AS Level Calculus Notes

1. Introduction to Calculus

Calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on studying change and motion. It is divided

1. Differentiation: Deals with the rate of change of a function.

2. Integration: Concerned with finding the area under a curve or the

2. Differentiation

Definition

Differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of a function. The derivative represents
the rate of change or the slope of the tangent line at any point on the curve.

Notations

• f{\prime}(x) or \frac{dy}{dx}: Derivative of y with respect to x.

• \frac{d^2y}{dx^2}: Second derivative, representing the rate of change of the

Rules of Differentiation

1. Power Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left(x^n\right) = n x^{n-1}

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(x^3\right) = 3x^2.

2. Constant Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left(c\right) = 0

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(5\right) = 0.

3. Constant Multiplication Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left(c \cdot f(x)\right) = c \cdot f{\prime}(x)

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(3x^2\right) = 3 \cdot 2x = 6x.

4. Sum/Difference Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left[f(x) \pm g(x)\right] = f{\prime}(x) \pm g{\prime}(x)

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(x^3 - x^2\right) = 3x^2 - 2x.

\frac{d}{dx} \left[f(x) \cdot g(x)\right] = f{\prime}(x)g(x) + f(x)g{\prime}(x)

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(x \cdot e^x\right) = 1 \cdot e^x + x \cdot e^x = (1 + x)e^x.

6. Quotient Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left[\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}\right] = \frac{f{\prime}(x)g(x) - f(x)g{\prime}(x)}{\left[g(x)\

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(\frac{x}{x^2 + 1}\right) = \frac{(1)(x^2 + 1) - (x)(2x)}{(x^2 + 1)^2}.

7. Chain Rule:

\frac{d}{dx} \left[f(g(x))\right] = f{\prime}(g(x)) \cdot g{\prime}(x)

Example: \frac{d}{dx} \left(e^{3x}\right) = e^{3x} \cdot 3 = 3e^{3x}.

Applications of Differentiation

1. Finding the gradient of a curve at a specific point.

2. Determining stationary points:

• f{\prime}(x) = 0 at a stationary point.

• Use f{\prime}{\prime}(x) to classify the point:

• f{\prime}{\prime}(x) > 0: Minimum point.

• f{\prime}{\prime}(x) < 0: Maximum point.

3. Solving optimization problems.

4. Determining the rate of change of one variable with respect to another.

3. Integration

Definition

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. It is used to find the area under a curve
or to reconstruct a function from its derivative.

Notations

• \int f(x) \, dx: Represents the indefinite integral of f(x).

• \int_a^b f(x) \, dx: Represents the definite integral from x = a to x = b.

Rules of Integration

1. Power Rule:
\[

\int x^n \, dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C \quad \text{(for \( n \neq -1 \))}.

\]

Example: \int x^2 \, dx = \frac{x^3}{3} + C.

2. Constant Rule:

\int c \, dx = c x + C

Example: \int 5 \, dx = 5x + C.

3. Constant Multiplication Rule:

\int c \cdot f(x) \, dx = c \cdot \int f(x) \, dx

Example: \int 3x^2 \, dx = 3 \cdot \frac{x^3}{3} + C = x^3 + C.

4. Sum/Difference Rule:

\int \left[f(x) \pm g(x)\right] \, dx = \int f(x) \, dx \pm \int g(x) \, dx

Example: \int \left(x^2 - 3x\right) \, dx = \frac{x^3}{3} - \frac{3x^2}{2} + C.

5. Integration of e^x:

\int e^x \, dx = e^x + C

6. Integration of 1/x:

\[

\int \frac{1}{x} \, dx = \ln|x| + C \quad \text{(for \( x \neq 0 \))}.

\]

Definite Integration

To evaluate the area under a curve:

\int_a^b f(x) \, dx = F(b) - F(a)

where F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x).

Applications of Integration

1. Finding areas under curves:

• If f(x) \geq 0, the integral gives the area between the curve and the x-axis.

• If f(x) \leq 0, the integral gives the negative area.

2. Solving problems of motion:

• Displacement is the integral of velocity.

3. Calculating volumes of revolution (advanced application).

4. Relationship Between Differentiation and Integration

• Differentiation and integration are inverse processes:

\frac{d}{dx} \left[\int f(x) \, dx\right] = f(x)

\int \frac{d}{dx} f(x) \, dx = f(x) + C

5. Key Problems and Examples

1. Gradient of a Curve:

Given y = x^3 - 2x^2 + 3x + 1, find the gradient at x = 2.

\frac{dy}{dx} = 3x^2 - 4x + 3

Substituting x = 2:

\text{Gradient} = 3(2^2) - 4(2) + 3 = 12 - 8 + 3 = 7

2. Area Under a Curve:

Find the area under y = x^2 from x = 0 to x = 2.

\int_0^2 x^2 \, dx = \left[\frac{x^3}{3}\right]_0^2 = \frac{2^3}{3} - \frac{0^3}{3} = \frac{8}{3}

Summary

Calculus provides tools to study rates of change and accumulation. Differentiation focuses
on slopes and tangents, while integration calculates areas and reconstructs functions.
Mastering the rules of differentiation and integration is essential for solving a wide range of
mathematical problems in AS-level calculus.