IT Skills (SEC281)

Introduction to the Operating System (OS)

1. Introduction
An Operating System (OS) is a system software that acts as an interface between the user, application software, and
computer hardware. It is responsible for managing hardware resources, running applications, and providing essential
services for computer programs.
Without an operating system, users would need to manually control hardware operations, making computing
complex and inefficient. The OS simplifies this process by managing processes, memory, storage, and input/output
devices.

2. Functions of an Operating System

An operating system performs several crucial functions, including:
1. Process Management
• The OS manages multiple running applications (processes).
• It allocates CPU time to each process.
• It supports multitasking, where multiple applications can run simultaneously.
• Uses scheduling algorithms like FIFO, Round Robin, and Shortest Job Next (SJN) to manage processes.
2. Memory Management
• The OS allocates and deallocates RAM (Random Access Memory) as needed.
• It ensures efficient memory usage and prevents memory leaks.
• Implements Virtual Memory to use hard disk space as temporary memory when RAM is full.
3. File System Management
• Organizes data into files and directories.
• Manages file permissions and access control.
• Supports different file systems like FAT32, NTFS, ext4.
4. Device Management
• Controls hardware devices like printers, keyboards, and disk drives.
• Uses device drivers to communicate with hardware.
• Implements Plug and Play (PnP) to automatically detect and configure new devices.
5. Security and User Management
• Protects the system with passwords, encryption, and firewalls.
• Manages multiple user accounts and permissions.
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• Prevents unauthorized access with authentication mechanisms.

6. User Interface (UI)
• Provides Graphical User Interface (GUI) (Windows, macOS, Linux Desktop).
• Supports Command-Line Interface (CLI) (Linux Terminal, Windows Command Prompt).
• Allows interaction through icons, windows, and menus.

3. Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System
• Executes batches of jobs without user interaction.
• Used in early computing for tasks like payroll processing.
• Example: IBM OS/360.
2. Time-Sharing (Multitasking) OS
• Allows multiple users to share CPU time.
• Provides interactive computing for real-time tasks.
• Example: Unix, Windows, Linux.
3. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)
• Used in systems that require quick responses (e.g., industrial automation).
• Hard RTOS: Strict timing constraints (e.g., Airbag systems in cars).
• Soft RTOS: Flexible timing (e.g., Multimedia streaming).
• Example: VxWorks, FreeRTOS, QNX.
4. Distributed Operating System
• Manages multiple computers as a single system.
• Used in cloud computing and large networks.
• Example: Google’s Cloud OS, Amoeba OS.
5. Mobile Operating System
• Designed for smartphones and tablets.
• Example: Android, iOS.
6. Embedded Operating System
• Built for specialized devices like ATMs, smart TVs, and medical equipment.
• Example: Embedded Linux, Windows IoT.

4. Popular Operating Systems and Their Features

OS Type Examples Key Features
Windows Windows 10, 11 GUI, multitasking, extensive software support
Linux Ubuntu, Fedora Open-source, secure, highly customizable
macOS macOS Ventura, Monterey Stable, optimized for Apple hardware
Android Android 12, 13 Mobile OS, app store, touch interface
iOS iOS 16, 17 Secure, app ecosystem, Apple-exclusive
RTOS FreeRTOS, QNX Real-time task execution, low latency

5. Operating System Architecture

An OS consists of several layers that interact with hardware and software.
1. Kernel
• Core component that interacts with hardware.
• Handles process scheduling, memory management, and system calls.
2. Shell
• Provides an interface between the user and the OS.
• Types: Command-Line Shell (CLI) and Graphical Shell (GUI).
3. File System
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• Manages file storage and retrieval.

• Examples: NTFS (Windows), ext4 (Linux), HFS+ (macOS).
4. Device Drivers
• Acts as a translator between hardware and the OS.
• Allows communication with devices like printers, scanners, and USB drives.

6. Advantages of Using an Operating System

Simplifies user interaction with hardware.
Enables multitasking and multi-user operations.
Improves system security and data protection.
Manages hardware resources efficiently.
Provides networking capabilities for internet and communication.

7. Conclusion
An Operating System is an essential component of any computing device, ensuring smooth interaction between
hardware and software. Modern OS designs provide enhanced security, multitasking, and user-friendly interfaces,
making computing more efficient and accessible.

Typical Operating System Software or Systems Software

System Software refers to the software designed to manage and control computer hardware and provide a platform
for running application software. It acts as an intermediary between hardware and user applications. Operating
Systems (OS) are the most essential and prominent type of system software, but there are other types as well. The
following provides a detailed explanation of typical operating system software and its categories:

1. Operating System (OS)

The Operating System (OS) is the core system software responsible for managing hardware, software, and resources
on a computer. It enables the execution of applications by providing an interface to interact with hardware and
controls over resource allocation. The OS is crucial for the stability, performance, and security of the system.
Key Responsibilities of the OS:
• Resource Management: The OS allocates and manages system resources such as CPU, memory, storage, and
devices.
• Process Management: It controls the execution of processes, scheduling tasks, and managing concurrency.
• Memory Management: The OS allocates, protects, and manages the memory used by processes.
• File Management: The OS organizes, stores, retrieves, and manages access to files and directories.
• Device Management: It communicates with hardware devices and ensures that devices are available for
processes.
• Security and Access Control: The OS ensures secure access to system resources by enforcing authentication,
authorization, and encryption.
• User Interface: It provides a user interface (CLI or GUI) for interacting with the system.
Types of Operating Systems:
• Single-User, Single-Task OS: Designed for one user to execute one task at a time. Example: MS-DOS.
• Single-User, Multi-Tasking OS: Allows one user to run multiple tasks at the same time. Example: Windows,
macOS.
• Multi-User OS: Supports multiple users accessing the system simultaneously. Example: Unix, Linux.
• Real-Time OS (RTOS): Designed for real-time processing with minimal delays. Example: RTEMS, VxWorks.
• Distributed OS: Manages a group of independent computers as if they were a single system. Example:
Google’s Chrome OS, Hadoop.

2. Device Drivers

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Device Drivers are specialized programs within the system software that allow the OS to communicate with hardware
devices, such as printers, monitors, keyboards, network cards, and storage devices. A driver provides the necessary
interface between the hardware and the OS, ensuring compatibility and proper functioning.
Key Characteristics of Device Drivers:
• Hardware Abstraction: Device drivers abstract the complexity of hardware from the OS and users by
providing standardized interfaces for interacting with devices.
• Control Hardware: They control and monitor the operation of peripheral devices (e.g., disk drives, network
adapters).
• Error Handling: Device drivers detect and handle hardware errors and can notify the OS when a device
malfunctions.

3. Utility Software
Utility Software is a type of system software that performs specific tasks to help manage, maintain, and optimize the
operation of the computer system. Utilities can enhance the performance of the system or help in troubleshooting,
maintenance, and customization.
Common Types of Utility Software:
• Antivirus Software: Protects the system from viruses, malware, and other malicious programs by detecting,
blocking, and removing them.
• Disk Management Tools: Includes tools for managing disk partitions, formatting disks, and checking disk
integrity. Examples: Disk Utility (macOS), Disk Management (Windows).
• Backup Software: Automatically backs up critical files and system settings to prevent data loss. Examples:
Acronis, Windows Backup.
• Compression Tools: Used to compress and decompress files to save storage space or for easier transmission.
Examples: WinRAR, 7-Zip.
• File Recovery Tools: Helps recover lost or deleted files from damaged or corrupted storage. Examples:
Recuva, TestDisk.
• System Cleaners: Cleans temporary files, cache, and other unnecessary data to free up disk space and
improve performance. Example: CCleaner.
• Disk Defragmenters: Reorganizes fragmented data on hard drives to improve read/write performance.
Example: Windows Disk Defragmenter.

4. System Libraries
System Libraries are collections of pre-written code that provide a set of routines, functions, and services that
application programs can use to interact with the operating system. Libraries allow developers to avoid writing
common functionality from scratch.
Key Characteristics of System Libraries:
• Standard Functions: System libraries provide essential services like input/output (I/O), memory
management, file handling, and networking to applications.
• Efficiency: By using libraries, programs can access complex functionality (e.g., graphics rendering, database
management) efficiently without direct interaction with the OS kernel.
• Linking: When an application is compiled, it links against system libraries to access these services.
Examples of System Libraries:
• C Standard Library (libc): Contains commonly used functions for tasks like file I/O, string manipulation, and
memory management.
• Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs): On Windows, DLLs contain reusable functions, allowing programs to access
them dynamically at runtime.
• Shared Libraries (.so files): On Linux and UNIX systems, shared libraries allow multiple programs to share
code, saving memory and space.

5. Shell

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The Shell is a command-line interface (CLI) or a scripting environment that allows users to interact with the OS. It
serves as an intermediary between the user and the OS, accepting commands, executing them, and providing
feedback.
Types of Shells:
• Bash Shell: A popular shell used in Linux and macOS. It allows users to execute commands, scripts, and
utilities interactively.
• Windows Command Prompt: A command-line interface in Windows for executing commands and batch files.
• PowerShell: A more advanced command-line shell for Windows, offering powerful scripting capabilities and
automation.
Functions of Shell:
• Command Execution: Accepts commands from users and runs them on the OS.
• Scripting: Allows users to write scripts for automating tasks like backups, installations, and file management.
• Pipelines and Redirection: Enables users to combine commands and redirect input/output streams for
efficient data processing.

6. System Monitor and Performance Tools

System monitoring tools are essential system software for observing and managing system performance. They
provide valuable data about system usage, such as CPU load, memory usage, disk space, and network activity.
Key Types of System Monitoring Tools:
• Task Manager: A built-in utility in Windows that allows users to monitor active processes, CPU, memory, and
disk usage.
• Activity Monitor: The macOS utility for monitoring system performance.
• top/htop: Linux command-line tools for viewing active processes, system load, and resource usage.
• Resource Monitor: Part of Windows, it provides detailed information about CPU, memory, disk, and network
activity.
• Network Monitoring Tools: Tools like Wireshark and NetFlow Analyzer help monitor network traffic and
troubleshoot connectivity issues.

7. Virtualization Software
Virtualization software allows multiple virtual systems (virtual machines or VMs) to run on a single physical machine.
This enables resource consolidation and isolation between multiple operating systems running on the same
hardware.
Key Features of Virtualization Software:
• Hypervisor: A hypervisor is a layer that sits between the hardware and the operating system. It enables the
creation and management of virtual machines. There are two types:
o Type 1 Hypervisor (bare-metal): Runs directly on the hardware. Examples: VMware ESXi, Microsoft
Hyper-V.
o Type 2 Hypervisor (hosted): Runs on top of an existing operating system. Examples: VMware
Workstation, VirtualBox.
• Virtual Machine (VM): Each VM runs its own OS and applications as if it were a separate physical computer,
but shares the underlying hardware resources with other VMs.
• Resource Allocation: Virtualization software enables dynamic allocation of resources (CPU, RAM, storage)
among virtual machines.
8. Backup and Recovery Software
Backup and recovery software ensures that the data stored on a system is regularly backed up and can be restored in
case of hardware failure, data corruption, or other disasters. It is essential for ensuring data integrity and business
continuity.
Key Functions of Backup and Recovery Software:
• Automated Backups: Allows automatic and scheduled backups of files, folders, or entire system images.
• Incremental and Differential Backups: Supports incremental backups (only changes since the last backup)
and differential backups (all changes since the last full backup).
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• Disaster Recovery: Provides tools to recover files, applications, or entire systems after a failure.
• Cloud Backup: Provides an option to back up data to remote cloud storage for disaster recovery and offsite
backup.
9. Batch Processing Software
Batch Processing Software is used to automate the execution of a series of tasks or jobs without manual
intervention. It processes data in large batches and is typically used for tasks that do not require immediate user
interaction.
Key Features:
• Job Scheduling: Batch processing software allows tasks to be scheduled to run at specific times or intervals.
• Automation: It automates repetitive tasks like data processing, file conversions, and report generation.
• Efficiency: It helps reduce manual effort and optimizes resource utilization by running tasks during off-peak
hours.
Conclusion
System software forms the backbone of computing systems, ensuring that hardware and application software can
function smoothly together. The Operating System (OS), device drivers, utility software, system libraries, shells,
monitoring tools, virtualization software, backup utilities, and batch processing software all work together to
provide the necessary environment for running applications, managing resources, and maintaining system integrity.
Understanding the role of these typical system software components is essential for anyone working with or
managing computer systems.

Cloud Computing – Five Essential Characteristics

1. Introduction
Cloud computing is a technology that allows users to access computing resources (such as servers, storage,
databases, networking, software, and analytics) over the internet instead of relying on local servers or personal
computers. It enables organizations to scale their IT infrastructure efficiently while reducing costs and maintenance
efforts.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines cloud computing with five essential
characteristics that distinguish it from traditional computing methods. These characteristics ensure that cloud
computing is flexible, efficient, and scalable for users and businesses.

2. Five Essential Characteristics of Cloud Computing

1. On-Demand Self-Service
Definition:
Users can provision and manage computing resources automatically without requiring human intervention from the
service provider.
Key Features:
• Resources (such as servers, storage, and applications) can be allocated instantly.
• Users can request resources via a web portal or API.
• No need for manual setup by IT staff.
Example:
A startup can instantly deploy virtual machines on AWS or Google Cloud without contacting a cloud service provider.

2. Broad Network Access

Definition:
Cloud services are available over the internet and can be accessed from various devices such as laptops,
smartphones, tablets, and desktops.
Key Features:
• Access through standard network protocols (HTTP, HTTPS).
• Works on multiple platforms and operating systems.
• Supports mobile applications and remote working.
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Example:
A company using Google Drive can access files from any device with an internet connection, ensuring seamless
workflow for remote employees.

3. Resource Pooling
Definition:
Cloud providers use a multi-tenant model to serve multiple customers by dynamically allocating and reassigning
computing resources.
Key Features:
• Resources (CPU, storage, RAM) are shared among multiple users.
• Users do not need to know the exact physical location of resources.
• Supports elastic demand, where resources are allocated based on needs.
Example:
Netflix uses AWS cloud resources that dynamically allocate processing power based on user demand for video
streaming.

4. Rapid Elasticity
Definition:
Cloud resources can be scaled up or down automatically based on demand, ensuring efficiency and cost savings.
Key Features:
• Automatic scaling of resources (expansion or contraction).
• No need for manual intervention for resource adjustment.
• Supports fluctuating workloads (e.g., seasonal traffic spikes).
Example:
An e-commerce website experiences high traffic during Black Friday sales. Cloud servers automatically scale up to
handle the surge and scale down when traffic returns to normal.

5. Measured Service
Definition:
Cloud providers monitor and optimize resource usage through a metering system to charge users based on
consumption.
Key Features:
• Pay-as-you-go billing model.
• Tracks usage of computing power, bandwidth, and storage.
• Provides usage reports for optimization.
Example:
Microsoft Azure charges businesses based on storage and processing hours, so they only pay for what they use,
reducing IT costs.

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3. Summary of the Five Essential Characteristics

Characteristic Description Example
On-Demand Self- Users can provision resources instantly without Deploying a virtual machine on AWS with
Service human assistance. a few clicks.
Broad Network Cloud services are accessible from any device over Accessing Google Docs from a mobile
Access the internet. phone or laptop.
Computing resources are shared among multiple Netflix using AWS to serve millions of
Resource Pooling
users dynamically. users.
Resources can be scaled up or down based on An e-commerce site handling peak traffic
Rapid Elasticity
demand. automatically.
Cloud usage is monitored and billed based on Paying only for used storage in Microsoft
Measured Service
consumption. Azure.

4. Conclusion
The five essential characteristics of cloud computing make it an efficient, scalable, and cost-effective solution for
individuals and businesses. By leveraging these features, organizations can improve operational efficiency, reduce
infrastructure costs, and enhance flexibility in managing IT resources.

Cloud Computing – Service Models (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS, DaaS)

1. Introduction
Cloud computing provides various services that allow businesses and individuals to access computing resources over
the internet. These services are categorized into different service models based on their functionality and level of
control provided to users.
The four major Cloud Service Models are:
1. IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
2. PaaS (Platform as a Service)
3. SaaS (Software as a Service)
4. DaaS (Desktop as a Service)
Each model serves a different purpose, ranging from infrastructure management to fully managed software
applications.
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2. Cloud Computing Service Models

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
Definition:
IaaS provides virtualized computing infrastructure over the internet, such as servers, storage, and networking. It
allows businesses to rent IT infrastructure instead of purchasing expensive hardware.
Key Features:
• On-demand access to computing resources.
• Scalability – Resources can be increased or decreased based on demand.
• Pay-as-you-go pricing model – Users are charged based on usage.
• High flexibility – Users have complete control over the infrastructure.
Examples of IaaS Providers:
• Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2
• Google Compute Engine (GCE)
• Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines
• IBM Cloud Infrastructure
Use Cases of IaaS:
• Hosting websites and applications.
• Big data analytics and machine learning workloads.
• Disaster recovery and backup solutions.
• Development and testing environments.

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Definition:
PaaS provides a development and deployment environment in the cloud, offering tools and frameworks to build
applications without managing underlying infrastructure.
Key Features:
• Managed runtime environment for application development.
• Pre-configured development tools (databases, programming frameworks).
• Supports multiple programming languages (Java, Python, Node.js, etc.).
• Scalable and automated resource allocation.
Examples of PaaS Providers:
• Google App Engine
• Microsoft Azure App Services
• AWS Elastic Beanstalk
• Heroku
Use Cases of PaaS:
• Developing and testing applications.
• Automating application deployment and scaling.
• Creating mobile and web applications without managing infrastructure.
• Hosting API services.

3. Software as a Service (SaaS)

Definition:
SaaS provides fully managed software applications over the internet, eliminating the need for users to install or
maintain software on local devices.
Key Features:
• Accessible via web browsers (No need for installation).
• Automatic updates and maintenance by the provider.
• Subscription-based pricing model (Monthly/Annual payments).
• Multi-user access and collaboration features.

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Examples of SaaS Providers:

• Google Workspace (Gmail, Google Docs, Google Drive)
• Microsoft Office 365
• Dropbox
• Salesforce (CRM software)
Use Cases of SaaS:
• Email and communication platforms.
• Online collaboration tools (Google Docs, Microsoft Teams).
• Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software.
• Accounting and payroll software (QuickBooks, Xero).

4. Desktop as a Service (DaaS)

Definition:
DaaS provides virtual desktops hosted in the cloud, allowing users to access a fully functional desktop environment
remotely.
Key Features:
• Remote access to desktops from any device.
• Centralized data security and management.
• Multi-device compatibility (PC, tablet, smartphone).
• Scalability – Easily add or remove virtual desktops.
Examples of DaaS Providers:
• Amazon Work Spaces
• Microsoft Azure Virtual Desktop
• Citrix Virtual Apps and Desktops
• VMware Horizon Cloud
Use Cases of DaaS:
• Providing secure remote work environments.
• Enabling remote employees to access corporate resources.
• Reducing hardware costs for businesses.
• Centralized management of desktops for enterprises.

3. Comparison of IaaS, PaaS, SaaS, and DaaS

Feature IaaS (Infrastructure) PaaS (Platform) SaaS (Software) DaaS (Desktop)
Provides virtualized Provides development Provides fully managed Provides virtual desktops
Definition
computing resources. platforms and tools. software applications. accessible remotely.
Full control over Control over applications No control over Control over the desktop
User Control
infrastructure. but not infrastructure. application backend. environment.
Managed by provider Fully managed by
Maintenance Managed by user. Managed by provider.
(for infrastructure). provider.
Scalability High High Medium High
Hosting, storage, App development & Business software & Remote desktop
Usage
networking. testing. collaboration. solutions.
Amazon WorkSpaces,
AWS EC2, Google Google App Engine, AWS Google Workspace,
Examples Microsoft Azure Virtual
Compute Engine. Beanstalk. Dropbox, Salesforce.
Desktop.

4. Conclusion
Cloud computing service models provide flexibility and cost-effective solutions for businesses and individuals.
• IaaS is best for companies needing raw computing power.
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• PaaS is ideal for developers to build and deploy applications.

• SaaS is for users who need ready-to-use software.
• DaaS is great for businesses needing remote desktop solutions.
Each service model plays a significant role in modern IT infrastructure, enabling businesses to reduce costs, improve
efficiency, and scale operations seamlessly.

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