Chapter 4: BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS

Spring, 2025

Ohmin Kwon
School Electrical Engineering
Chungbuk National University
Republic of KOREA

Homepage: http://cel.cbnu.ac.kr
E-mail: [email protected]
©2025 All rights reserved.

In this chapter, we discuss graphical techniques for modeling control systems and their underlying
mathematics. The main objectives of this chapter are:

1. To study block diagrams, their components, and their underlying mathematics.

2. To obtain transfer function of systems through block diagram manipulation and reduction
3. To introduce the signal-flow graphs
4. To establish a parallel between block diagrams and signal-flow graphs
5. To use Mason’s gain formula for finding transfer function of systems
6. Obtain the state diagrams, an extension of the SFG to portray state equations and
differential equations

4-1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Block diagrams provide a better understanding of the composition and interconnection of the
components of a system. It can be used, together with transfer functions, to describe the cause-
and-effect relationships throughout the system.

<Figure 4-1 A simplified block diagram representation of a heating system>

4-1-1 Modeling of Typical Elements of Block Diagrams in Control Systems

1
 <Figure 4-2 Block diagram representation of a general control system>
The common elements in block diagrams of most control signals include
- Comparators
- Blocks representing individual component transfer functions, including
 Reference sensor (or input sensor)
 Output sensor
 Actuator
 Controller
 Plant
- Input or reference signals
- Output signals
- Disturbance signals
- Feedback loops
♣ Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication of Elements:

<Figure 4-3 Block-diagram elements of typical sensing devices of control systems.

(a) Subtraction. (b) Addition. (c) Addition and subtraction.>

2
<Ex 4-1-1>

<Figure 4-4 Time and Laplace domain block diagrams>

<Figure 4-5 Block diagrams G1(s) and G2(s) connected in series>

<Ex 4-1-2>

<Figure 4-6 Block diagrams G1(s) and G2(s) connected in parallel>

3
♣ Basic, Block Diagram of a Feedback System:

<Figure 4-7 Block diagram of a basic negative feedback control system>

r (t ), R( s) : reference input (command),
y(t ), Y (s) : output (controlled variable),
b(t ), B( s) : feedback signal,
u(t ), U (s) : actuating signal
e(t ), E (s) : error signal
H ( s) : feedback transfer function
G(s) H (s)  L( s) : loop transfer function,
G ( s ) : forward path transfer function,
M (s)  Y (s) / R( s) : closed-loop transfer function or system TF.

♣ Derivation of Closed-Loop TF:

Y ( s )  G ( s )U ( s ), B( s )  H ( s )Y ( s ), U ( s )  R( s )  B( s ),
 Y ( s )  G ( s ) R( s )  G ( s ) B( s ),
Y (s) G (s)
 M (s)   .
R( s) 1  G( s) H ( s)

4
4-1-2 Relation between Mathematical Equations and Block Diagrams


x (t )  2n x (t )  n2 x (t )  n2u (t )  s 2 X ( s)  2n sX ( s )  n2 X ( s )  n2U ( s )
 s 2 X ( s )  n2 X ( s )  2n sX ( s )  n2U ( s )

<Figure 4-11>

5
<Ex 4-1-3>

1 1
  n2
X ( s) s  2n s n2
  2 (4-19)
  n2 s  2n s  n
U ( s) 1  1 1 2

s  2n s

6
4-1-3 Block Diagram Reduction

<Figure 4-15 (a) Branch point relocation from point P to (b) point Q>

Y ( s)  A( s)G2 ( s)
B( s)  H1 (s )Y ( s) (4-21)
 H1 ( s)G2 ( s) A( s)

<Ex 4-1-5>

7
8
4-1-4 Block Diagram of Multi-Input Systems-Special Case: Systems with a
Disturbance

<Figure 4-18 Block diagram of a system undergoing disturbance>

Super Position: For linear systems, the overall response of the system under multi-inputs
is the summation of the responses due to the individual inputs, i.e., in this case,

Ytotal  YR D0
 YD R 0
(4-28)

When D( s)  0 , the block diagram is

simplified (Figure 3-20) to give the transfer
function
Y (s)

G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) (4-29)
G ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s) H1 ( s )

When R(s)  0 , the block diagram is

rearranged to give (Figure 3-21):
Y ( s) G2 ( s ) (4-30)

D ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H1 ( s )

As a result, from Eq.(3-28) to Eq.(3-32), we

ultimately get
Y (s) Y ( s)
Ytotal  R( s )  D( s ) (4-31)
R( s ) D  0 D ( s) R 0

G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) G2 ( s)
Y ( s)  R(s)  D( s )
1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H1 ( s) 1  G1 ( s)G2 ( s) H1 ( s)

9
4-1-5 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Multivariable Systems

<Figure 4-21 Block diagram representations of a multivariable system>

<Figure 4-22 Block diagram representations of a multivariable feedback control system>

Y( s)  G ( s )U( s), U( s)  R( s)  B( s), B( s)  H (s)Y( s),

Y( s)  G ( s )R( s)  G ( s)H ( s)Y( s), (4-36)
1
 Y( s )  [I  G ( s )H ( s)] G (s)R (s )

10
<EX 4-1-6> Consider that the forward-path transfer function matrix and the feedback-path
transfer function matrix of the system shown in Fig.4-22 are
 1 1 
 s 1 
s  1 0 
G (s)    H (s)    (4-39)
 2 1  0 1 
 s  2 
Respectively. The closed-loop transfer function matrix of the system is given by Eq. (4-15), and
is evaluated as follows:
 1 1  s  2 1 
1  s  1 
s   s 1

s 
1  G (s ) H ( s)     (4-40)
 2 1   s  3
1 2
 s  2   s  2 
The closed-loop transfer function matrix is
s 3 1  1 1 

1 s  2 s  s 1 s 
M ( s)   I  G( s) H ( s) G( s)  
1
  (4-41)
 s  2  1 
2 2
 s  1   s  2 
where

s  2 s  3 2 s 2  5s  2
   (4-42)
s 1 s  2 s s  s  1

Thus,

 3s 2  9 s  4 1 
  
s  s  1  s  s  1 s  2  s 
M (s)  2 (4-43)
s  5s  2  3s  2 
 2 
 s  s  1 

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4-2 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS(SFGs)
 SFGs: A graphical means of portraying the input-output relationships among the
variables of a set of linear algebraic equations
 Node: junction point, represents variable
 Branch: connection between nodes: cause-and-effect equation
A signal can transmit through a branch only in the direction of the arrow.

y2
( y1  의미 x)
a12
y2  a12 y1.

12
4-2-1 SFG Algebra
 The value of the variable represented by a node is equal to the sum of all the signals
entering the node.

<Figure 4-24 Node as a summing point and as a transmitting point>

y1  a21 y2  a31 y3  a41 y4  a51 y5 (4-46)

 The value of the variable represented by a node is transmitted through all branches
leaving the node.
y6  a16 y1 , y7  a17 y1 , y8  a18 y1 (4-47)

 Parallel branches in the same direction connecting two nodes can be replaced by a
single branch with gain equal to the sum of the gains of the parallel branches.

<Figure 4-25 Signal-flow graph with parallel paths replaced by one with a single branch>

 A series (cascade) connection of unidirectional branches can be replaced by a single

branch with gain equal to the product of the branch gains.

13
  A feedback system shown in Fig. 4.23g is

E (s )  R (s )  H (s )Y ( s),
Y (s )  G ( s ) E ( s)  G( s)( R( s )  H (s )Y ( s))

Y (s) G ( s)
M ( s)  
R(s) 1  G(s) H (s)

<Figure 4-26 Signal-flow graph with cascade unidirectional branches replaced by a single
branch>
<Ex 4-2-1>

14
<Ex 4-2-2>
y2  a12 y1  a32 y3
y3  a23 y2  a43 y4
(4-52)
y4  a24 y2  a34 y3  a44 y4
y5  a25 y2  a45 y4

15
4-2-2 Definition of SFG terms:
 Input Node (Source): has only outgoing branches
 Output Node (Sink): has only incoming branches
 Non-input node: has only output mode

y2  y2  a12 y1  a32 y3 : wrong statement

 Path: any collection of a continuous succession of branches traversed in the same
direction
 Forward path: a path that starts at an input node and ends at an output node, and along
which no node is traversed more than once
 Loop: a path that originates and terminates on the same node, and along which no other
node is encountered more than once

 Path gain: The product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a path
 Forward-path gain: the path gain of a forward path
 Loop gain: the path gain of a loop
 Nontouching loops: two parts of an SFG are nontouching if they do not share a common
node

16
Summary of basic properties of SFG:
 SFG applies only to LS
 Eqs. For which an SFG is drawn must be algebraic eqs. in the form of cause-and-effect
 Nodes are used to represent variables
 Signal travel along branches only in the direction described by the arrows
 Signal yk traveling along a branch is multiplied by certain gains

4-2-3 Gain Formula for SFG

♣ Mason Rule: Given an SFG with N forward paths and K loops, the gain between the input
node yin and output node yout is
yout N
M 
M   k k (4-54)
yin k 1 
where
yin = input-node variable
yout = output-node variable
M = gain between yin and yout
N = total number of forward paths between yin and yout
M k = gain of the k th forward path between yin and yout
  1   Li1   Li 2   Li 3   (4-55)
i i i

Lmr = gain product of the m th (m  i, j, k ,) possible combination of r

nontouching loops (1  r  K ).
 =1- (sum of the gains of all individual loops) + (sum of products of gains of all
possible combinations of two nontouching loops) - (sum of products of gains of all
possible combinations of three nontouching loops) + · · ·
 k = the  for that part of the SFG that is nontouching with k th forward path.
 Remark: The SFG gain formula can only be applied between an input node and an
output node.

<Ex 4-2-3 >

17
<Ex 4-2-3-2>

<Ex 4-2-3-3>

18
<Ex 4-2-4>

y5 M 1  M 2  M 3 1  L41 

y2 a12 1  L21  L41 

Sol 1)

19
<EX 4-2-5>

20
<Ex 4-2-6>

<Figure 4-32>
Sol 1)

Sol 2)

21
4-2-4 Application of the GF between output nodes and noninput nodes:

 FIND y7 / y2 , IS IT POSSIBLE?

yout
yout y M k k from yin to yout M k k from yin to y2
 in 
y2 y2  
yin (4-74)

M 
k k from y to y
 in out

M k k from y to y
in 2

 Example: From Fig. 4-32,

y7 y7 y1 G1G2G3G4  G1G5 (1  G3 H 2 )
  (4-75)
y2 y2 y1 1  G3 H 2  H 4  G3 H 2 H 4

4-2-5 Simplified Gain Formula

If there are no nontouching loops in the forward paths in the block diagrams of SFG of the system,
then
yout Forward Path Gains
M  (4-80)
yin 1  Loop Gains

Ex 4-2-8 (See yourself)

4-3 STATE DIAGRAM

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State diagram is an extension of the SFG to portray state equations and differential equations.

♣ Basic:
dx1 (t ) t
 x2 (t )  x1 (t )   x2 ( )d  x1 (t0 ),
dt t0

x (t )
Taking LT X 1 ( s )  L   x2 ( )d   1 0
t

 t0  s
x (t )
 L   x2 ( ) d   x2 ( )d   1 0
t t0

 0 0  s
X (s) x (t )
 2  L   x2 ( ) d   1 0
t0


 
s   s
0

X 2 ( s ) x1 (t0 )
 
s s
where the state transition is assumed to start at 𝜏 = 𝑡 , which implies that x2 ( )  0 for

0    t0 . The history of the integrator is represented by x  t0  .

The above equation is now algebraic and can be represented by a SFG. See the figure.

♣ Remarks:
 SD can be constructed directly from DE. This allows the determination of the state
variable and the state equations
 SD can be constructed from TF. This step is defined as the decomposition of TF
 SD can be used to program the system on an analog computer or for simulation on a
digital computer
 State transition equation in LT domain may be obtained from the SD by using the SFG
gain formula → Simulink
 TF can be determined from the SD

23
  SE and OE can be determined form SD
<Cf>

<Ex 4-3-0>
Sol 1:DE→SD

Sol 2:SE→SD

24
25
4-3-1 From Differential Equations to State Diagrams (DE→SD)
Consider the DE

d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t )
n
 a n n 1
   a2  a1 y (t )  r (t ) (4-88)
dt dt dt

Then, to construct a SD

d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t )
n
  a n n 1
   a2  a1 y (t )  r (t ) (4-89)
dt dt dt

<Figure 4-36 State-diagram representation of the differential equaion of Eq.(4-89)>

The outputs of the integrators are defined as the state variables , x1 , x2 ,  , xn .

<Ex 4-3-1> Consider

26
 d 2 y t  dy  t 
 3  2 y t   r t  , y  0  , y  0 
dt 2
dt 
given

ⅰ) SD: 
y  2 y  3 y  r

ⅰⅰ) TF from SD:

ⅰⅰⅰ) Y(s) from SD:

ⅳ) DE from Y(s):

27
ⅴ) SE from SD:

ⅵ) SD from SE
*Inverse of ⅴ)

28
4-3-2 From State Diagrams to Transfer Functions

Y (s) 1
 2 (4-92)
R ( s ) s  3s  s

4-3-3 From State Diagrams to State and Output Equations

Consider the state equation

dx(t )
 ax(t )  br (t ), y (t )  cx(t )  dr (t ).
dt

Procedure of derivation of SE:

1
 Delete the initial states and the integrator branches with gains s from SD
 Regard the nodes that represent the derivatives of the state variables as output nodes
 The output y(t ) in the output equation is naturally an output node variable
 Regard the state variables and the inputs as input variables on the SD
 Apply the SFG gain formula to the SD

<Ex 4-3-3> Revisit the system in Fig. 4-38. Then see the following Fig.

<Figure 4-38 State diagram of Fig. 4-37 with the initial states and the
integrator branches left out>

x1 (t )  x2 (t ),
x2 (t )  2 x1 (t )  3x2 (t )  r (t ),
y (t )  x1 (t ).

29
<Ex 4-3-4> See the following Fig. 4-39

<Figure 4-39 (s)State diagram. (b)State diagram in part (a) with all initial
States and integrators left out>

30
4-4 CASE STUDIES

<Ex 4-4-2>

Spring kinematic model EX

Sol)

31
<Ex 4-4-3>

<Figure 4-47 (a) Motor-load system (b) Free-body diagram>

32
  Force Equation:
d 2 m (t ) B d (t ) K 1
2
  m m  [ m (t )   L (t )]  Tm (t )
dt J m dt Jm Jm
d 2 L (t )
K [ m (t )   L (t )]  J L .
dt 2
d 2 m (t ) Bm d  m (t ) K 1
2
   m (t )   L (t )   Tm (t )
dt J m dt Jm Jm

d 2 L (t ) K
  L (t )   m (t )   0
dt 2 JL

Rotation kinematic model EX

J mm  t   Bmm  t   K  m (t )   L (t )   Tm (t )
J   t   K  (t )   (t ) 
L L m L

Sol)

33
34
<Ex 4-4-5>

Sol)
 R1 1 1
 i1  t    L ii  t   L ec  t   L e  t 
 e  t   R1ii  t   L1i1  t   ec  t   1 1 1
  R2 1
 ec  t   L2i2  t   R2i2  t    i2  t    L i2  t   L ec  t 
  
 cec  t   i1  t   i2  t 
2 2

 1 1
 ec  t   i1  t   i2  t 
 c c

35
DC Motors in Control Systems
→ a torque transducer that converts electric energy into mechanical energy.
♣ Mathematical modeling of PM DC motors:

 Equation:
Tm (t )  K m ia (t )  Ki ia (t )
dia (t ) 1 R 1
 ea (t )  a ia (t )  eb (t ),
dt La La La
d m (t )
eb (t )  K b  Kb wm (t ),
dt
d 2 m (t ) 1 1 B d (t )
2
 Tm (t )  TL (t )  m m .
dt Jm Jm J m dt

 State Equations:

 dia (t )   Ra Kb 
 dt   L 
La
0 1
 0 
 a   ia (t )  L 
   
 w (t )    0  e (t )    1  T (t )
a
 dwm (t )    Ki 
Bm 
0
 dt   J Jm  m  a
 Jm  L
 m   m (t )   
  0  
d
 m  (t )  0 1 0  0 

   
 dt   

36
  SFG:

1 1
Ia  s  
La s  Ra
 Ea  s   Eb  s   , m  wm 
J m s  Bm
Tm  TL 
 BD:

 TF:
 m ( s) Ki
 ,
Ea ( s) La J m s  ( Ra J m  Bm La ) s 2  ( K b K i  Ra Bm ) s
3

which means that a DC motor is essentially an integration device.

37