BTEE-611-18

Electronics Design Laboratory

Index

 Basic concepts on measurements;

 Noise in electronic systems;
 Sensors and signal conditioning circuits;
 Introduction to electronic instrumentation and PC based data acquisition;
 Electronic system design, Analog system design,
 Interfacing of analog and digital systems,
 Embedded systems,
 Electronic system design employing microcontrollers,
 Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs), and field-programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs), and printed circuit boards (PCB) design and layout;
 System assembly considerations. Group projects involving electronic hardware (Analog,
Digital, mixed signal) leading to implementation of an application.
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EXPERIMENT NO -1

Aim-Basic Concepts On Measurements

Measurement Definition
Measurement is a technique in which the properties of an object are determined by
comparing them to a standard quantity. Also, measurement is the essential metric to
express any quantity of objects, things and events.

Measurement Units
We have units of measurement for different types of measurement as mentioned above.
Let’s have a look at the below units of measurement.
Time: Units for expressing time include seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months,
years, etc.
Length: Units for measuring length include millimetres, centimetres, meters, kilometres,
etc.
Weight: Units for expressing the weight of certain objects include grams, kilograms, tons,
etc.
Volume: Units for expressing volume include cm3, m3, litres, etc.
Temperature: The major units of temperature include centigrade and fahrenheit.
It is also possible to perform the conversion of units from one unit to another.

Measurement and Scaling

We have different scales of measurement such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale.
Let’s understand these measurement scales in brief.
Nominal measurement: The nominal measurement scale is the first level of measurement
scale in which the numbers serve as titles or labels to categorise or recognise the objects.
This scaling usually deals with non-numeric variables or objects with no value.

Ordinal measurement: The ordinal measurement scale is the second level of measurement
that declares the ordering and ranking of data without designating the degree of variation
among them. Ordinal symbolises the “order.” Ordinal data is referred to as qualitative or
categorical data, and this data can be grouped and named also can be ranked.

Interval measurement: The interval measurement scale is the third level of measurement
scale. This scaling is a quantitative measurement scale in which we can express the
difference between any two variables.

Ratio measurement: The ratio measurement scale is the fourth level of measurement scale,
which is quantitative. The ratio scaling has a unique feature: it possesses the origin or zero
points character.
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Electrical measuring instruments are all the devices used to measure the magnitude of an
electric current with different objectives. The values that are usually measured with this
equipment are current, voltage, resistance, and power. Each is expressed in different units:
amps, volts, ohms, and
watts, respectively.

For the most part, the measuring instruments are portable so they can be used to make fast,
accurate measurements.
What is the importance of electrical measuring instruments?
Using measuring instruments lets you record unknown data that can be compared with
those that are already known. This way, you can study the characteristics and peculiarities
of the electrical object being analyzed.

In everyday terms, the instruments for measuring power, intensity, resistance, and voltage
make it possible to confirm the proper operation of machines and installations, as well as
identifying the consumption characteristics of a certain electric energy service.
What electrical capacities do the measuring instruments measure?
Depending on what needs to be determined about an electrical circuit, different magnitudes
can be measured: Voltage: the difference in power that exists between two points of an
element that conducts electrical current. Its unit of measurement is
the volt.
Intensity: the magnitude with which current circulates in an electrical circuit. Its unit of
measurement is the amp.
Resistance: the value of a conductor versus the flow of electrons. Its
unit of measurement is the ohm.
Capacitance: the charge storage capacity of an element in an electrical circuit. Its unit of
measurement is also the amp.
Electrical power: originates from the combination of voltage (volts)
and current (amps). Its unit of measurement is called the watt.
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What are the main electrical measuring instruments?

Galvanometer: indicates the intensity of the flow of electric current through a circuit.
Voltmeter: used to measure the potential difference between two
points of a closed electrical circuit or the electromotive force of a battery. This instrument
must have high electrical resistance so that, when it’s connected to the circuit, it does not
generate consumption that alters the result and accuracy of the measurement.

Ammeter: measures the intensity (i.e. amps) of current circulating

through an electrical circuit.

Ohmmeter: records the ohms, or the electrical resistance, in a circuit.

Multimeter: a meter that brings together the capabilities of the

other meters: it incorporates the tools necessary to measure voltages, resistances,
capacitances, etc.

Oscilloscope: a measuring instrument and graphical display of

electrical signals that vary over time. This tool makes it possible to visualize transient
phenomena and facilitates the diagnosis and analysis of an electrical circuit’s operation, as
well as its possible failures.
Spectrum analyzer: measuring equipment that displays the
components and spectral ranges of electrical signals coming from any wave, whether
electromagnetic, mechanical, acoustic, or optical.
How are electrical measuring instruments classified?
Measuring instruments are classified according to their function:

Analog: based on electromagnetic systems; when a current or voltage passes through a

conductor, a magnetic field is generated that moves a needle within a magnitude scale.
Digital: these are the most common because they make the same
measurement as analog versions but in a faster, more accurate, and more reliable way.
Registers: these can be either analog or digital and are responsible for
recording the values being measured in a graph where the value of the magnitude is shown
over a period of time.
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EXPERIMENT NO -2

Aim-Noise in Electronic Systems & Types of Noise

Noise is an undesirable signal. It interferes with the original signal and distorts it. Thus, the
noise may superimpose on the original signal at the stage of transmitter, transmitting
media, or at the receiver end.It adversely affects the performance of the communication
system. It is not possible to eliminate the noise completely. However, we can reduce it up
to certain measures by taking appropriate measures.
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From the above waveform, we can conclude the following for noise in the electronic
system.

No constant voltage magnitude

No constant frequency
Random & unpredictable behavior

Types of Noise in Electronic Systems There are different types of noise.

Shot Noise
Flicker Noise
Thermal Noise
Transit Time Noise
Atmospheric Noise
Crosstalk
Man-made / Industrial Noise
Impulsive Noise
Low-frequency Noise
Intermittent Noise
Continuous Noise

Shot Noise
The discontinuity of the flow of holes and electrons in semiconductor devices creates shot
noise. It is an internal type of noise. The reach of electrons and holes in a random manner is
the main reason for this noise.
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If the electrons arrive and the release happens at the fixed rate, it will not create the spot
noise. The random arrival/release creates discontinuity, and further, it creates spot noise in
the system.The shot noise is dependent upon the current flowing. However, it does not
depend on the system operating temperature.

Flicker Noise in Electronic Systems

Flicker noise occurs in almost all electronic devices. The flicker noise is;

Proportional to the emitter current and junction temperature

Inversely proportional to the frequency
The flicker noise is inversely proportional to the frequency that is why it is also called 1/f
noise.
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The flicker noise is more predominant at the lower frequency( typically less than 500 Hz).
Thus, at the higher frequency flicker noise or 1/f noise is almost absent.
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is also an internal type of noise. The thermal agitation of the electrons inside
an electrical conductor at equilibrium generates electronic noise. In other words, thermal
noise generates when the current passes through the resistor.
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A transistor has a base, emitter, and collector. The resistance of the base, emitter, and
collector can not be zero, it has a finite value. The thermal noise generates in the transistor
because of its base, emitter, & collector resistance.

Transit Time Noise in Electronic Systems

Transit noise is an internal type of noise. The higher frequency increases the conductance,
and further, it increases the spectral density of the signal. Thus, The time taken by the
charge carrier ( electrons or holes) is the transit time.

The transit time of the charge carrier decrease with an increase in frequency. However, the
charge carrier requires some definite time to reach from input to output. If the charge
carrier transit time is less, it creates transit time noise.
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Thus, the transit time noise generation happens at high frequency. This noise is negligible
at low frequency.

Atmospheric Noise in Electronic system

Atmospheric noise is an external type of noise caused by natural atmospheric processes.
The followings are natural atmospheric processes.

External lightning strike in thunderstorms

Electrical disturbance – Ground faults, short circuit faults
The atmospheric noise has a wide frequency spectrum. The lightning strikes generate a
voltage in the conductor. This generated voltage has wide frequency spectrums, and
further, it superimposes on the original signal. Thus, the mixing of the noise signal with the
original signal causes distortion.

Crosstalk
This is an external type of noise. When two or more signals flow in the same channel, both
signals interfere with one another. This interference of the signals generates noise, and this
noise is called cross talk.The stray capacitance & mutual inductance between the two lines
are the main reasons for cross-talk. In other words, cross talk is the phenomenon where two
signals interfere with each other due to capacitive, inductive, or conductive coupling.
Man-made / Industrial Noise
This is an external type of noise. The source of noise is powerlines, ignition systems,
electrical motors, and switch gears. The operation of these equipment/ machines creates
electric discharge during their operation.The noise is predominant in industrial and thickly
populated areas. The frequency range of the noise is in the range of 1 MHz to 600 MHz.

Impulsive Noise
Impulsive noise is on/off pulses of short duration. The reason for the short duration on/off
pules are;

Switching Operation
surface degradation of audio recordings
clicks from computer keyboards
Impulse noises are short-duration pulses but they can cause permanent damage. The
voltage spikes in equipment change voltage in adjacent pairs in a copper cable, and
generate impulsive noise during switching operation.

Low-frequency Noise
Low-frequency noise, ranging from about 10 Hz to 200 Hz, has been recognized as a
special environmental noise problem.We use the sound level meter and a dosimeter to
measure the impulsive noise.
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Intermittent Noise
Intermittent noise is a variable noise, it is a mixture of somewhat noisy and quiet periods.
Examples are;

A train passing by
a washing machine on its ‘wash’ cycle
factory equipment that functions in cycles
aircraft flying over your house
most manufacturing noises

Continuous Noise
The continuous noise is produced continuously, for example, an electric motor that keeps
running without interruption. The sources of this noise are factory equipment, engine noise,
or heating and ventilation systems.
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EXPERIMENT NO -3

Aim-Sensor Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning is the interface between the product's sensors and data acquisition
hardware. The conditioning circuit plays an integral role in the overall functionality of your
device, rendering many of its advanced features possible.

Because so many types of sensors exist, conditioning circuits come in a wide range of
specifications. While it's an often-overlooked component, having a basic understanding of
how the conditioning process works can make all the difference during the development of
your product.

Signal Conditioning Explained

The sole purpose of signal conditioning is to take the signals from the sensors and prepare
them for further processing. The electronic circuit integrates into a more extensive data
acquisition system, also known as a DAQ.Sensors pick up real-world environmental or
mechanical phenomena, such as vibrations, temperature, and more. Those signals are
analog, and they need to be digitized to be read. The job of the DAQ is to sample and
measure the data, turning it into a digital format that computers and software can
manipulate, store, analyze, and display.The issue with the data acquisition process is that
raw signals are subject to many quality problems. The signals can be very small. They may
not be linear. They may lack calibration. Alternatively, they could have noise.Whatever the
case may be, signal conditioning works to correct these deficiencies. It makes the signal
ready for the next stage of data acquisition, ensuring accurate and useful data.

Common Conditioning Techniques

The accuracy and overall efficiency of the DAQ system in your device depend entirely on
the signal conditioning design. There are many ways to prepare the signal for processing.

The following are common ways that signals need to be processed.

Amplification
In many cases, the analog signal has too tiny an amplitude to feed into the DAQ system.
Not only does it make the signal more susceptible to noise and interference, but the system
might not detect the data at all.An analog-to-digital converter or DAQ may need an input
signal that is 3- or 5-volts full scale. Many signals are only millivolts. An amplifier is
required to boost the signal.
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The amplifier is most often single-ended, with a single input referred to as ground. Some
amplifiers are differential, measuring the difference between two inputs. This is needed
when the signal is not referenced to ground or for small signals where the ground reference
is noisy.

Linearization
Linearization is a common signal conditioning task for temperature measurements and
many other signals.It applies to any signal that doesn't have a linear relationship between
the signal value and the physical quantity it measures. Take thermocouples as an example.
They have a nonlinear temperature-to-voltage relationship.There are circuits that provide
linearization for certain common sensors, such as thermocouples. For other signals, the
linearization is now usually done after the signal is digitized.

Excitation
Excitation is the process of delivering power to the sensor. Active sensors require external
voltage or a current to operate. A signal conditioner provides the excitation source. Many
kinds of sensors need this form of conditioning. Some examples include resistance
temperature detectors, strain gauges, and pressure sensors.The output signal is proportional
to the voltage input for many of these sensors, so the signal changes when the power input
changes. The source must be very stable over time, temperature, and load to get an accurate
measurement.

Cold Junction Compensation

This type of conditioning is specific to thermocouples. A thermocouple sensor relies on the
Seebeck effect, which is a relative temperature. It is relative to the junction where the
thermocouple connects, called the cold junction.A separate sensor measures the cold
junction temperature. The actual temperature is what the thermocouple reports, plus the
cold junction temperature.

Isolation
Electrical isolation separates the circuit from the other sources of electrical potential,
ensuring external voltages don't affect the sensor readings.For
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example, a thermocouple mounted to a motor's windings may contact high voltage wires.
To prevent damage and make accurate measurements, you would electrically isolate the
amplifier from the thermocouple. However, isolation is not often used, especially in
battery-operated devices, because it is expensive.

Sampling Errors
The above signal conditioning has to do with the amplitude of the signal. When a signal is
digitized, you also must pay attention to the timing. Digital signals are discrete, not
continuous, so the sample rate is important. You usually don't have to pay attention to the
sample rate for some signals, such as temperature. Others, such as vibration, are critically
sensitive.The digitized signal will not represent the analog signal if the vibration frequency
is faster than the sample rate. Sampling theory says the sampling rate must be at least twice
the highest frequency in the signal to avoid aliasing. You sometimes see this effect in a
movie where the wheels on a vehicle appear to run slowly or even backward. This happens
when the movie's frame rate is close to the rate of motion of the wheels.A filter is usually
used to eliminate frequencies more than half the sampling rate. In actual practice, because
filters are not perfect, removing frequencies much lower than half the sampling rate is
necessary.

Simultaneous Sampling
If two signals are being measured and compared in time, they must be sampled
simultaneously. Most analog-to-digital converters sample one input channel at-a- time, so
there is a time difference between each channel.For signals such as vibration, it is often
important to avoid the time difference. A simultaneous sampling circuit is used to capture
all the inputs at the same time. Then the analog- to-digital converter can read them one at a
time.

Accurate and Reliable Data Acquisition with Signal Conditioning

Sensor signal conditioning is crucial for proper data gathering. These small but mighty
components are an indispensable part of DAQ systems. But like all complex electronics,
the design and implementation are what matters most.
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EXPERIMENT NO-4

AIM: - Plotting of Hysteresis loop for a magnetic material using flux meter.
Apparatus: - B-H curve tracer kit, CRO, Patch Cords, Trace paper

Magnetic Materials: Nail, Hack Saw Blade, Ferrite Rod, Steel rod
Theory:
Magnetic hysteresis may be defined as the lagging of magnetization (or flux density B) behind
magnetizing force H. It is that property of material due to which energy is dissipated in it on the
reversal of its magnetism. The magnetizing force H can be produced by passing current through
the coil wound on iron core. It can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the
current through the coil. Consider a circuit consisting of a battery “E” an ammeter, variable
resistance R and reversible switch shown in the fig.1.

Initially variable resistance is kept at maximum position so current through the circuit is very
low. The field strength H=NI /l is also very low .So as current increased, for low values of field
strength, flux density do not increase rapidly. But after the knee point flux density increases
rapidly up to certain point .This point is called point of saturation .There after any change in
current do not have an effect on the flux density
.This curve is nothing but the magnetization curve (B-H curve). This is the initial part of
hysteresis loop.
After the saturation point, now current is again reduced to zero. Due to this field strength also
reduces to zero. But it is observed that flux density do not trace the same curve back but falls
back as compared to previous magnetization curve .This phenomenon of falling back of flux
density while demagnetization cycle is called hysteresis. Hence due to this effect, when current
becomes exactly zero, there remains some magnetism associated with a coil and hence the flux
density .The core does not get completely demagnetized though current through coil becomes
zero. This value of flux density when exciting current through the coil and magnetic field
strength is reduced to zero is called residual flux density/ residUAl magnetism of the core. The
magnitude of this residual flux or magnetism depends on the nature of the material of the
core. And this property of the material is called retentivity.

But now if it is required to demagnetize the core entirely then it is necessary to reverse the
direction of the current through the coil. This is possible with the help of the intermediate
switch.The value of magnetic field strength required to wipe out the residual flux density is
called the coercive force .It is measured in terms of coercivity.

If now this reversed current is increased, core will get saturated but in opposite direction. At this
point flux density is maximum but with opposite direction.
If this current is reduced to zero, again core shows a hysteresis property and does not get fully
demagnetized. It shows same value of residual magnetism but with opposite direction.
And if it is increased further, then saturation in the original direction is achieved
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completing one cycle of magnetization and demagnetization.

In the conventional techniques of tracing the B-H loop, one has to wind a primary and a secondary coil
on the specimen and experiment with it. This method is not convenient for quick study of the shapes of
B-H loop of different materials. The present technique can be used to study B-H loop by simply inserting
the specimen in a magnetizing coil .It makes use of a specially designed integrated circuit probe to
measure the flux density B. The current flow through the magnetizing coil develops a potential difference
across the resistance R, which deflects the beam in the X –direction. The deflection is proportional to the
magnetic field H which is given by;

where N is the no. of turns of the coil (300),R the resistance in series with the coil, and L is the coil
length in meters(0.033m). Vx is the voltage applied to the X-input of the CRO. The probe has a
sensitivity of 5mV per Gauss. Hence B=0.5VyWeber/sq m, Where Vy is the voltage applied to the Y
input of the CRO.

Procedure:
Connect one terminal of the magnetizing coil to point C of main unit and the other terminal marked VI
(6Volts ac).connect H to the horizontal input of the CRO and V to vertical input of the CRO. Operate the
CRO in X-Y mode.
Connect the IC probe to the “IC” marked on main unit.
Switch ON the kit. To get proper loop vary the resistance to the maximum value with the help of knob P
on the panel.
With no specimen through the coil, adjust the horizontal gain of the CRO until a convenient X deflection
is obtained. Note down this reading as SH.
Insert the magnetic specimen( a 5’ nail), through the magnetizing coil such that it touches the probe at the
centre .Make sure that sample is touching I C only and conducting tracks should not be shorted in any
case. Adjust the oscilloscope vertical gain (Y gain) until a trace showing the B-H loop conveniently fills
the screen. Note down this reading as Sv. If the curve is back to front, reverse the connection of the
magnetizing coil.
Trace the area of the loop on butter paper from the screen of CRO and retrace it on graph paper.
Note down the X intercept Vx and Y intercept Vy from the graph paper. Calculate the coercivity H using
relation 1and retentivity B using relation 2.
Measure the area of the loop with the help of graph paper.

Precautions:
The specimen should touch the probe.
If the area of the loop is expressed in cm2 , the sensitivities should be expressed in volts/cm. If the area of
the loop is expressed in sq.meter the sensitivities should be expressed in volts/meter. The length of the
coil should be in meter.
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EXPERIMENT NO-5

Aim-Introduction to electronic instrumentation

The instruments, which are used to measure any quantity are known as measuring instruments. This
tutorial covers mainly the electronic instruments, which are useful for measuring either electrical
quantities or parameters.
Following are the most commonly used electronic instruments.
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ohmmeter
Multimeter
Now, let us discuss about these instruments briefly.
Voltmeter
As the name suggests, voltmeter is a measuring instrument which measures the voltage across any two
points of an electric circuit. There are two types of voltmeters: DC voltmeter, and AC voltmeter.
DC voltmeter measures the DC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, whereas AC
voltmeter measures the AC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit.
Ammeter
As the name suggests, ammeter is a measuring instrument which measures the current flowing through
any two points of an electric circuit. There are two types of ammeters: DC ammeter, and AC ammeter.
DC ammeter measures the DC current that flows through any two points of an electric circuit. Whereas,
AC ammeter measures the AC current that flows through any two points of an electric circuit.
Ohmmeter is used to measure the value of resistance between any two points of an electric circuit. It can
also be used for finding the value of an unknown resistor. There are two types of ohmmeters: series
ohmmeter, and shunt ohmmeter.
In series type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be connected in
series with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring high values of resistances.
In shunt type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be connected in
parallel (shunt) with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring low values of resistances.
Multimeter
Multimeter is an electronic instrument used to measure the quantities such as voltage, current &
resistance one at a time. It can be used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents and resistances
of several ranges.
multimeter can be used to measure various high resistances, low resistances, DC voltages, AC voltages,
DC currents, & AC currents. Different scales and range of values for each of these quantities are marked.
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EXPERIMENT NO-6

AIM-DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

DAQ (Data AcQuisition) is defined as the process of taking a real-world signal as input, such as
avoltage or current any electrical input, into the computer, for processing, analysis, storage or other
data manipulation or conditioning.A Physical phenomena represents the real-world signal we are
trying to measure. Today, most scientists and engineers are using personal computers with ISA,
EISA, PCI or PCMCIA bus for data acquisition in laboratory, research, test and measurement, and
industrial automation applications. Many applications use plug-in boards to acquire data and
transfer it directly to computer memory. Others use DAQ hardware remote from the PC that is
coupled via parallel port, serial port, GPIB-Bus or Netoperate. Typically, DAQ plug-in boards are
general-purpose data acquisition device that are well suited for measuring voltage signals. However,
many real-world sensorsand transducers output signals that must be conditioned before a DAQ
board or device can effectively and correctly acquire the signal.This front-endpreprocessing,whichis
generally referredto as signal conditioning, includes functions such as signal amplification, filtering,
electrical isolation,and multiplexing. Afterall, many transducers require excitation currents or
voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or high amplification for proper and accurate operation.

Fig 1.1 :Simplified Block Diagram of a DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

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:The PC as a platform for data acquisition

The field of data acquisition encompasses a very wide range of activities. At its simplest level, it involves
reading electrical signals into a computer from some form of sensor. These signals may represent the
state of a physical process, such as the position and orientation of machine tools, the temperature of a
furnace or the size and shape of a manufactured component. The acquired data may have to be stored,
printed or displayed. Often the data have to be analyzed or processed in some way in order to generate
further signals for controlling external equipment or for interfacing to other computers. This may involve
manipulating only static readings, but it is also frequently necessary to deal with time-varying signals as
well. Some systems may involve data to be gathered slowly, over time spans of many days or weeks.
Other will necessitate short bursts of very high speed data acquisition – perhaps at rates of up to several
thousand readings per second. DAQ is used widely for laboratory automation, industrial monitoring and
control, as well as in a variety of other time-critical applications. The most central reason for using the
PC for data acquisition and control is that there is now a large and expanding pool of programmers,
engineers and scientists who are familiar with the PC.Indeed it is quite likely that many of these
personnel will have learnt how to program on an IBM PC or PC clone.
:Input/output ports
In addition to its memory, the PC has another entirely separate address space. This is dedicated to
transferring data to or from marginal devices and is known as Input/Output space (or simply I/O space).
Just as the PC’s memory space is divided into separate byte locations, the I/O space consists of many
byte-sized I/O ports. Each port is addressable in much the same way as memory, although an additional
control line is used within the PC to differentiate between memory and I/O port accesses. I/O space
consists of a contiguous series of I/O addresses.
Unlike memory space, the I/O address space is not segmented and cannot be paged. In fact, the processor
references I/O ports by means of a 16-bit address and this means that no more than 65 536 I/O ports can
be supported by the PC. In practice, this is added partial by the I/O address decoding scheme used on the
PC and its adaptor cards.The I/O ports provide a means of sending data to, and receiving data from,
devices such as the video adaptor, the disk subsystem, or analogue-to-digital transformers (ADCs) on
plug-in data-acquisition cards.
Software can use the assembly language IN or OUT instructions,or their high level language
counterparts, to communicate with hardware devices via the I/O ports. These are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 6, but for the moment we will consider a simple example. Suppose that a plug-in 8-bit ADC
card possesses control and data registers that are each mapped to one of the PC’s I/O ports. The software
starts the analogue-to-digital exchange process by writing a bit pattern to the I/O port that maps to the
ADC card’s control register. When the ADC has finished the conversion it might set a bit (known as the
End of Conversion, or EOC, bit) in another register to indicate that digitized data is now available.In this
way, the software is able to detect the EOC bit by reading the corresponding I/O port.
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Buses and adaptor card slots

Passing data to and from a DA&C card via an I/O port actually involves transferring the data over one or
more system buses. A typical PC may not contain all of the buses shown, although the PCI and ISA buses
are present in most systems. Other types of bus (many of them proprietary systems) can be interfaced by
means of special adaptors or bridges to the PC. The IEEE-488 bus and the VXI bus, for example, are
used in specialized instrumentation applications. Of primary concern here though are the PC’s native
buses – i.e. the ones that are an integral part of the PC’s own architecture. The type of bus used within the
PC not only has a bearing on the type of interface card that can be connected, it may also have a profound
effect on the throughput of the system as a whole.
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:Software Considerations

A typical DA&C program may contain the following modules and facilities:
program configuration routines
diagnostics modules
system maintenance and calibration modules
run-time modules
device drivers
data analysis modules.

TYPICAL DAQ PROGRAMMING ALGORITHM

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EXPERIMENT NO -7

Aim-Electronic System Design

Electronic systems do this with the aid of input devices such as sensors, that respond in some way to this
information and then uses electrical energy in the form of an output action to control a physical process
or perform some type of mathematical operation on the signal.
But electronic control systems can also be regarded as a process that transforms one signal into another
so as to give the desired system response. Then we can say that a simple electronic system consists of an
input, a process, and an output with the input variable to the system and the output variable from the
system both being signals.
There are many ways to represent a system, for example: mathematically, descriptively, pictorially or
schematically. Electronic systems are generally represented schematically as a series of interconnected
blocks and signals with each block having its own set of inputs and outputs.
As a result, even the most complex of electronic control systems can be represented by a combination of
simple blocks, with each block containing or representing an individual component or complete sub-
system. The representing of an electronic system or process control system as a number of interconnected
blocks or boxes is known commonly as “block-diagram representation”.

Block Diagram Representation of a Simple Electronic System

Electronic Systems have both Inputs and Outputs with the output or outputs being produced by
processing the inputs. Also, the input signal(s) may cause the process to change or may itself cause the
operation of the system to change. Therefore the input(s) to a system is the “cause” of the change, while
the resulting action that occurs on the systems output due to this cause being present is called the
“effect”, with the effect being a consequence of the cause.
In other words, an electronic system can be classed as “causal” in nature as there is a direct relationship
between its input and its output. Electronic
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systems analysis and process control theory are generally based upon this Cause and Effect analysis.
So for example in an audio system, a microphone (input device) causes sound waves to be converted into
electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device) produces
sound waves as an effect of being driven by the amplifiers electrical signals.
But an electronic system need not be a simple or single operation. It can also be an interconnection of
several sub-systems all working together within the same overall system.
Our audio system could for example, involve the connection of a CD player, or a DVD player, an MP3
player, or a radio receiver all being multiple inputs to the same amplifier which in turn drives one or
more sets of stereo or home theatre type surround loudspeakers.
But an electronic system can not just be a collection of inputs and outputs, it must “do something”, even
if it is just to monitor a switch or to turn “ON” a light. We know that sensors are input devices that detect
or turn real world measurements into electronic signals which can then be processed. These electrical
signals can be in the form of either voltages or currents within a circuit. The opposite or output device is
called an actuator, that converts the processed signal into some operation or action, usually in the form of
mechanical movement.

Types of Electronic System

Electronic systems operate on either continuous-time (CT) signals or discrete- time (DT) signals. A
continuous-time system is one in which the input signals are defined along a continuum of time, such as
an analogue signal which “continues” over time producing a continuous-time signal.
But a continuous-time signal can also vary in magnitude or be periodic in nature with a time period T. As
a result, continuous-time electronic systems tend to be purely analogue systems producing a linear
operation with both their input and output signals referenced over a set period of time.
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For example, the temperature of a room can be classed as a continuous time signal which can be
measured between two values or set points, for example from cold to hot or from Monday to Friday. We
can represent a continuous- time signal by using the independent variable for time t, and
where x(t) represents the input signal and y(t) represents the output signal over a period of time t.
Generally, most of the signals present in the physical world which we can use tend to be continuous-time
signals. For example, voltage, current, temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.
On the other hand, a discrete-time system is one in which the input signals are not continuous but a
sequence or a series of signal values defined in “discrete” points of time. This results in a discrete-time
output generally represented as a sequence of values or numbers.
Generally a discrete signal is specified only at discrete intervals, values or equally spaced points in time.
So for example, the temperature of a room measured at 1pm, at 2pm, at 3pm and again at 4pm without
regards for the actual room temperature in between these points at say, 1:30pm or at 2:45pm.

However, a continuous-time signal, x(t) can be represented as a discrete set of signals only at discrete
intervals or “moments in time”. Discrete signals are not measured versus time, but instead are plotted at
discrete time intervals, where n is the sampling interval. As a result discrete-time signals are usually
denoted as x(n) representing the input and y(n) representing the output.
Then we can represent the input and output signals of a system
as x and y respectively with the signal, or signals themselves being represented by the variable, t, which
usually represents time for a continuous system and the variable n, which represents an integer value for a
discrete system as shown.
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Continuous-time and Discrete-time System

Interconnection of Systems
One of the practical aspects of electronic systems and block-diagram representation is that they can be
combined together in either a series or parallel combinations to form much bigger systems. Many larger
real systems are built using the interconnection of several sub-systems and by using block diagrams to
represent each subsystem, we can build a graphical representation of the whole system being analysed.
When subsystems are combined to form a series circuit, the overall output at y(t) will be equivalent to the
multiplication of the input signal x(t) as shown as the subsystems are cascaded together.

Series Connected System

For a series connected continuous-time system, the output signal y(t) of the first subsystem, “A” becomes
the input signal of the second
subsystem, “B” whose output becomes the input of the third
subsystem, “C” and so on through the series chain giving A x B x C, etc.
Then the original input signal is cascaded through a series connected system, so for two series connected
subsystems, the equivalent single output will be equal to the multiplication of the systems, ie, y(t) =
G1(s) x G2(s).
Where G represents the transfer function of the subsystem.
Note that the term “Transfer Function” of a system refers to and is defined as being the mathematical
relationship between the systems input and its output, or output/input and hence describes the behaviour
of the system.
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Also, for a series connected system, the order in which a series operation is performed does not matter
with regards to the input and output signals
as: G1(s) x G2(s) is the same as G2(s) x G1(s). An example of a simple series connected circuit could be
a single microphone feeding an amplifier followed by a speaker.

Parallel Connected Electronic System

For a parallel connected continuous-time system, each subsystem receives the same input signal, and
their individual outputs are summed together to produce an overall output, y(t). Then for two parallel
connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be the sum of the two individual inputs,
ie, y(t) = G1(s) + G2(s).
An example of a simple parallel connected circuit could be several microphones feeding into a mixing
desk which in turn feeds an amplifier and speaker system.

Electronic Feedback Systems

Another important interconnection of systems which is used extensively in control systems, is the
“feedback configuration”. In feedback systems, a fraction of the output signal is “fed back” and either
added to or subtracted from the original input signal. The result is that the output of the system is
continually altering or updating its input with the purpose of modifying the response of a system to
improve stability. A feedback system is also commonly referred to as a “Closed-loop System” as shown.
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Closed-Loop Feedback System

Feedback systems are used a lot in most practical electronic system designs to help stabilise the system
and to increase its control. If the feedback loop reduces the value of the original signal, the feedback loop
is known as “negative feedback”. If the feedback loop adds to the value of the original signal, the
feedback loop is known as “positive feedback”.
An example of a simple feedback system could be a thermostatically controlled heating system in the
home. If the home is too hot, the feedback loop will switch “OFF” the heating system to make it cooler.
If the home is too cold, the feedback loop will switch “ON” the heating system to make it warmer. In this
instance, the system comprises of the heating system, the air temperature and the thermostatically
controlled feedback loop.

Transfer Function of Electronic Systems

Any subsystem can be represented as a simple block with an input and output as shown. Generally, the
input is designated as: θi and the output as: θo. The ratio of output over input represents the gain, ( G ) of
the subsystem and is therefore defined as: G = θo/θi
In this case, G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem. When discussing electronic
systems in terms of their transfer function, the complex operator, s is used, then the equation for the gain
is rewritten
as: G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)
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EXPERIMENT NO-8
What is Analog Design?

Analog design is the process of creating advanced circuits that operate on continuous signals instead of
discrete ones. Digital electronics are discrete because they communicate using ones and zeros – analog
circuits function by transmitting continuous voltage or current as a signaling method. Typically, we use
an analog circuit to turn the signal into a digital one that is processed on a microcontroller or another type
of processor.

These circuits comprise resistors, capacitors, diodes, inductors, transistors, and operational amplifiers.
However, today’s analog circuit design may involve using microcontrollers or other intelligent, active
components.

Before the integrated circuit, electronics were built from discrete electronic devices such as resistors,
transistors, diodes, etc. However, the digital circuit revolution allowed computing to grow from almost
nothing to being as ubiquitous as it is today. Electronic devices are in nearly everything we build, but we
must consider what it takes to make them work.

Your microprocessor only knows how to process ones or zeros, which it then performs operations on to
make the calculations you want. However, what if you’re going to interface with the natural world? How
would you take sound and turn it into a discrete signal? This is where analog circuits come into play.

With analog design, engineers build circuits that can work with continuous signals using sophisticated
tools for that function.

Why is analog design important?

We could not create a working circuit without understanding analog design. The foundation of digital
circuits is still the flow of electricity and the fundamental forces that act on this electricity. Electricity
isn't digital and doesn’t work that

Way in real circuits. We still need analog design knowledge to ensure our digital circuits work as
expected. Furthermore, we cannot interface with the world without understanding analog electronics.
Natural phenomena such as light and sound waves are continuous signals instead of discrete ones. The
electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous signal that varies based on frequency and other factors.

So, analog design is the foundation of ALL electronics. You can only build digital electronics by
understanding how the analog electrical signal moves inside your digital circuit. However, there are
specific areas where analog design is even more important, such as:

RF and Wireless Designs

The entire electromagnetic spectrum is analog. These are a series of continuous waves that differ in
frequency. When you speak on your cell phone, the connection between your device and the tower is
analog. Without analog design, we couldn’t create most wireless communication devices.
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Power Circuits
As you might remember, we use AC in our power distribution and DC in our devices. Therefore, a
process where analog circuits turn that power into DC is necessary. These circuits are essential for us to
get most electric devices to work. Power circuits also rely on analog design in other areas, but we will
talk about them later.

Sensors
Creating a device that reads a physical value is typically done with an analog circuit. This is because a
digital circuit would only know how to output on or off. Instead of a thermometer,

imagine a device that only told you hot or cold; there would be no temperature measurement happening.
In many different areas, it is necessary to read precise physical values from the world. These circuits
allow you to calculate measurements and turn them into useful information as precisely as possible.

How does analog design work?

Since analog design is needed in every type of electronic device, it is valuable to understand how the
process enables you to build the best circuit possible. Most analog designers create many types of analog
ICs. These include:

Amplifiers
Audio amplifiers
Data converters
Power management
Temperature sensors
Clock and timing
Analog circuits are much harder to design because there are no abstractions. You are interfacing directly
with the natural world; your goal is to do that as accurately as possible. You must also consider noise and
other electromagnetic interference because those issues can cause problems in the circuit. Noise, when
introduced into an analog signal, can affect the integrity of its value. A slight deviation can cause a
significantly different outcome in an analog processing module. It is vital to keep analog circuits clear
from high-speed signals as well.

Digital design is more straightforward because your focus is only on manipulating the ones and zeros to
obtain functionality from the circuit. There is much more abstraction when working with digital circuits
than analog ones. Analog design works differently depending on the circuit. Let's look at some examples:

How Does Analog Design in Power Applications Work?

Power supplies are an essential part of any electrical engineering project. A machine running on
electricity will likely need a power supply. Therefore, power supplies are usually one of the first places
to consider in analog design. A power supply takes the alternate current from your wall and turns it into
the direct current that your other electronic circuits use. I'm sure you remember college physics and the
graph of an alternate current. Your analog circuit needs to convert this wave into a straight line. The best
analog designers can turn AC current into smoother DC that will perform well regardless of spikes or
fluctuations.
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Analog in Communications
In general, the internet and digital communications have built the modern world. Communication devices
are analog because they work on the electromagnetic spectrum. Even important civil and military devices
like radars work using the electromagnetic spectrum. These devices work by converting a real-world
analog signal to a digital one that can then be processed and sent to another device. For example, an
analog circuit processes your voice when you call someone. It turns your voice into a digital signal that is
then sent to the receiver to be decoded and turned back into an analog sound to which the person on the
other end of the phone call can listen. The same is true for all communication devices. For radar, analog
returns must be analyzed and turned into a digital signal before being displayed to the radar operator.

In general, most devices today are a combination of analog and digital. However, you usually take in
analog signals from the outside world and turn them into digital signals you can represent on the screen.

Analog design with Cadence

The good news is that analog design is easier than it used to be. Cadence offers a complete suite of tools
that helps you design, layout, and simulate your analog circuits. Cadence tools can help you with custom
IC, RF design flows, and other processes you must go through when creating your analog projects.
Cadence offers:
Virtuoso Studio – Offers broad custom/analog design software for RF, systems, photonics, mixed-signal,
and advanced heterogeneous designs
Virtuoso Schematic Editor - Allows you to visualize even the most complicated custom IC designs and
provides the starting point for most analog design
Virtuoso ADE Suite - Verify, analyze, and explore your analog design against your stated goals to help
you stay on track
Virtuoso Layout Suite - Shortens the process of custom IC layouts and creating digital, mixed-
signal(opens in a new tab), and analog designs down to the block level
Virtuoso InDesign DRC – Increases productivity in implementation and physical verification. It also does
Instantaneous signoff DRC checks with native integration of the Pegasus Verification System in Virtuoso
Studio
Cadence provides several different solutions for addressing specific analog circuit design needs
Virtuoso RF Solution - Optimize your RF design across the chip, package, and board levels
Virtuoso Electronic/Photonic Design Automation - Provides a comprehensive design flow for your
devices
Legato Reliability Solution - Helps you manage reliability through the entire lifecycle of
your product
Other Cadence tools are well integrated to complete analog verification of your design specification, pre-
and post-layout when layout parasitics must be considered for accurate analog design.

Spectre Circuit Simulator - Provides accurate SPICE simulation and comprehensive analyses for robust
design and verification of analog, RFIC, memory, and mixed-signal designs. It is deeply integrated into
the Virtuoso ADE Suite.
Pegasus Verification System - Enables customers to complete full-chip signoff DRC on both traditional
planar and advanced-node designs
Quantus Extraction Solution - As a single, unified tool, supporting both cell-level and transistor-level
extractions during design implementation and signoff.
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EXPERIMENT NO -9

Aim-Interfacing of analog and digital systems

Many systems must process both analog and digital signals. It is common in many communications
systems to use an analog signal, which acts as an interface for the transmission medium to transmit and
receive information. These analog signals are converted to digital signals, which filter, process, and store
the information.

Figure shows a common architecture in which the RF analog front-end (AFE) consists of all analog
blocks to amplify, filter, and gain the analog signal.
Meanwhile, the digital signal processor (DSP) section filters and processes the information. To convert
signals from the analog subsystem to the digital subsystem in the receive path (RX), an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) is used. To convert signals from the digital subsystem to the analog subsystem in the
transmit path (TX), a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is used.

Communication System with Analog and Digital Subsystems

A digital signal processor (DSP) is a specialized microprocessor chip that performs digital signal
processing operations. DSPs are fabricated on MOSFET integrated circuit chips, and are widely used in
audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image processing, high-definition television
products, common consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones, and in many other significant
applications.
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A DSP is used to measure, filter, or compress continuous real-world analog signals. Dedicated DSPs
often have higher power efficiency, making them suitable in portable devices due to their power
consumption constraints. A majority of general-purpose microprocessors are also able to execute digital
signal
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EXPERIMENT NO-10

Aim- Embedded System

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software designed for a specific
function. Embedded systems may also function within a larger system. The systems can be
programmable or have a fixed functionality. Industrial machines, consumer electronics, agricultural and
processing industry devices, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, digital watches, household
appliances, airplanes, vending machines and toys, as well as mobile devices, are possible locations for an
embedded system.
Examples of embedded systems
Embedded systems are used in a wide range of technologies across an array of industries. Some examples
include:

Automobiles. Modern cars commonly consist of many computers (sometimes as many as 100), or
embedded systems, designed to perform different tasks within the vehicle. Some of these systems
perform basic utility functions and others provide entertainment or user-facing functions. Some
embedded systems in consumer vehicles include cruise control, backup sensors, suspension control,
navigation systems and airbag systems.
Mobile phones. These consist of many embedded systems, including GUI software and hardware,
operating systems (OSes), cameras, microphones, and USB (Universal Serial Bus) I/O (input/output)
modules.
Industrial machines. They can contain embedded systems, like sensors, and can be embedded systems
themselves. Industrial machines often have embedded automation systems that perform specific
monitoring and control functions.
Medical equipment. These may contain embedded systems like sensors and control mechanisms. Medical
equipment, such as industrial machines, also must be very user-friendly so that human health isn't
jeopardized by preventable machine mistakes. This means they'll often include a more complex OS and
GUI designed for an appropriate UI.
How does an embedded system work?
Embedded systems always function as part of a complete device -- that's what's meant by the term
embedded. They are low-cost, low-power-consuming, small computers that are embedded in other
mechanical or electrical systems. Generally, they comprise a processor, power supply, and memory and
communication ports. Embedded systems use the communication ports to transmit data between the
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Processor and peripheral devices -- often, other embedded systems -- using a communication protocol.
The processor interprets this data with the help of minimal software stored on the memory. The software
is usually highly specific to the function that the embedded system serves.

The processor may be a microprocessor or microcontroller. Microcontrollers are simply microprocessors

with peripheral interfaces and integrated memory included. Microprocessors use separate integrated
circuits for memory and peripherals instead of including them on the chip. Both can be used, but
microprocessors typically require more support circuitry than microcontrollers because there is less
integrated into the microprocessor.

Often, embedded systems are used in real-time operating environments and use a real-time operating
system (RTOS) to communicate with the hardware. Near-real-time approaches are suitable at higher
levels of chip capability, defined by designers who have increasingly decided the systems are generally
fast enough and the tasks tolerant of slight variations in reaction.

Characteristics of embedded systems

The main characteristic of embedded systems is that they are task-specific. Additionally, embedded
systems can include the following characteristics:
typically, consist of hardware, software and firmware;
can be embedded in a larger system to perform a specific function, as they are built for specialized tasks
within the system, not various tasks;
can be either microprocessor-based or microcontroller-based -- both are integrated circuits that give the
system compute power;
are often used for sensing and real-time computing in internet of things (IoT) devices, which are devices
that are internet-connected and do not require a user to operate;
can vary in complexity and in function, which affects the type of software, firmware and hardware they
use; and
are often required to perform their function under a time constraint to keep the larger system functioning
properly.
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Structure of embedded systems

Embedded systems vary in complexity but, generally, consist of three main elements:

Hardware. The hardware of embedded systems is based around microprocessors and microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are very similar to microcontrollers and, typically, refer to a CPU (central processing
unit) that is integrated with other basic computing components such as memory chips and digital signal
processors (DSPs). Microcontrollers have those components built into one chip.
Software and firmware. Software for embedded systems can vary in complexity. However, industrial-
grade microcontrollers and embedded IoT systems usually run very simple software that requires little
memory.
Real-time operating system. These are not always included in embedded systems, especially smaller-
scale systems. RTOSes define how the system works by supervising the software and setting rules during
program execution.

In terms of hardware, a basic embedded system would consist of the following elements:

Sensors convert physical sense data into an electrical signal.

Analog-to-digital (A-D) converters change an analog electrical signal into a digital one.
Processors process digital signals and store them in memory.
Digital-to-analog (D-A) converters change the digital data from the processor into analog data.
Actuators compare actual output to memory-stored output and choose the correct one.

The sensor reads external inputs, the converters make that input readable to the processor, and the
processor turns that information into useful output for the embedded system.
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A diagram of the basic structure and flow of information in embedded systems.

Types of embedded systems

There are a few basic embedded system types, which differ in their functional requirements. They are:

Mobile embedded systems are small-sized systems that are designed to be portable. Digital cameras are
an example of this.
Networked embedded systems are connected to a network to provide output to other systems. Examples
include home security systems and point of sale (POS) systems.
Standalone embedded systems are not reliant on a host system. Like any embedded system, they perform
a specialized task. However, they do not necessarily belong to a host system, unlike other embedded
systems. A calculator or MP3 player is an example of this.
Real-time embedded systems give the required output in a defined time interval. They are often used in
medical, industrial and military sectors because they are responsible for time-critical tasks. A traffic
control system is an example of this.

Embedded systems can also be categorized by their performance requirements:

Small-scale embedded systems often use no more than an 8-bit microcontroller.

Medium-scale embedded systems use a larger microcontroller (16-32 bit) and often link microcontrollers
together.
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Sophisticated-scale embedded systems often use several algorithms that result in software and hardware
complexities and may require more complex software, a configurable processor and/or a programmable
logic array.

There are several common embedded system software architectures, which become necessary as
embedded systems grow and become more complex in scale. These include:

Simple control loops call subroutines, which manage a specific part of the hardware or embedded
programming.
Interrupt controlled systems have two loops: a main one and a secondary one. Interruptions in the loops
trigger tasks.
Cooperative multitasking is essentially a simple control loop located in an application programming
interface (API).
Preemptive multitasking or multithreading is often used with an RTOS and features synchronization and
task switching strategies.