Introduction to Computers

Chapter
2
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

i. Identify types of computers.

ii. State the uses of computers.
iii. Identify the steps involved in booting, rebooting and shutting down computers.
iv. Identify the possible threats to computers and their users.
v. Demonstrate how to use the computer responsibly.

INTRODUCTION
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes it and outputs it as human-
understandable information.
It can also be defined as a programmable machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or
electronic communication, under the control of a set of instructions called a program.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

Computers have come a long way. Actual computing began with an analog machine in 1623,
when a German scientist Wilhelm Schikard invented a machine that used 11 complete and 6
incomplete sprocketed wheels that could add, multiply and divide.
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 Introduction to Computers

French mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal invented a machine in 1642 that added and
subtracted, automatically carrying and borrowing digits from column to column.
Seventeenth-century German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz designed a special gearing
system to enable multiplication on Pascal‘s machine.

In the early 19th century French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard

devised a specialized type of computer: a silk loom. Jacquard‘s
loom used punched cards to program patterns that helped the loom
create woven fabrics. Fig. 1.9: A punched card

In the early 1820s British mathematician and scientist Charles Babbage, developed the
Difference Engine. Although never completed by Babbage, the Difference Engine was
intended to be a machine with a 20-decimal capacity that could solve mathematical problems.
Babbage also made plans for another machine, the Analytical Engine, considered the
mechanical precursor of the modern computer. The Analytical Engine was designed to
perform all arithmetic operations efficiently.

Fig. 2.0: Charles Babbage Fig. 2.1: the Difference Engine

Augusta Ada Byron, countess of Lovelace, was a personal friend and student of Babbage.
She prepared extensive notes concerning Babbage‘s ideas and the Analytical Engine.
Lovelace‘s conceptual programs for the machine led to the naming of a programming
language (Ada) in her honor. Although the Analytical Engine was never built, its key
concepts, such as the capacity to store instructions, the use of punched cards as a primitive
memory, and the ability to print, can be found in many modern computers.

Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, used an idea similar to

Jacquard‘s loom when he combined the use of punched cards with
devices that created and electronically read the cards. Hollerith‘s
tabulator was used for the 1890 U.S. census, and it made the
computational time three to four times shorter than the time previously
needed for hand counts. Hollerith‘s Tabulating Machine Company
eventually merged with two companies to form the Computing-
Tabulating-Recording Company. In 1924 the company changed its
Fig. 2.2: Herman Hollerith
name to International Business Machines (IBM).

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 Introduction to Computers

In 1936 British mathematician Alan Turing proposed the idea of a machine that
could process equations without human direction. The machine (now known as a
Turing machine) resembled an automatic typewriter that used symbols for math
and logic instead of letters. Turing intended the device to be a ―universal
machine‖ that could be used to duplicate or represent the function of any other
existing machine. Turing‘s machine was the theoretical precursor to the modern
digital computer. The Turing machine model is still used by modern
computational theorists. Fig. 2.3: Alan Turing

In the 1930s American mathematician Howard Aiken developed the Mark I calculating
machine, which was built by IBM. This electronic calculating machine used relays and
electromagnetic components to replace mechanical components. In later
machines, Aiken used vacuum tubes and solid state transistors (tiny
electrical switches) to manipulate the binary numbers. Aiken also
introduced computers to universities by establishing the first computer
science program at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Aiken obsessively mistrusted the concept of storing a program within the
computer, insisting that the integrity of the machine could be maintained
only through a strict separation of program instructions from data. His
computer had to read instructions from punched cards, which could be
stored away from the computer. Fig. 2.4: Howard Aiken

Fig. 2.5: Mark I calculating machine

At the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, Hungarian-American

mathematician John von Neumann developed one of the first computers used to solve
problems in mathematics, meteorology, economics, and hydrodynamics.
Von Neumann's 1945 design for the Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC)—in stark contrast to the designs of
Aiken, his contemporary—was the first electronic computer design to
incorporate a program stored entirely within its memory. This machine
led to several others, some with clever names like ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC,
and MANIAC. Fig. 2.6: John von Neumann

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American physicist John Mauchly proposed the electronic digital computer called ENIAC,
the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer. He helped build it along with American
engineer John Presper Eckert, Jr., at the Moore School of Engineering at the University of
Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. ENIAC was operational in 1945 and introduced to the public in
1946. It is regarded as the first successful, general digital computer. It occupied 1,800 sq ft,
weighed more than 27,000 kg and contained more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. Roughly 2,000
of the computer‘s vacuum tubes were replaced each month by a team of six technicians.
Many of ENIAC‘s first tasks were for military purposes, such as calculating ballistic firing
tables and designing atomic weapons. Since ENIAC was initially not a stored program
machine, it had to be reprogrammed for each task.

Fig 2.7: ENIAC occupying 1,800 sq ft room

Eckert and Mauchly eventually formed their own company, which was then bought by the
Rand Corporation. They produced the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), which was
used for a broader variety of commercial applications. The first UNIVAC was delivered to
the United States Census Bureau in 1951. By 1957, there were 46 UNIVACs in use.

Fig. 2.8: UNIVAC Computer System 20

 Introduction to Computers

Between 1937 and 1939, while teaching at Iowa State College, American physicist John
Vincent Atanasoff built a prototype computing device called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer,
or ABC, with the help of his assistant, Clifford Berry. Atanasoff developed the concepts that
were later used in the design of the ENIAC. Atanasoff‘s device was the first computer to
separate data processing from memory, but it is not clear whether a functional version was
ever built. Atanasoff did not receive credit for his contributions until 1973, when a lawsuit
regarding the patent on ENIAC was settled.

Walter Houser Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Bradford Shockley developed the
transistor, a device that can act as an electric switch. The transistor had a tremendous impact
on computer design, replacing costly, energy-inefficient, and unreliable vacuum tubes.

In the late 1960s integrated circuits (tiny transistors and other electrical components arranged
on a single chip of silicon) replaced individual transistors in computers. Integrated circuits
resulted from the simultaneous, independent work of Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and
Robert Noyce of the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation in the late 1950s. As integrated
circuits became miniaturized, more components could be designed into a single computer
circuit. In the 1970s refinements in integrated circuit technology led to the development of
the modern microprocessor, integrated circuits that contained thousands of transistors.
Modern microprocessors can contain more than 40 million transistors.

Manufacturers used integrated circuit technology to build smaller and cheaper computers.
The first of these so-called personal computers (PCs)—the Altair 8800—appeared in 1975,
sold by Micro Instrumentation Telemetry Systems (MITS). The Altair used an 8-bit Intel
8080 microprocessor, had 256 bytes of RAM, received input through switches on the front
panel, and displayed output on rows of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Refinements in the PC
continued with the inclusion of video displays, better storage devices, and CPUs with more
computational abilities. Graphical user interfaces were first designed by the Xerox
Corporation, then later used successfully by Apple Inc.. Today the development of
sophisticated operating systems such as Windows, the Mac OS, and Linux enables computer
users to run programs and manipulate data in ways that were unimaginable in the mid-20th
century.

Several researchers claim the ―record‖ for the largest single calculation ever performed. One
large single calculation was accomplished by physicists at IBM in 1995. They solved one
million trillion mathematical sub-problems by continuously running 448 computers for two
years. Their analysis demonstrated the existence of a previously hypothetical subatomic
particle called a glueball. Japan, Italy, and the United States are collaborating to develop new
supercomputers that will run these types of calculations 100 times faster.

In 1996 IBM challenged Garry Kasparov, the reigning world chess champion, to a chess
match with a supercomputer called Deep Blue. The computer had the ability to compute more
than 100 million chess positions per second. In a 1997 rematch Deep Blue defeated
Kasparov, becoming the first computer to win a match against a reigning world chess
champion with regulation time controls. Many experts predict these types of parallel
processing machines will soon surpass human chess playing ability, and some speculate that 21
 Introduction to Computers

massive calculating power will one day replace intelligence. Deep Blue serves as a prototype
for future computers that will be required to solve complex problems. At issue, however, is
whether a computer can be developed with the ability to learn to solve problems on its own,
rather than one programmed to solve a specific set of tasks. Computers continues to develop,
and more and more powerful computers are being built today – who knows where we will go
from here?

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers come in three types-

 Digital computers
 Analogue computers
 Hybrid computers

Digital computers
When you here the word digit, what come to your mind? Numbers (0,1,2,3………9).
A digital computer is defined as a computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits (numbers), usually in the binary
number system.
The binary number system is made up of digits, just like our common decimal system (10
digit system). But, while the decimal system uses digits 0 through 9, the binary system only
uses digits 0 and 1, also known as ON or OFF and the primary language that computers
communicate in. You can compare with regular household switches. If the switch if off, the
PC reads numeral 0 - if it is on, it is read as numeral 1. See the illustration below:

The PC is filled with these switches (in the form of transistors). There are literally millions of
those in the electronic components. Each represents either a 0 or a 1, so we can process data
with millions of 0's and 1's.
In digital computers, even letters, words and whole texts are represented digitally.

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Each 0 or 1 is called a bit. Bit is an abbreviation of the expression BInary digiT. It is called binary,
since it is derived from the binary number system. A sequence of 8 bit is known as 1 byte.

0 1 bit
1 1 bit
0110 4 bit
01101011 8 bit or 1 byte

Types of digital computers

Digital computers come in various types and sizes. They can further be grouped as:
 Supercomputers
 Mainframe computers
 Minicomputers
 Microcomputers

Supercomputers
Supercomputers are designed to do high speed computations. They have large amount of
main memory with high speed processor. They are normally referred to as parallel processors
because they allow many instructions to be executed at the same time. Supercomputers are
mostly used for scientific and engineering calculations. They are also used to create weather
predictions. Large businesses and the military all rely on supercomputers. Examples of
supercomputers are the Cray supercomputer, CM -5 supercomputer and the IBM Series 360.

Fig. 2.9: IBM Series 360

Fig. 3.0: Cray Supercomputer 23

 Introduction to Computers

Fig. 3.1: CM-5 supercomputer

Mainframe computers
Mainframe Computer are high-level computers designed for the most intensive computational
tasks. They are usually shared by multiple users through a series of interconnected computers
via a terminal. Mainframe computers require special air-conditioned rooms to keep them
running. They control businesses and industrial facilities and are used by universities, banks
etc. An example of mainframe is the IBM System 360 mainframe computer.

Fig. 3.2: IBM System/360 Mainframe Computer

Minicomputers
Minicomputers are mid-level computers built to perform complex computations while
dealing efficiently with a high level of input and output from different users connected via
terminals. Minicomputers also frequently connect to other minicomputers on a network and
distribute processing among all the attached machines. Minicomputers are used heavily in
transaction-processing applications and as interfaces between mainframe computer systems
and wide area networks. Recent minicomputers perform most of the functions of mainframe
computers.

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Microcomputers
Microcomputers are computing device that uses a microprocessor as its central processing
unit, or CPU. They are the commonest computers today. When we talk of personal
computers, laptops, notebooks and even hand-held computers, we are referring to
microcomputers. In common usage, the term microcomputer is equivalent to personal
computer. When they first appeared, microcomputers were considered single-user devices,
and they were capable of handling only 4, 8, or 16 bits of information at one time. Newer
microcomputer models such as the workstations have increased the speed and data-handling
capabilities of their CPUs into the 32-bit and 64-bit, multiuser range. They have become very
powerful to the extent that they sometimes do the tasks of minicomputers and even
mainframe computers.
Microcomputers come in different shapes and sizes with different functions. The following
are some types of microcomputers.

Laptop computer All-in-one computer

Tower (desktop) computer

Hand-held computer
Fig. 3.2: Some microcomputers

ANALOGUE COMPUTERS
In contrast to digital computers, there are analogue computers. An analogue computer is a
computer that represents data in terms of physical measures or quantities such
as time, voltage, temperature, speed etc in a continuous range. Unlike digital
computers, an analogue computer can perform only one specific function. For
example a speedometer, which is an analogue computer, can only measure the speed
of a moving object, and nothing else. The following are example of analogue
computers.

Thermometer

Speedometer

Analogue watch
Fig. 3.3: Some analogue computers
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HYBRID COMPUTER
We have discussed digital computers (which represent data by numbers) and analogue
computers (which represent data by physical quantity). In between theses two classes of
computers is the hybrid computer. Hybrid computers are computers that combine the
features of both digital and analogue computers. The digital
component normally serves as the controller and provides logical
operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of
differential equations. The integration from analogue to digital and vice
versa, is obtained by digital to analog and analog to digital converter. A
hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data. It
accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set
of discrete values for digital processing. A hybrid computer system setup offers a ATM
cost-effective method of performing complex simulations.
Examples of analogue computers are automated teller machine (ATM)
and money counting machine.

USES OF COMPUTERS Money counting machine

―I think there is a world market for maybe five computers‖. That was a statement made in the
1940s by the then chairman of IBM, Thomas Watson. Had Mr. Watson being a little ―long
sighted‖ he would have known that the world really needs far more than five computers.
Today, computers are in use in all walks of life. It is hard to imagine the world without
computers. Usage of different types of computers has made life both
smooth and fast paced.

People use computers in many ways.

In business
 Computers track inventories with bar codes and scanners.
 Check the credit status of customers.
 Transfer funds electronically.
 Communicate

At homes
 Tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most
appliances control the indoor temperature,
 Operate home security systems,
 Tell the time.
 Turn videocassette recorders (VCRs) on and off.

 Computers in automobiles regulate the flow of fuel, thereby increasing gas fuel
mileage,
 Computers are used in anti-theft systems.
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Computers also entertain, creating digitized sound on stereo systems or computer-animated

features from a digitally encoded laser disc.

Computer programs, or applications, exist to aid every level of

education, from programs that teach simple addition or sentence
construction to programs that teach advanced calculus. Educators use
computers to track grades and communicate with students; with
computer-controlled projection units, they can add graphics, sound, and
animation to their communications.

Computers are used extensively in scientific research to solve mathematical problems

investigate complicated data, model systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such
as testing the air flow around the next generation of aircraft.

The military employs computers in sophisticated communications to encode and unscramble

messages, and to keep track of personnel and supplies.

BOOTING, REBOOTING AND SHUTTING DOWN OF COMPUTERS

The computer is a complicated machine and should not be compared to any other electronic
device we find at home, school or the office. The operation of computers follows systematic
steps and rules which do not have to be ignored. Booting, rebooting and shutting down are
the terms used to describe the process of starting, restarting and turning off the computer
respectively. Now, let‘s take them one at a time.

Booting the computer

Booting the computer in general term means giving the computer a hard kick. Who will really
wants to do that? Apart from hurting your foot, you should also know that your expensive
computer might be damaged irreparably. You wouldn‘t want to do that. If that is not it then
what does it mean to boot a computer?
Booting the computer is the step by step process of turning on the computer and loading
the operating system.
The initial booting of the computer is normally referred to as cold booting.

Steps in booting a computer

Basically, a computer is made up of a systems unit with a keyboard and a mouse connected to
it and a monitor, which is the display unit. The systems unit and the monitor need external
power source, whiles the keyboard and the mouse get their power from the systems unit.

 First connect the video cable from the monitor to the serial port at the back of the systems
unit.
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 Connect the keyboard and the mouse to their appropriate ports.

NOTE: The ports of the keyboard and the mouse are similar. Switching
them will not work; therefore make sure you connect them
correctly. Fig. 3.5: PS/2 mouse keyboard and ports

 Connect the AC power cable first to the rear of the systems unit and monitor before
plugging into the mains. (To avoid damage to your computer
as a result of power surge and voltage spikes it is
recommended that you plug your devices into a power surge
protector).
 At this point it is safe to turn on the computer. Press the Power
power button in front of the system unit. You should hear the Button
systems fan and the hard disk beginning to spin.
 Turn on the monitor. If it is on already you will see it flicker
into life. If nothing happens switch off the systems unit and
check all your connections and then retrace the entire steps.
When your computer is on it will first check the system configurations and the hardware
and then finally, load the operating system.
NOTE: Make sure to follow all instructions to the latter.

Rebooting the computer

Rebooting the computer means to restart it. That is to turn it off and then on again. Rebooting
a computer involves more than just pressing the power button off and on. One has to follow
some special procedure in order to reboot a computer. The actual turning off and on is done
by the computer itself with a single instruction from the user. So by this we can say than
rebooting is the process of restarting a computer after it has been on for some time. It is also
known as warm booting.
The question is when is it necessary for a user to reboot a computer?

1. A request from the computer: Sometime after one installs a program, a message
appears on the screen asking the user to restart the computer before the newly
installed program will work. This is because during the installation of some programs
not all the associated components of that program are installed until the computers
restarts.

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2. In another instance the user will see this message after making changes to the settings
on the computer.

Fig. 3.6: a request from the computer to reboot

3. Non-response from the computer. This is the case when the computer stops
responding to user command, in a state known as freezing. In this state neither the
mouse nor the keyboard functions. Freezing may be caused by giving wrong
command to the computer or running a lot of programs at the same time. In the latter
case it often occurs to computers with lower system specifications.

4. Failure of the computer to load all the system components. When the computer starts
it first loads Basic Input and Output Devices (BIOS) that is all the hardware; then the
operating system and the individual software install on it. In some circumstances, the
computer skips some of these steps, so when it starts it will warn you and might ask
you to reboot.

There you are. Now, how is rebooting done? There are three main methods by which a
computer can be restarted:

i. Using the restart tab

To reboot the computer using the restart tab
1. Click the start button.
This will cause the start menu to pop-up as shown below.

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2. Click on the ―Turn Off‖ tab.

A different screen with ―Stand By‖, ―Turn Off‖ and Restart‖ tabs appears.

3. Click on the Restart tab. This will cause the computer to restart.

ii. Using the CTRL-ALT-DEL

Pressing the Ctrl, Alt and DEL keys on the keyboard simultaneously will display the
task manager from which you can select restart from the shut
down tab to restart your computer. In the older versions of
Microsoft Operating System (Windows), pressing this key
combination twice will automatically restart the computer.
The Ctrl-Al-Del option is ideal if the computer freezes but the
keyboard does not.
Fig. 3.7: the CTRL-ALT-DEL
combination

iii. Using the reset button

Some system units have a special button located near the ―power
on‖ button which is used to restart the computer. The reset button is
the easiest and the quickest way of rebooting the computer. If is Reset
Button
most ideal if the computer and the other hardware connected to it
are all irresponsive.

Restarting the computer will close all open programs. The negative side is
all unsaved works will be lost. Be advised that before you reboot your computer save and
close all open programs, (if you have the option).

Shutting down the computer

Computers, like all electrical and electronic devices, need to be turn off when not in use, to
safe energy and also reduce pressure on it. The process of turning off the computer is
known as shutting down. Shutting down the computer is not as easy as turning off a
television set; a lot goes into play. Most computers break down because of improper shut
down procedure from users; while some just press the power button just as they do to their
TV set, others go into the extreme of unplugging the power cable from the mains.
How does one shut down the computer without causing any damage to it? Follow the steps
below.

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1. Click on the start button.

2. Click on ―Turn Off Computer‖ button.

3. Click on the :Turn Off‖ button.

CAUTION: Turning off the computer will close all open programs. Make sure to save all
projects before shutting down. Some programs will notify you to safe any unsaved changes
made to it.

ASSIGNMENT

Students to write the procedure for booting,

rebooting and shutting down a computer.

THREATS TO COMPUTERS AND USERS

A threat could said to be a person, animal or thing that is likely to cause harm, pain or
damage. Computers and their users are plagued by numerous threats, both known and
unknown. In this section will discuss some threats to computers and computer users, their
causes and possible prevention and remedy.

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COMPUTER THREATS
Computers, like most things in the world, are far from safe. Computers are always exposed
to a variety of threat mostly as a result of negligence from the users. Computer threats are in
two folds – there are threats which are focused on the programs and the operating system on
the computer. We shall call them software related threats; and there are those which affect the
physical components of the computer. We shall refer to them as hardware related threats.

Software-related threats

Software are programs or applications that can be run on the computer system, e.g. word
processing, database packages etc. (more on software later).
If you ever thought that once a program is installed on a computer system it is safe, think
again. There are a lot of malicious software on the cyber-market, the sole purpose of which is
to make the genuine software on computer systems vulnerable. Software threats include
Viruses, worms, Trojans, spasm, spyware, phishing, IP spoofing, hackers, hijackers, adware,
dialers, hoaxes and stranger-danger.

1. Viruses
Computer programs that copy themselves from one program or computer to another . They
often disrupt your computer system or damage your data. Viruses are usually received by
email attachments or downloads so be careful opening anything from a dubious source. They
can affect anyone, for example, the destructive Mydoom worm affected one out of three
small and mid-sized businesses. Like biological viruses, different computer viruses do
different tasks some of which include:
Boot Sector: A virus which infects the boot sector or partition table of a disk. Computers are
most often infected with this type of virus after being started with an infected boot floppy or
CD.

Companion: Also known as a "Satellite" virus, this does not actually modify the code of the
target program, but is hosted by an infected copy of the target which is placed ahead of it on
the execution path. This is achieved by giving the infected version the same name as the
target program, but with a file extension of higher priority. For example, if the user of a PC
running Microsoft Windows attempts to run a file called myprogram, the computer will look
to run a file called myprogram.bat or myprogram.com or myprogram.exe in that order.
Therefore, a companion virus which targets the myprogram.exe file would create an infected
copy called myprogram.bat or myprogram.com so that it gets run instead of the real program.

Cryptovirus: A virus that uses asymmetric encryption techniques and includes a public key
in its payload. Usually, the private key of the asymmetric key pair will be retained by the
virus author/attacker so that only he can decrypt the data that was encrypted with the
corresponding public key contained in the virus. The concept could equally be applied to
Worms or Trojan horse programs giving us "Cryptoworms" and "Cryptotrojans"

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respectively. Such malware would commonly be used for extortion, whereby data on a
victim's hard disk is encrypted and held to ransom.

File infector: The traditional type of virus which infects .com .exe or other executable files.

Macro: A virus, very often written in Visual Basic, which is triggered when a parent
application performs some action on an infected document. A macro virus contained in a
.doc file might be triggered when the parent application (Microsoft Word, say) opens, closes
or saves the file, for example.

Multi-partite: A virus which has the capability to infect a computer's boot sector, partition
table and/or its executable programs. It therefore has the characteristics of both "boot sector"
and "file infector" viruses.

Polymorphic: A virus which has the ability to alter its appearance. The body of a
polymorphic virus has two basic parts - the executable part (which is encrypted) and the
decryptor (which is used to decrypt the executable part so that it can be run). By using a
variety of techniques the appearance (but importantly, not the basic functionality) of the
decryptor can be altered, greatly assisting the virus in evading detection by antivirus
software.

2. Spyware
Like a spy, a spyware monitors a user's actions, and send all the information about the user
and their computer to somebody else. Spyware may send the addresses of sites you have
visited or worse still, transmit personal information. With today's concerns about identify
theft this is a real worry. For example, CoolWebSearch may hijack web searches, home page,
and other Internet Explorer settings. Spyware is normally received as part of shareware (a
software made available for free download), downloaded from the web.

3. Trojans or Trojan Horse

The name Trojan horse is taken from the legend in which the Greeks built a large wooden
horse with the pretence that it was a peace offering for their foes, the
Trojans. The Trojans accepted the gift and carried it into their,
erstwhile impregnable, city of Troy. Little did they realize, until it was
too late, that the wooden horse was hollow and that the Greek army was
concealed inside! Just like the legend, a Trojan is a program which has
some hidden, malign purpose, other than the one it purports to have.
For example, a program which claimed to be a game but which also
secretly installed some spyware or adware components on a user's
computer would be considered to be a Trojan horse program, because
the real purpose of the program was to install the malware and not to
provide an entertaining game for the user. Commonly, a so-called
Remote Access Trojan (or RAT) may open a backdoor on a Fig. 3.8: the symbolic Trojan Horse
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computer allowing an intruder to connect without the user's knowledge or consent .

4. Spam
An unwanted or unrequested mail often promoting products of a dubious financial or sexual
nature. Don't leave your email address on websites and internet bulletin boards as they are
harvested by spammers. Recent evidence suggests that some spammers have now teamed-up
with virus writers so that even more spam can be sent, using the infected computer to send
spam to all the email addresses contained in a user's address book for example.

5. IP/Address Bar Spoofing

A technique to gain unauthorized access to computers, whereby the intruder sends messages
to a computer with an address indicating that the message is coming from a trusted host.

6. Adware
An adware is a program that puts advertisements on your screen. These take many forms
including popups, popunders and advertisements that appear later, even if your browser is
closed. Some are sent using the Windows Messenger service which allows a spammer to
direct an advertisement straight to your computer by sequentially sending messages to IP
addresses. Always irritating, they are also often of a pornographic nature. A generic term
referring to a class of software that causes a victim's web browser to display annoying pop-up
advertisements and advertising banners. Sometimes adware may be installed in conjunction
with a companion spyware program. Whilst the spyware program tracks and reports on the
user's web browsing behaviour, the adware program provides targeted advertisements based
on that behaviour.

7. Phishing
Phishing (pronounced ―fishing‖) are emails purporting to come from reliable sources such as
Paypal, Ebay or your bank. Often wanting you to verify your account details such as your
password, oincode etc. they can look very realistic but are generally scams to harvest
usernames and passwords. Always open a new browser winder and type the address there,
rather than clicking on the link provided.

8. Hijackers
Hijackers take control of your web browser and may reset your home page, search bar and
search pages. They can redirect you to undesirable sites or stop you going to particular sites.

9. Hackers
A hacker is a computer user who gains unauthorized access to a computer system or data
belonging to somebody else. Even though some hackers known as ethical or white hackers
break into computer system to check their vulnerability, most hackers normally the unethical
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or black hackers hack for selfish gains. With so much personal data available online to
anyone with a password you must be sure your password is secure. If you are using your
mother's maiden name, your cat's name or your birthday then your password is at risk. Here
are two tips for making a secure password. Method One - pick two random unrelated three
letter words and two digits. Mix them up and what do you have? A secure password such as
"red19cat" or "hotpin73". Method Two - pick a short sequence of words such as Now Is The
Winter Of Our Discontent Made Glorious' and you have a password of "nitwoodmg". You
could even change the I's and O's to digits.

10. Nigerian scam

Otherwise known as an Advanced Fee Fraud, the 419 scam takes its name from the section of
Nigerian law which legislates for this kind of illegal activity, although the perpetrators of
such scams are by no means any longer confined to Nigeria. There are several variations on
the theme but the scam is generally conducted via the spamming of potential victims by
email. These emails will often purport to come from a legal firm, financial institution, or
perhaps the relative of a deceased political leader or wealthy businessman for example. The
email will spin a beguiling story about the existence of a vast fortune which is tied up in some
kind of legal or financial limbo but which can be liberated, so the scammers claim, with the
victim's assistance (often the provision of details of a bank account in the victim's home
country into which the fortune will supposedly be deposited). As a reward for their help the
victim is promised that they can keep a substantial share of the loot! However, at some point
during the proceedings the scammers will contact the victim claiming some kind of
administrative problem which can be overcome if the victim will send them a sum of money
to grease the wheels - this is where the "advanced fee" fraud comes in. If the victim falls for
this the scammers will continue to make similar requests, often teasing the victim by claiming
that just one more payment will be enough to liberate the fortune. Of course there is no
fortune and the victim has lost their money!

There are hundreds of other software threats all over, mostly on the web. These threats have
one purpose of breeching the security system of other people‘s computers. If
you see any suspicious file on your computer, it might be virus, Trojan horse
or any other malware. Do not open it, just get rid of it. how do you get rid of
malware? While malware are software, there are other software which fight
malware as vaccine fight infections. These software are known as anti-virus.
There are a number of anti-viral software available, getting the right one is

sure to make your system safe from all software related threats.
Fig. 3.9: Kaspersky antivirus

Hardware-related threats

Hardware threats, what are they? The next topic is exclusively on hardware; but before that
let us try and get an idea of the term hardware. Hardware refers to all components of the
computer that can be seen and touched, examples of which are monitors, keyboards, mice etc.
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We can, therefore, say that hardware threats are threats which affect the touchable or physical
components of the computer. There are quite a number of hardware threats, some of which
are as follows:

1. Dust
A particle of dust is negligible, but a pile of it can simply not be looked over. The following
are some of the effects of dust on computers:
i. Blocks ventilation: computers heat up easily due to continuous processing of data;
and because of that all computers have fans in them to cool them down. If dust
settle in the computer it causes the fan to work at a slower rate; this reduces the
amount of air it blows. Less air means more heat in the computer, and that can
easily break down the computer.

ii. Settle on the internal components: most of the components in the computer feel
less comfortable with dust or dirt. If dust settle on them they give lower output if
any at all. For example the RAM chips will stop working if their connection parts
get dirty; and that means the computer too will not boot.

iii. Makes the computer dirty: who likes dirty stuff? A dirty computer, like any other
thing, is a real eyesore; and that is exactly what dust does to the computer.

Because of these and other reasons, dust must be eliminated from computers by:

a. Cleaning the computer hardware regularly.

b. Locating computers away from open windows.
c. Covering computers up when not in use.

2. Power Fluctuation

How often do you feel that your electric light-bulb or fluorescent light looks brighter or
dimmer than usual? That is as a result of the irregularities in the flow of electricity known as
power fluctuation. Power fluctuations, voltage spike and electrical surge put pressure on the
computer and all the other hardware connected to it, and may end up causing serious damage
to the computer system. Power fluctuations mostly occur when the power is restored after an
outage. Power fluctuations can hardly be avoided, but their impact on your computer system
can be reduced or avoided. HOW? You might ask.

 Using a voltage stabilizer, an electrical device that keeps the voltage at a constant
rate. This helps reduce the impact of voltage spike on the
computer.
 Using a surge protector keeps your system safe from
electrical surge.
 Using an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), a device
that keeps your electrical and electronic devices on for some Fig. 4.0: surge protector
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time after a power outage. This will give you enough time to save all changes to your
works and safely shut down your computer.
 Turn off all power outlets and unplug the computer‘ power cables from them when
not in use.

3. Rodents
Rodents, the ubiquitous rodents; what will they not chew, books, shoes, clothes, and now
computer cables? That is it. rodents like mice, rats and guinea pigs are
always around and are trying to share everything we possess with us. If
rodents chew parts of the power cables, the exposed wires can touch
each other and short when the power is turned on. This can cause fire or
do serious damage to you and your computer. It is therefore advisable to
keep the computer and its surrounding tidy, and make sure to sweep out
Fig. 4.1: mouse
all food crumbs which easily invite rodents. If your computer room is
already infested with rodent get a mouse trap or an exterminator to get rid of them.

4. Liquids
Who ever thought that liquids such as water, tea and other drinks, which we humans can
hardly do without, are actually enemies to the computer? YES, most liquids are good
conductor or electricity and if they get into the computer, will link the parts of the main
circuit which are not supposed to touch, and that will certainly cause fire apart from
irreparably damaging your computer. So, to prevent this, keep all liquids away from your
computer system.

5. Disasters
Disasters, whether natural or man-made, such as flood, earth quake, fire outbreak, are some
of the most dangerous threats which affect computers. Most disasters are unpredictable and
when they strike the type of computers they destroy most are the supercomputers and
mainframes which contain a bulk of a company or organisation‘s information. Flood can be
avoided by stationing mainframe computers away from low-lying areas. The impact of fire
can be reduced if fire extinguishers and smoke detector are present at where the computer(s)
are.

6. Theft and Robbery

Thieves are everywhere, and they are always looking for
expensive things like computers to steal. They are ready to
break into the most secure of all places to steal computers and
other computer accessories. Laptops, notebooks and handheld
computers are even easier to steal. Always keep all your
computer systems in a safe and secure place. Do not leave Fig. 4.2: computer theft is on the rise
potable computers near windows or in an unattended vehicle.
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THREATS TO COMPUTER USERS

Sitting down regularly at a single place in a single position and doing the very same thing
routinely does not really look appealing; yet unfortunately, that is what computer users go
through. Being confined to one posture day in and day out really has a lot of bodily problems
which include vision problems, wrist pains, stress, backaches and repetitive strain injury.
Let‘s consider what these do and how we can combat them.

1. Vision problems
Being in front of the display unit for a very long time can pose the threat of eyestrain of even
headache. To prevent these or reduce potential problems in the future, observe the following
simple guidelines:
 The screen should be positioned approximately an arm‘s
length away.
 The room should be well lit.
 A copy or document holder should be positioned at
screen level keep the eyes at stable position.
 The brightness and contrast of the screen should be
adjustable and must be set at levels which are good for
reading on the screen.
 Images on the screen should not flicker, but be stable.
 Get an anti-glare shield if necessary, to reduce the
amount of light entering the eye from the display unit.
 Take frequent break, perhaps 15 – 20 minutes break after
every hour.
 Keep the screen clean of dust.
 Position the computer at right-angle to the window to Fig. 4.3: the correct sitting posture
prevent reflected sunlight.
 Have regular eye tests.

2. Wrist pains
The arms are required to hang by your side with the hands on the keyboard and or the mouse.
This continuous position puts pressure on the wrists and results in wrist pains. Wrist pains
can be reduced by:
 Keeping the keyboard at right-angle to
your body.
 Acquiring keyboards with soft keys.
 Use a wrist-rest to support the wrist.
 Use ergonomic keyboards which keep
the arms at a more natural angle than the
standard keyboard.
 Taken regular breaks away from the
keyboard and the mouse. Fig. 4.4: ergonomic keyboard
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3. Backache
Backache is caused by bad posture. The question is, how do you maintain a good posture?
 Get stable chairs which will also give you the freedom to move even whiles sitting.
 Acquire a foot stool if the your feet do not touch the ground
 The seat should be adjustable in height so that your eyes will at the same level with
the top of the screen.
 The backrest of the seat should also be adjustable so that you will feel comfortably
seated.
 Te desk should be at a correct height and should be big enough to accommodate all
the various hardware.
 Regular breaks and exercises are sensible ways to help relieve or prevent backache.

4. Repetitive strain injury (RSI)

RSI is a physical symptoms caused by excessive and repetitive use of the body, (mostly
the upper body). Repetitive stress injuries typically occur when tasks are performed under
difficult conditions, using awkward postures and poorly designed equipment. One of the
key cause of RSI is the prolonged use of the computer keyboard. RSI can affect the neck,
upper limbs and the shoulders. Sufferers experience numbness and tingling in the upper
body and in severe cases, have difficulties holding even a pen. To avoid RSI follow the
guidelines above (on wrist pains and backache).

5. Stress
Computers help people work faster and much efficient than they used to. This has resulted in
teachers and executives expecting more from their students and workers than usual. In trying
to keep the pace people work at odd hour, having little time for themselves. This has made
many people workaholics (i.e. not being able to stop
working) because of their fear of being fired if they fail to
meet demand. To reduce stress people will have to:
 Engage in more social activities.
 Have enough sleep and not go to bed with their
works and worries.
 Be less anxious of the outcome of their work.

Fig. 4.5: take time to rest

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Fig. 4.6: a disorganized office could cause an accident

RESPONSIBLE USE OF COMPUTERS

Computers have changed the fabric of the world in all sectors, and computer users have the
luxury to do almost everything they want. While most people use the computer for good
purposes, others have found a bad use for the computer. It has, thus become imperative for
policy makers to strategize and come out with some rules which will not only guide the way
computers are used, but also the way information is transmitted - known as computer ethics.

COMPUTER ETHICS

With their increasing power and versatility, computers make day-to-day life simple.
Unfortunately, as computer use becomes more widespread, so do the opportunities for
misuse. Computer hackers often violate privacy and can tamper with or destroy records.
Viruses or worms can replicate and spread from computer to computer, erasing information
or causing malfunctions. Other individuals have used computers to electronically embezzle
funds. New ethical issues also have arisen, such as how to regulate material on the Internet
and the World Wide Web. Long-standing issues, such as privacy and freedom of expression,
are being re-examined in light of the digital revolution. Individuals, companies, and
governments are working to solve these problems by instituting some regulatory laws such as
copyright, privacy concerns and censorship.

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Copyright

Copyright are exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including
the right to copy, distribute and make changes to their work. Copyright does not protect ideas,
only their expression or fixation. The goal of copyright law is to encourage authors to invest
effort in creating new works of art and literature. Copyright is one branch of the larger legal
field known as intellectual property, which also includes trademark and patent law. Copyright
law is the legal foundation protecting the work of many major industries, including book
publishing, motion-picture production, music recording, and computer software development.

Not every work of authorship is eligible for copyright. To qualify for copyright protection, a
work must be both fixed and original. The law considers a work to be fixed if it is recorded in
some permanent format. Acceptable ways of fixing a work include writing it down, storing it
on a computer floppy disk or compact disc (CD), recording it on videotape, or sculpting it in
marble. If an musician thinks of a new song and sings it to an audience without writing it
down or recording it on a CD or cassette, copyright does not protect the song because it is not
fixed. To be original, the work must not be copied from previously existing material and must
display at least a reasonable amount of creativity. For example, if an author writes the words
―food is good‖ on a piece of paper, copyright does not protect the words because they lack
sufficient creativity. Consequently, short phrases and titles are usually not protected by
copyright.

Copyright only protects the words, notes, software or images that the creator has used. It does
not protect any ideas or concepts revealed by the work. If, for example, a scientist publishes
an article explaining a new process for turning water into wine, the copyright prevents others
from copying the words of that article. It does not, however, prevent anyone else from using
the process described to turn water into wine. To protect the process, the scientist must obtain
a patent. Similarly, if a novelist writes a book about a man obsessed about walking on water,
other people may write their own books on the same subject, as long as they do not use the
exact words or a closely similar plot.

Privacy

When something is private to a person, it usually means there is something within them that
is considered inherently special or personally sensitive. Privacy is the ability of an individual
or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves and thereby reveal
themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ
among cultures and individuals, but share basic common themes. The degree to which private
information is exposed therefore depends on how the public will receive this information,
which differs between places and over time.

Most of the time peoples right to privacy is invaded by some ICT related concept. In modern life the
everyday use of digital technology creates numerous instances in which personal
information—name, address, phone number, birthday, driver's license number, e-mail
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address, or social security number—is collected from the consumer. Increasingly, people are
unable to keep personal information private and are often unaware of how or when this
information is being collected, utilized, sold, or otherwise manipulated. Everything from a
doctor's visit to shopping to sending personal mail could present an opportunity for an
unwanted invasion of privacy.

Fig. 4.7: computer and its related technology could deprive you of your privacy

Censorship
Censorship is the control of the information and ideas circulated within a society. The
rationales for censorship have varied, with some censors targeting material deemed to be
indecent or obscene; heretical or blasphemous; or seditious or treasonous. Censorship has
been achieved through the examination of books, plays, films, television and radio
programs, news reports, and other forms of communication for the purpose of
altering or suppressing ideas found to be objectionable or offensive. Thus, the
rationale for censorship is that it is necessary for the protection of three basic social
institutions: the family, the church, and the state. In all these sectors the internet is
the major culprit.

Censorship takes different forms and approach, for example, most religions abhor certain
things and advise their followers to refrain from them. In other cases countries censor some
materials which are considered threats to national security. Censorship in the above issues
could vary from one country or society to another, but one area where there is total unanimity
in censorship is in the display of pornographic and violent materials. Children are mostly the
victim of pornography and violence, especially those on the internet and parents are,
therefore, advised to monitor their children regularly and to check what they do online.

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TEST YOURSELF

Theory questions

1. Write a short note on the following types of computers:

a. Digital computer
b. Analogue computer
c. Hybrid computer

2. Describe how to boot, refresh and shut-down a computer.

3. Discuss computer threats

4. State and explain three computer ethics

5. How do the following threats affect the computer?

a. Power fluctuation
b. Rodents
c. Theft
d. Virus

6. State three uses of computers

a. In education
b. At home
c. At the office

7. State three ways of preventing the following threats to computer users:

a. Stress
b. Vision problem
c. Backache
d. Repetitive strain injury
e. Wrist pains

8. a.. Explain the necessity for rebooting a computer.

b. describe three ways of rebooting a computer

9. Computers are essential part to human survival. Discuss.

10. Write a short note on the following types of digital computers

a. Supercomputers
b. Mainframe computers
c. Minicomputers
d. microcomputer

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Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the following is not a type of b. Digital computer

computer? c. Analogue computer
a. Keyboard d. Data computer
b. Digital computer
c. Hybrid computer 8. The type of digital computer which
d. Analogue computer uses microprocessor is known as…
a. Super computer
2. The type of computer that converts all b. Minicomputer
data into digital format is known as…. c. Microcomputer
a. Analogue computer d. Mainframe computer
b. Digital computer
c. Hybrid computer 9. A laptop compute is an example of …
d. Convertor a. Supercomputer
b. Analogue computer
3. A sequence of 8 bit is called… c. Hybrid computer
a. Bits b, Byte d. Microcomputer
d. Kilobyte d. Digital
10. Another name for restarting the
4. The Cray computer is an example of… computer is known as…
a. Analogue computer a. Reshutting
b. Supercomputer b. Rebooting
c. Minicomputer c. Booting
d. Microcomputer d. Shutting down

5. Which of the following types of digital 11. Which of the following is a hybrid
computers is referred to as a parallel computer?
processor? a. Thermometer
a. Analogue computer b. Pen drive
b. Supercomputer c. Automated teller machine
c. Minicomputer d. Simple computer
d. Microcomputer
12. Pick the odd one out.
6. The process of turning on the computer a. Supercomputer
is referred to as …. b. Mainframe computer
a. Running c. Digital computer
b. Kicking d. Microcomputer
c. Shutting
d. Booting 13. Pick the odd one out.
a. Digital computer
7. The type of computer which combines b. Hybrid computer
the functions of digital and analogue c. Analogue computer
computers is referred to as… d. Laptop computer
a. Hybrid computer
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Answers 8. C

1. A
9. D
2. B
10. B
3. B
11. C
4. B
12. C
5. B
13. D
6. D

7. A

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