software or both
○ It acts as a barrier between unauthorised internet users and
private computer networks connected to the internet
○ Blocks the message, viruses, hackers if they do not have
authorised access and do not meet the security criteria as per
requirement
○ Any message entering or leaving private computer networks
connected to the internet especially intranet pass through the
firewall
○ Types of firewall techniques:
■ Packet filter
■ Application level gateway
■ Circuit level gateway
■ Stateful inspection firewall
■ Next generation firewall
■ Proxy server
● ISP and WWW:
○ ISP- internet service provider
 ○ Is a company that provides internet services using telephone cables, modem,
ethernet and fibre optics
○ Internet- is a globally connected system facilitating worldwide communication and
access to data resources through a huge collection of personal, public, business
academic and government networks. Its governed by agencies just like Internet
Assigned Number Authority (IANA) that establish universal protocols
○ WWW- is the leading information retrieval service of the web. Online gives users
access to a huge array of documents that are connected to each other by means of
hypertext or hypermedia links that link related pieces of data so as to permit a user
quick access to them. Hypertext allows the user to pick a word or phrase from text
and thereby access other documents that contain additional information concerning
that word or phrase

○
● Internet dilemmas:
○ Internet threats:
■ Spam
■ Adware
■ Trojan
■ Virus
■ Worms
■ Phishing
■ Spyware
■ Keyloggers
■ Pharming
 ■ Rogue Security Software

Chapter 3.5- Media

● Media can be referred to as any communication channel that serves as a medium to
enable information to reach a large group of people
● Types of digital media:
○ Owned- is any online asset that you control. Includes websites, social media
channels, blogs, videos, etc
○ Paid- promotes online content to improve traffic towards owned media assets.
Include PPC, local service ads, paid search ads, display ads and Facebook ads
○ Earned- is advertising generated by customers. When word of mouth spreads about
a brand or on social media
● Types of digital media PT2:
○ Media and Web 1.0- text, images, video, animation and audio
○ Media and Web 2.0- blogs, podcast, social media, memes, wikis
○ Media and Web 3.0- deepfake created using deep learning and AI
● Characteristics of digital media:
○ Distribution and access- easy of access and ability to share information
○ Storage and maintenance- huge amounts of data can be stored on a small place
with no risk of damage
○ Advertisement- marketing can be more personalised and brands can reach exactly
who they want to target as well as respond to customer inquiries
○ Interactivity- allows humans to engage with a website
○ Communication an multimodality- when communicating a lot of people use
websites, blogs and social media. Not only can users of digital media read, view,
listen and experience the content but they can also interact with it through texts,
voices or touch. The two or more way communication processes allow digital media
communication to be smooth and natural
○ Social media- social media platforms have in particular and fundamentally changed
the ways in which we now present ourselves
 ○ AI- opened a whole new world of technological innovations. However, they pose
threats to privacy and human rights
● Digital media dilemmas:
○ Media addiction
○ Impact on journalism- spreading misinformation
○ Media authenticity- it has become difficult to check the authenticity on all the digital
media produced
○ Ownership of media- the usage of media posted online
○ Censorship and control of media- political/social content controlled by the
government in some countries
○ Digital media preservation- preserving digital media has led to obsolescence of both
storage media and data formats. The digital technology used to create the digital
media are also obsolete

Pixel and Resolution:

● Pixel: Tiny colored unit composing an image.

● Resolution: Density of pixels within a square inch; higher density equals higher
resolution.
● Higher resolution indicates a larger file size.

Bitmap Graphics (Raster Graphics):

● Computer files storing images (e.g., JPG, BMP, GIF, PNG, JPEG).
● Higher pixel count for clarity; compression may result in quality loss.
● Composition: Composed of pixels arranged in a grid.
● Resolution: Dependent on the density of pixels; higher density leads to higher
resolution.
● File Formats: Examples include JPG, BMP, GIF, PNG, JPEG.
● Scalability: Loss of quality when resized, especially when enlarging.
● Editing: Editing individual pixels; detailed editing may be challenging.
● File Size: Larger file sizes, especially for high-resolution images.
● Suitability: Ideal for complex images with fine details, like photographs.

Vector Graphics:

● Utilizes mathematical formulas to create images (lines, not pixels, e.g., PDF).
● Generally smaller in size; easy to resize without loss of quality.
● Conversion from vector to bitmap is straightforward.
● Composition: Created using mathematical formulas and points connected by lines.
● Resolution: Resolution-independent; not dependent on pixel density.
● File Formats: Examples include SVG, AI, EPS, PDF.
● Scalability: Easily scalable without loss of quality; ideal for logos and illustrations.
● Editing: Easily editable; can modify shapes, colors, and sizes without loss.
● File Size: Smaller file sizes compared to bitmap graphics.
● Suitability: Ideal for logos, icons, illustrations, and designs requiring scalability.
Chapter 3.6- AI
● Types of AI:
○ Types of intelligence:

■
○ AI- the simulation of intelligence in machines
○ Turing test- is a method of inquiry in AI for determining whether or not a computer is
capable of thinking like a human being
○ Captcha test- completely automated public turing test to tell computers and humans
apart. Three main categories- text based, imaged based and audio. Main function
is preventing scammers from spamming, protect online poling
○ Difference between AI and CI:
 ■
● Expert system:
○ Expert system- is an application that seeks to mimic the knowledge and experience
of a human expert. Is designed to provide reasonable answers when given a set of
conditions about the problem in hand
○ Parts of an expert system:
■ Knowledge base- the part of the system that holds all the knowledge of the
system. It contains facts and rules about the task domain (area of
expertise that the expert system is designed to work within)
■ Interference engine- part of the expert system that works out a reasonable
solution when given a set of answers from the user. Either a decision tree or
heuristic system to deal with uncertainty
■ User interference- will present its questions and the user provides answers.
Typically the user is given a set of options to choose along with other buttons
for navigation (if required)
○ Advantages:
■ Expert advice available all the time
 ■ Knowledge of expert staff can be captured to some extent before they
move on
■ Can be used as a training aid to increase the expertise of staff
■ Makes rational decisions without any emotional overhead
■ Does not get tired or overworked
■ Efficient way of getting answers as it does not involve additional help
■ Natural language interface would make the expert system more human
friendly
○ Disadvantages:
■ Usually only covers a narrow range of knowledge
■ A lot of effort and cost has to go into making a good expert system
■ Not as good as having human experts to hand
■ Most expert systems are menu driven which does not deal very well
ambiguous problems
■ Advanced interfaces such as natural language processing still needs to be
improved in order to be effective
■ Does not learn from mistakes unless user feedback and human
maintenance is part of its ongoing developing
■ Unlikely to come up with creative solutions
○ Applications:
■ Diagnostic tool for fixing machinery and vehicles
■ Online medical system for diagnosing a problem
■ Telephone based help desk
■ Finance firm making loan/credit decisions
■ Government services such as working out tax and benefits
● Types of AI.2:
○ Weak/Narrow:
■ Defined as AI designed for a specific task
■ Pros:
● Focused efficiency- excels in performing specific tasks with high
precision
● Cost-effective- more affordable and easier to develop for specific
applications
● Widespread use- widely deployed in everyday applications like voice
assistants
■ Cons:
● Limited scope- lacks versatility and cannot adapt to tasks outside its
designated domain
● No general intelligence- unable to reason or understand beyond its
predefined capabilities
■ Examples- Siri and Alexa
○ Domain-specific:
■ Defined as AI focused on a particular domain or field
■ Pros:
 ● High precision- specialised for particular tasks, providing accurate
results
● Improved performance- outperforms general-purpose AI in its
designated domain
● Tailored solutions- can be customised for specific industry needs
■ Cons:
● Lack of versatility: limited to tasks within a specific field or domain
● Integration challenges- difficulties in combining domain-specific AIs
for broader applications
■ Examples- AI for medical diagnosis or image recognition
○ Strong/full AI:
■ Defined as AI with general cognitive abilities comparable to human
intelligence
■ Pros:
● General problem solving- capable of understanding and solving a
wide range of problems
● Versatility- adaptable across various domains and tasks
● Human-like interaction- potential for more natural and intuitive
communication
■ Cons:
● Ethical concerns- raises significant ethical and societal issues, such
as control and accountability
● Unknown risks- development may lead to unpredictable
consequences and risks
● Technical challenges- extremely complex to achieve, requiring
breakthroughs in various AI fields
■ Doesn’t exist yet
○ Super AI:
■ Defined as Ai surpassing human intelligence in all aspects
■ Pros:
● Unprecedented intelligence- surpasses human capabilities in all
aspects
● Scientific advancements- may contribute to significant scientific
breakthroughs
● Solving complex problems- could tackle complex global challenges
■ Cons:
● Existential risks- raises concerns about control, safety and potential
harm to humanity
● Unpredictable behaviour- could exhibit unpredictable actions due to
superior intelligence
● Ethical dilemmas- raises concerns about the role and rights of such
entities
● Types of machine learning:
○ Machine learning- is a subfield of AI, which is defined as the capability of a machine
to imitate intelligent human behaviour
○ Supervised learning:
■ Uses labelled datasets to train algorithms for accurate classification or
outcome prediction
■ Two types- classification and regression
■ Classification- utilised when the output variable is binary or categorical
■ Regression- utilised to make predictions that involve a linear relationship
between input and output variables
■ Applications- medical diagnosis, fraud detection, spam detection and
speech recognition
○ Unsupervised learning:
■ Utilises unlabeled and unclassified datasets to make predictions without
human intervention
■ Useful for categorising or grouping unsorted data based on similarities and
difference, as well as discovering hidden patterns and trends in the input data
■ They learn from the data without any fixed output variable, making them
suitable for complex tasks
■ Ideal for cluster, anomaly detection and exploratory data analysis
■ Types- clustering and association
■ Clustering- involves grouping data points based on their similarities,
differences or features without prior knowledge or labels
■ Association- machines discover interesting relations and connections
among variables in large input datasets
■ Applications- anomaly detection to identify fraud transactions, identifying
and targeting market segments and recommendation systems to suggest
products or services
○ Semi-supervised learning:
■ Is a highly efficient and cost effective machine learning technique combining
labelled and unlabelled data during training
■ It allows machines to learn from all the available data by utilising both
supervised and unsupervised learning
■ First uses unsupervised learning algorithms to group similar data, then labels
unlabelled data
■ Enables machines to improve their accuracy and performance
■ Types- self-supervised and multiple-instance learning
■ Self supervised learning- frames the problem as a supervised learning task
to generate labelled data from unlabelled data. Useful when obtaining
labelled data is inexpensive
■ Multiple instance learning- provides weakly supervised learning where
bags containing training processing are labelled instead of individual
instances. Useful when only partial information is available
 ■ Applications- medical image analysis, speech recognition and natural
language processing, text classification and sentiment analysis, fraud
detection in finance
○ Reinforcement learning:
■ Is a machine learning technique where an agent learns to take optimal
actions through environmental feedback
■ Does not rely on labelled data, instead it utilises a trial-and-error approach
with a feedback based process
■ Main advantage- is the ability to learn from experience and improve
performance over time
■ Types- positive and negative reinforcement
■ Positive reinforcement- agent is rewarded for taking actions that lead to
positive outcomes
■ Negative reinforcement- agent is punished for taking actions that lead to
negative outcomes. So the agent learns to avoid actions that result in
punishment and instead takes actions leading to positive outcomes
■ Applications- building intelligent robotics, developing personalised treatment
plans for patients, autonomous vehicles and game playing
○ Deep learning:
■ Type of machine learning and AI that imitates the way humans gain
knowledge
■ Computers are able to “learn” to recognise and identify abstract objects
■ Can be thought of as automated predictive analytics
■ Deep learning algorithms are stacked in a hierarchy that increases in
complexity
■ Used for image recognition tools, natural language processing and speech
software
● Uses of artificial neural network:
○ Neural networks are systems with interconnected nodes that work in a similar way to
the neurons in the brain. Nodes are activated when there is sufficient input, which in
turn provides input for the next series of nodes and so un until it produces an output
○ Neural networks are a type of deep learning, its like teaching a computer to learn
how a human does
○ Uses a large amount of processors, operating in tiers, along with a huge amount of
data that is trained on
○ Applications:
■ Facial recognition
■ Stock market prediction
■ Social media
■ Aerospace
■ Defence
■ Healthcare
■ Signature verification and handwriting analysis
■ Weather
 ○ Advantages:
■ Parallel processing abilities- network can provide more than one job at a
time
■ Information storage- store information on the entire network , not just in a
database. This ensures that if a small amount of data disappears from one
location the entire network continues to operate
■ Non linearity- ability to learn and model non linear, complex relationships
helps model real-world relationships between input and output
■ Fault tolerance- corruption or fault of one or more cells won't stop the
generation of output
■ Gradual corruption- network slowly degrades over time instead of degrading
instantly when a problem occurs
■ Unrestricted input variables- no restrictions are placed on input variables,
such as how they should be distributed
■ Observation based decisions- can learn from events and make decisions
based on the observations
■ Unorganised data processing- good at organising large amounts of data by
processing, sorting and categorising it
■ Ability to learn hidden relationships- can learn hidden relationships in data
without commanding any fixed relationships. Can better model highly volatile
data and constant variance
■ Ability to generalise data- ability to generalise infer unseen relationships on
unseen data means ANNs can predict the output of unseen data
○ Disadvantages:
■ Lack of rules- lack of rules for determining the proper network structure
means appropriate artificial network architecture can only be found through
trial, error and experience
■ Hardware dependency- requirement of processors with parallel processing
abilities makes neural networks dependent on hardware
■ Numerical translation- network works with numerical information, meaning
all problems must be translated into numerical values before they can
presented to the ANN
■ Lack of trust- inability to explain the why or how behind the solution
generates a lack of trust in the network
■ Inaccurate results- can often produce incomplete or inaccurate results if not
trained properly
■ Black box nature- challenging to grasp how neural networks make their
predictions or categorise data
● Evolution of AI:
○ Fifth generation computing:
■ Started around 2010
■ AI began much earlier
○ AI Winter:
■ Periods of reduced funding and interest in AI
 ■ Notable winters in 1974 and 1995
■ Caused by unmet expectations especially in expert system markets
○ Cybernetics and AI development:
■ Cybernetics study began in 1956
■ Considered the initial step towards AI development
○ Singularity prediction:
■ Singularity concept popularised by Vernor Vinge in 1993
■ Ray Kurzweil predicted singularity achievement by 2045
● AI dilemmas:
○ Fairness and Bias: AI systems may inadvertently perpetuate and amplify biases
present in the data they are trained on
○ Accountability in design and use: determining responsibility when AI systems
make critical decisions
○ Transparency in design and use: many AI systems operate as black boxes,
making it challenging to understand their decision making process
○ AI’s carbon footprint: the computational demands of training and running complex
AI models contribute to environmental concerns
○ Uneven and underdeveloped laws, regulation and governance: the rapid
evolution of AI has outpaced the development of comprehensive legal and regulatory
frameworks
○ Automation and displacement of humans: increased automation in various
sectors can lead to job displacement and economic shifts
Chapter 3.7- Robotics and autonomous technologies
● A robot is a machine, especially one programmable by computer that is capable of carrying
out a complex series of actions automatically with little or no human intervention
● Types of robots:
○ Industrial- used in manufacturing. Applications- arc welding, spot welding, materials
handling, machine tending, painting, assembly, etc
○ Service- used for domestic or professional use. Domestic - robot vacuum cleaners,
lawn mowers. Professional - delivery, surgery, maintenance.
○ Social- interact and communicate with humans. Used in customer service, elderly
care.
● Autonomous vehicles:
○ Vehicles capable of sensing their environment and navigating with little to no
human input using a variety of sensors, control systems, and software.
○ Include passenger cars, trucks, delivery vehicles, public transportation
shuttles/buses.
○ Key technologies: Radar, lidar, cameras, ultrasonic sensors, GPS, inertial
measurement units, machine learning systems.
○ Levels of autonomy:
■ Level 0- no automation: Human driver controls all tasks like steering,
braking, etc.
■ Level 1- driver assistance: Vehicle can assist with either steering or
acceleration/deceleration, but not both simultaneously. Examples: Adaptive
cruise control, lane keeping assist.
■ Level 2- partial automation: Vehicle can control both steering and
acceleration/deceleration simultaneously under some circumstances.
Humans must monitor and be ready to take control. Examples: Tesla
Autopilot, Cadillac Super Cruise.
■ Level 3- conditional automation: Vehicle can handle all driving tasks under
certain conditions. Human driver is still required to take control when alerted.
No vehicles at this level yet.
■ Level 4- high automation: Vehicle is fully autonomous in most conditions,
though with limited operational areas like specific geo-fenced locations.
Human override is possible but not required. Examples: Waymo self-driving
taxis.
■ Level 5- full automation: No human intervention required at all. Vehicles can
operate autonomously everywhere under all conditions. Not achieved yet
commercially.
○ Benefits:
■ Increased safety by reducing accidents caused by human error
■ Improved mobility for elderly and disabled
■ Reduced traffic congestion through intelligent routing
■ Lower emissions from more efficient driving patterns
 ■ New mobility models like shared autonomous vehicle fleets
○ Limitations:
■ Perception and decision-making in unpredictable environments
■ Cybersecurity threats of hacking autonomous systems
■ Ethical considerations around decision-making in unavoidable accident
scenarios
■ Establishing legal frameworks around liability
■ Public acceptance and trust in the technology
■ Integration with current human-driven vehicle infrastructure
● Drones:
○ Flying robots that can either be remotely controlled by a human operator or fly
autonomously using onboard computers and sensors
○ Originated for military purposes like anti-aircraft training, surveillance, and missile
deployment
○ Applications of drones:
■ Aerial photography/videography for real estate, events, etc.
■ Delivery of small packages and medical supplies
■ Monitoring/inspection of infrastructure like power lines, pipelines
■ Precision agriculture for crop monitoring, spraying pesticides
■ Search and rescue operations to locate missing persons
■ Surveying and mapping of geographical areas
■ Environmental monitoring like tracking wildlife, forest fires
○ Drone technology:
■ Flight Systems: Propellers, motors, batteries to provide lift and mobility
■ Navigation: GPS receivers, altimeters, accelerometers to determine position
■ Sensors: Cameras, thermal and multispectral sensors for imaging/monitoring
■ Communications: Transmitters to relay data and receive commands from
controllers
○ Types of drones:
■ Multi-rotor: Quad, hexa or octocopter drones commonly used for aerial
imaging
■ Fixed-wing: Aeroplane-style drones used for longer distance
monitoring/surveying
■ Single-rotor: Helicopter-style drones, highly manoeuvrable for delivery
■ Hybrid: Combination of different designs to optimise for specific use cases
○ Autonomous capabilities:
■ Automated flight planning and control based on GPS waypoints
■ Obstacle detection and avoidance using vision sensors
■ Machine learning for intelligent navigation in complex urban environments
■ Predictive maintenance using sensor data analysis
■ Swarming capabilities with multiple cooperative drones
○ Regulatory aspects:
■ Aviation authorities regulating commercial drone operations through
licensing/certification
 ■ Restrictions on drone flying heights, weights, line-of-sight operation
■ Privacy issues around use of camera/surveillance drones over private
property
■ Concerns about security threats from rogue drones, counter-drone measures
● Internet of Things- describes physical objects with sensors, processing ability, software
and other technologies that connect and exchange data with other devices and systems
over the Internet and other communication networks
● Characteristics of robots:
○ Sensory inputs: Vision, hearing, touch to perceive environment. More advanced
use lidar, sonar, radar.
○ Logical reasoning: Use artificial intelligence, machine learning, machine vision to
make decisions.
○ Interact and move: Use actuators and end effectors to manipulate objects and
move.
○ Autonomy: Varying levels of autonomy depending on complexity of tasks. Fully
autonomous operate independently.
● Evolution of robots and autonomous technologies:
○ Evolution:
■ Early forms: Mechanical birds, tortoise robots
■ Science fiction: Concept introduced in plays and books. Asimov's 3 Laws of
Robotics.
■ Industry: First programmable robot Unimate (1954). Robots grew more
advanced.
■ Human interaction: Developed robots like ASIMO, AIBO, Pepper to interact
with humans.
○ Laws of robotics:
■ First law- a robot must not injure a human being or through inaction allow a
robot to come to harm
■ Second law- a robot must obey the orders given it by humans beings except
where should orders would conflict with the first law
■ Third law- a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with the first or second law
● Robots and autonomous technology dilemmas:
○ Uncanny valley- feeling of eeriness/revulsion towards robots that closely resemble
humans
○ Human-robot interactions- difficulty in designing robots that can interact naturally
and unpredictably with humans and environments
○ Laws/governance- lack of clear global regulations on use of robots, especially
autonomous ones that could be hijacked or cause harm
○ Displacement of labour- robots/automation leading to job losses in manufacturing,
transportation, services
○ Machine consciousness- potential development of self-aware AI prompting
debates around robot rights
● Impact on humans:
○ Positive- robots taking on dull, dirty, dangerous tasks from humans. Used for
elderly/disability assistance, healthcare, search/rescue.
○ Negative- mass automation displacing human workers and causing unemployment,
especially for routine manual labour jobs.
○ Societal- shaping new forms of human-machine interaction and relationships.
Robots may need to be designed to elicit emotional responses.
○ Interventions- robots proposed as solutions for issues like ageing populations by
providing home assistance and caretaking.
○ Ethics- need for guidelines around decision-making by autonomous systems,
privacy/security standards.
Chapter 4.1- Culture
● 4.1A- Arts, entertainment and popular culture:
○ Popular culture- music, dance, movies, art enjoyed by society
○ Genres, techniques, forms of artistic expression evolving with digital
technology:
■ Photography transformed by digital editing and storage
■ Concern about valuing capturing over experiencing moments
■ More photos taken every 2 mins than entire 1800s
○ Access to arts increased via internet:
■ Debates around disrupting live events and expectation of free content
○ Rise of internet phenomena- memes, online forums and influencers:
■ Memes spread awareness
■ Online forums connect interests
■ Influencers building brands and getting sponsorships
○ New digital experiences, such as AR games evolving communication
● 4.1B- Home, leisure and tourism:
○ IOT devices connecting and automating home appliances into smart homes
○ Privacy risks of insecure IOT devices being hacked
○ Gig economy facilitating short term services via apps, for example transportation
and cleaning
○ Ranking systems and customer reviews on travel platforms
○ Translation apps overcoming language barriers for travellers
○ Shifts in content consumption- streaming replacing theatres, virtual conferencing
○ Sports/gaming integrating wearables, sensors, streaming content
○ Digital making travel more accessible (travel forums, apps, booking)
● 4.1C- Heritage, customs and celebrations:
○ Heritage refers to objects/qualities passed down generations, examples are
traditions and buildings
○ Customs are traditional cultural practices
○ Celebrations are observed cultural events/milestones
○ Digitise efforts to preserve artefacts by making digital copies. Increases
accessibility while protecting originals
○ Transitioning customs and celebrations to digital platforms
○ Potential loss of traditions as cultures evolve with digital integration
○ Amish culture- carefully evaluating before adopting new technologies
● 4.1D- Subcultures:
○ Youth culture norms distinct from older generations
○ Internet enables formation of online communities around shared interests:
■ Guidelines and moderation to regulate
■ Fluidity in joining/leaving digital subcultures
○ Dark side of radicalisation and spread of extremist ideologies online
 ○ Cancel culture of public backlash against offensive behaviour- debate around
accountability vs free speech
○ Digital soft power influence on youth cultures globally
○ Youth apps/platforms different from adults
● Other notes:
○ Comparing online museum/exhibition experiences to physical visits
○ Positive and negative impacts of adopting new technologies in families
○ Challenges regulating illegal activities on the dark web
○ Ethical considerations around technology integration
Chapter 4.2- Economic
● 4.2A- A business:
○ Digital tools facilitate common practices in the day-to-day business operations today
○ For example, transaction processing systems which incorporate all of the
resources, software and hardware needed to manage sales, purchases and other
transactions
○ Office automation systems help to centralise and organise data, improve
communication between workers and departments, manage calendars and facilitate
collaboration
○ Diversification
■ Diversification is when a business enters into a new market or industry
■ Horizontal diversification- is when you acquire or develop new products or
services that are complementary to your core business and appeal to your
current customers
■ Concentric diversification- involves adding new products that have
technological or marketing synergies with existing product lines or industries,
but appeal to new customers
■ Conglomerate diversification- occurs when you add new products or
services that are entirely different from and unrelated to your core business
■ Vertical diversification- is when you expand in a backward or forward
direction along the production chain for your product. You may control one
stage of the supply chain
● 4.2B- Employment and labour:
○ Working practices- technology has influenced how offices work nowadays
compared to traditional office working
○ Remote working has become a norm after Covid
○ Digital nomads- work permanently but are not tied to a permanent location
○ Crowdwork, microwork- crowdsourcing allows companies to save time and money
by collecting information, ideas or work from a group of people, usually over the
internet.
○ Microwork- small tasks where online platforms help connecting with the service
providers, wherein short term projects can be completed quickly for payment
○ Sharing economy- involves in sharing services like hiring scooters or cars for short
duration
○ Automation and employment- with software and machines automating more work,
companies no longer need to hire as many employees as before, however work like
care givers and plumbers are still in demand
● 4.2C- Goods, services and currency:
○ E commerce- can be classified into 3 categories:
■ Business-to-business (B2B)
■ Business-to-consumer (B2C)
■ Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)
 ○ E trading- is a subsection of e commerce centred on buying and selling financial
products, such as stocks, bonds or other assets on online trading platforms
○ Cryptocurrency are used for purchasing goods and services
○ Non fungible token (NFT)- is a unique, one of a kind artefact that is combined with
blockchain technology to allow unique identification of the artefact
○ Micro transactions (MTX)- refer to the purchases of virtual goods for small sums of
money
○ Additive manufacturing adds raw materials layer by layer to build an object or
product
● 4.2D- Globalisation:
○ Borderless selling- is the process of selling goods across national border
○ Through the global reach of the internet, large and small businesses are able to
reach clients across the world and widen their exposure and sales potential
○ Companies are looking to the global labour market when deciding how to operate
most efficiently. This is because more tasks and work can be completed remotely
and the convenience and speeds of international shipping are improving
○ Outsourcing- delegating functions or tasks to a third party vendor
○ Offshoring- is moving jobs or operations to another country
○ Reshoring- involves the returning of the production and manufacturing of goods to
the companies original country
○ Near sourcing- involves relocating production and manufacturing processes to
locations closer to the end consumer
○ Insourcing- the assignment of a project to a person or department within a company
rather than to a third party