CELL DIVISION : MITOSIS AND CHROMATIN -

MEIOSIS refers to a
mixture of DNA
Cell division is essential for all living and proteins
organisms, whether they are made up that form the
of a single cell or millions of cells. chromosomes
Through cell division, organisms grow, found in the
repair damaged tissues, and cells of humans
reproduce. During and other
cell division, the instructions for higher
building new cells are passed equally organisms.
to each new cell, ensuring the
continuity of life from one generation MAIN FUNCTION OF TELOMERES
to the next.
The primary role of telomeres is to
Cell division occurs in two major prevent the ends of chromosomes
phases: from becoming fused with each other
or from being degraded. Without
1.​ Interphase: This is the telomeres, the chromosomes would
preparatory phase where the lose important genetic information
cell grows and its DNA is each time a cell divides.
replicated.
2.​ Mitotic Phase: This includes Designation of Chromosomes
both nuclear division
(karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis). There are
two types of nuclear division,
mitosis and meiosis, based on
the number of chromosomes in
the daughter cells.

BEFORE MITOSIS:
INTERPHASE Cell Cycle
Interphase: This is
- DNA is present as the preparatory
uncondensed phase where the
chromatin (not visible cell grows and
under microscope) makes a copy of
- DNA is contained within a clearly its DNA.
defined nucleus G1 phase (Gap 1):
- Centrosomes and other organelles The cell grows in
have been duplicated size and
- Cell is enlarged in preparation for synthesizes proteins.
division
S phase (Synthesis): The cell to the next stage, with 46
replicates its DNA to produce double-stranded chromosomes
identical copies. present.
G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues
to grow and prepares for cell Metaphase: the
division. chromosomes align at the
cell’s equatorial plane, or
MITOSIS center. This alignment
is the process that ensures that, during the
ensures daughter next phase, the chromatids
cells have the same will
genetic material and separate properly. Spindle fibers attach
chromosome to the centromeres of the
number as the chromosomes, pulling them into
parent cell. It plays a alignment along the
vital role in wound equatorial plane.
healing, tissue
regeneration, and asexual Anaphase: is
reproduction. Mitosis occurs in somatic characterized by the
cells (body cells), and it is crucial for separation of the sister
maintaining genetic continuity across chromatids. Once they are
cell generations. separated, these
chromatids are considered individual
PHASES OF MITOSIS chromosomes. The spindle fibers pull
these daughter chromosomes
toward opposite poles of the cell. By
the end of anaphase, the two poles of
the cell have equal sets of
chromosomes.

Telophase and
Cytokinesis: During
Prophase: chromosomes telophase, the
condense and become chromosomes at each
visible under a microscope. pole are enclosed within
The nuclear envelope new nuclear envelopes,
disintegrates, and spindle forming two distinct
fibers begin to form at the nuclei. The chromosomes uncoil back
cell’s poles. Each chromosome consists into chromatin. In cytokinesis, the
of two chromatids connected by a cytoplasm divides, resulting in two
centromere. In animal cells, spindle identical daughter cells. In animal
fibers form around centrioles, while in cells, a cleavage furrow forms to divide
plant cells, spindle fibers emerge from the cells, while in plant cells, a cell
the centrosomes. By the end of plate forms between the new nuclei.
prophase, the cell is ready to proceed
Additional Notes contributes to genetic diversity in
-​ phase of interphase is the sexually reproducing organisms
longest (G1 Phase) through the process of recombination
-​ phase of interphase does DNA and crossing over.
replication occur (S Phase)
-​ happens to the cell during the
G2 phase of interphase (The
cell grows and prepares for
mitosis.)
-​ phase of interphase follows the
S phase (G2 Phase)
-​ main purpose of the G1 phase
of interphase (To grow and
synthesize proteins)
-​ stage of mitosis do the sister
chromatids separate and move
to opposite poles of the cell
(Anaphase)
-​ stage of mitosis comes after
INTERPHASE AND INTERKINESIS
prophase (Metaphase)
-​ happens during the prophase
Meiosis is preceded by
stage of mitosis (The nuclear
interphase, in which
envelope breaks down)
DNA is replicated to
-​ stage of mitosis marks the end
produce chromosomes
of nuclear division (Telophase)
consisting
-​ final stage of mitosis, where the
of two sister chromatids​
cytoplasm divides to form two
daughter cells (Cytokinesis)
A second growth phase
called interkinesis may
MEIOSIS
occur between meiosis I
is a specialized
and II, however no DNA
type of cell
replication occurs in this
division
stage.
that occurs
only in
MEIOSIS I:
reproductive
cells (eggs,
Prophase I
sperm, and
chromosomes
spores). It
condense, and
reduces the chromosome number by
homologous
half, ensuring that when egg and
chromosomes pair up
sperm cells fuse during fertilization,
in a process called
the resulting zygote has the correct
synapsis. During this stage, crossing
diploid chromosome number. Meiosis
over occurs between non-sister
chromatids, allowing for genetic occurs. The cell prepares for the
recombination. Each homologous second round of division. At this stage,
chromosome pair consists of two there are 23 double-stranded
chromatids from the mother and two chromosomes (46 chromatids) in each
from the father. At the end of cell.
prophase I, the cell has
46 double-stranded chromosomes (92 Metaphase II
chromatids). Chromosomes align
along the equator of
Metaphase I each cell, with spindle
The homologous fibers from opposite
chromosomes poles attaching to the
(tetrads) align along centromeres of each
the equator of the cell, sister chromatid.
with spindle fibers
attaching to the centromeres. Anaphase II The
centromeres split,
Anaphase I allowing the sister
The homologous pairs chromatids to be pulled
are pulled apart to to opposite poles. Each
opposite poles, chromatid is now an
but the sister individual chromosome.
chromatids remain
attached.
Telophase II
Telophase I Nuclear envelopes form
Two new nuclei form, around the separated
and cytokinesis chromosomes.
occurs, resulting in Cytokinesis follows,
two daughter cells, resulting in four
each with half the genetically distinct
number of chromosomes. haploid daughter cells,
each containing 23 single-stranded
MEIOSIS II: chromosomes.

Prophase II KEY DIFFERENCES:

the nuclear envelope -​ Prophase I involves synapsis
dissolves again, and crossing over, while
and spindle fibers reform. Prophase II does not.
The chromosomes, each -​ In Metaphase I, homologous
still composed of two chromosome pairs align, but in
chromatids, begin to Metaphase II, individual
condense. chromosomes align.
Unlike in prophase I, no -​ Anaphase I separates
synapsis or crossing over homologous chromosomes,
 whereas Anaphase II separates spermatocytes → spermatids →
sister chromatids. sperm.
-​ Sertoli cells provide
nourishment during
development.
-​ Each sperm is haploid (22
autosomes + 1 sex
chromosome, X or Y).

OOGENESIS
-​ Takes place in the ovaries.
-​ Oogonia develop into primary
oocytes during fetal
Gametogenesis
development, then mature into
is the process by which diploid cells
secondary oocytes and finally
undergo meiosis
an ovum after puberty.
to form mature haploid gametes
-​ The process results in one large
(sperm in males, eggs in females).
ovum and smaller polar bodies
(which do not contribute to
Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes,
fertilization).
producing sperm cells.
-​ The ovum is haploid (22
autosomes + 1 X chromosome).
Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries,
resulting in egg cells. Both processes
ensure the proper chromosome
number is maintained during sexual
reproduction.

SPERMATOGENESIS
-​ Occurs in the testes starting at
puberty.
-​ Spermatogonia (immature
cells) develop into sperm cells
through stages: primary
spermatocytes → secondary
CELLULAR TRANSPORT Three Key Types:

Importance of Membrane Regulation Diffusion

involves the movement of solute
For cells to function properly, the molecules from an area of
plasma membrane must selectively high concentration to an area of low
allow certain substances like sugars concentration. This process
and amino acids to occurs spontaneously and does not
enter, while expelling harmful require cellular energy.
metabolic waste.
The overall movement is referred to as
The cell’s ability to control this "net diffusion" because
exchange depends on the size, molecules are moving randomly, but
chemical structure, and cellular the result is a spread from
conditions of the molecules that concentrated areas to less
need to cross the membrane. concentrated areas.

Factors Affecting Membrane

Transport

Whether a molecule can pass through

the plasma membrane depends
on several factors:
-​ Size of the molecule: Larger
An example of diffusion can be
molecules often need
observed when you spray air freshener
assistance from carrier proteins.
in a room.
-​ Chemical composition: Some
molecules pass freely, while
Osmosis
others require energy or
another means of passive transport, is
specific channels.
the diffusion of water molecules
-​ State of chemical balance: The
across a selectively permeable
current ion or solute
membrane from a region of lower
concentration inside the cell
solute concentration (hypotonic) to a
affects transport rates.
region of higher solute concentration
(hypertonic). Osmosis balances water
Passive Transport
content on both sides of the
is the movement of substances across
membrane, crucial for maintaining
the plasma membrane without energy
cellular stability.
expenditure. Molecules move naturally
from areas of higher concentration to
lower concentration, following the
concentration gradient.
A cell in different environments reacts can disrupt the balance, leading to cell
based on osmosis: damage or death.
-​ Hypotonic environment:
Water enters the cell, Plants, fungi, and some protists have
potentially causing it to swell or rigid cell walls. When placed in a
burst. hypotonic solution, water enters the
-​ Hypertonic environment: cell, causing it to become turgid (firm).
Water leaves the cell, causing it This turgor pressure is essential for
to shrink or shrivel. plant structure. Conversely, in a
-​ Isotonic environment: hypertonic solution, water exits the
Water moves equally in and cell, causing the plasma membrane to
out, maintaining the cell's shrink away from the cell wall, a
balance. process known as plasmolysis.

The principles of osmosis have

practical uses, especially in food
preservation.

For example:
-​ Salting fish: The salt draws out
water from the fish through
osmosis, preventing microbial
Osmosis is critical for cellular growth.
survival -​ Sugaring fruits: Water is drawn
out of the fruit, preserving it by
If a cell is placed in a hypotonic reducing microbial activity.
solution (low solute concentration
outside the cell), water enters, causing
the cell to expand. Facilitated Diffusion
is a form of passive transport where
In contrast, a hypertonic solution molecules move down the
draws water out, shrinking the cell. concentration gradient with the help
of protein channels or carrier proteins.
Cells are most stable in an isotonic This process allows larger or
solution, where the solute hydrophilic molecules to pass through
concentration is equal inside and the membrane without energy input.
outside.
There are two main types of proteins
In marine environments, organisms involved in facilitated diffusion:
must adapt to their surroundings.
Some thrive in seawater because it is 1.​ Channel proteins: Open and
isotonic to their cells, while others live close in response to stimuli,
in freshwater, which is isotonic to allowing specific molecules to
them. Exposure to a different pass through.
environment
 2.​ Carrier proteins: Change shape The sodium-potassium pump is a
to carry molecules across the well-known example of active
membrane. transport.

This process moves sodium (Na+) out

of the cell and potassium (K+) into the
cell, both against their concentration
gradients. This pump uses energy from
ATP and is essential for processes like
nerve impulse transmission.
Active Transport
moves substances across the
membrane against the concentration
gradient, from areas of low
concentration to areas of high
concentration.

This process requires energy, usually in

the form of ATP, and is crucial for
maintaining cellular homeostasis.
Bulk Transport
moves large molecules, such as
proteins and polysaccharides, in and
out of the cell via vesicles. This process
requires energy and can occur
through two main mechanisms:
exocytosis and endocytosis.

vital for several reasons:

Exocytosis
involves the removal of materials from
1.​ It allows cells to absorb
the cell. Vesicles
nutrients even when they are in
within the cell fuse with the plasma
higher concentrations inside
membrane, releasing their contents
the cell.
outside. This process is important for
2.​ It helps in removing waste
cells that secrete substances, such as
products even when the
digestive enzymes in the digestive
external concentration is
system.
higher.
3.​ It maintains essential ion
concentrations like
potassium,sodium, calcium,
and hydrogen inside the cell.
Endocytosis selectively permeable
is the process where the cell engulfs membrane.
materials from its surroundings. The -​ A hypertonic solution has a
plasma membrane wraps around the stronger tendency to cause
material, forming a vesicle that is then water movement from another
brought into the cell. solution. If a cell is placed in this
type of solution, it will shrink
Endocytosis is crucial for cells to take because water of the cytoplasm
in large particles or fluids that cannot will be drawn out.
pass through the membrane by other -​ A hypotonic solution has a
means. lower tendency to gain water
from another solution. If a cell is
There are two main types of placed in this type of solution,
endocytosis: water will enter the cell,
1.​ Phagocytosis ("cell eating"): The causing it to bulge or become
cell engulfs large, undissolved turgid and could lead to cell
particles. For example, white rupture.
blood cells use phagocytosis to -​ Isotonic describes two
engulf bacteria. solutions that have equal
2.​ Pinocytosis ("cell drinking"): The amounts of water and solutes. If
cell engulfs dissolved a cell is placed in this type of
substances from its solution, it can maintain its
surroundings, often seen in the equilibrium; therefore, there
uptake of nutrients by egg cells. will be no change in the cell.
-​ Plasmolysis occurs when a
plant wilts after it has been
deprived of water.
-​ Facilitated diffusion is the
passive movement of solutes
through protein channels down
the concentration gradient.
-​ Active transport is the
movement of solutes across a
membrane (up the
Summary
concentration gradient) which
-​ Passive transport is the
requires the expenditure of
movement of substances
energy through transport
across membranes without
proteins called carrier proteins.
energy expenditure.
-​ Exocytosis is the process of
-​ Diffusion is the net movement
removing materials from the
of substances from an area of
cell.
higher concentration to an area
-​ Endocytosis is the reverse
of lower concentration (down
process of exocytosis, in which
the concentration gradient).
cells engulf materials.
-​ Osmosis is the diffusion of
water molecules across a
 -​ Phagocytosis ("cellular eating") organisms. A few exceptions, such as
is the most common form of carbonates, are not considered organic
endocytosis. It occurs when despite containing carbon.
undissolved materials enter the
cell.
-​ Pinocytosis ("cellular drinking)
occurs when dissolved
substances enter the cell.

CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS

Carbohydrates
Atoms to Macromolecules:
are the most abundant organic
Atoms can join to form molecules,
compounds on Earth, essential for
which in turn can be assembled into
both energy storage and structural
larger structures known as
functions in organisms. Composed of
macromolecules. In biological systems,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1
these macromolecules play essential
ratio (CH₂O), carbohydrates are also
roles and are typically composed of
referred to as “hydrates of carbon.”
smaller building blocks called
monomers.
are categorized into four main groups
based on their structure and
Types of Biomolecules:
complexity: monosaccharides,
The four major categories of
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
biomolecules are proteins,
polysaccharides.
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic
acids. These macromolecules are
Types of Carbohydrates
primarily composed of the elements
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
●​ Monosaccharides
and nitrogen (N), but they also require
are the simplest form of carbohydrates
key elements like calcium, sodium,
and serve as the basic building blocks
potassium, and magnesium to
for more complex carbohydrates.
perform various biological functions.
These simple sugars consist of a single
sugar molecule, and their general
Carbon plays a crucial role in the
chemical formula is C₆H₁₂O₆. The
composition of organic compounds
universal cellular fuel, glucose, is a
because it can form bonds with four
six-carbon monosaccharide. It can
other atoms, allowing for complex
easily be degraded to yield stored
molecular structures. Carbon is the
energy or readily assembled into large
backbone of life, and most
storage polymers.
biomolecules—such as carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids— are
When the body's glucose levels are
carbon-based.
low, such as during fasting or intense
exercise, the liver can produce glucose
Organic compounds contain carbon
from other substances like amino
and are foundational to all living
acids (from protein breakdown) and Maltose: consists of two glucose
glycerol (from fat breakdown). molecules and is present in malted
foods and corn syrup.
This process is called
gluconeogenesis. ●​ Oligosaccharides
consist of three to nine
Examples: monosaccharide units linked
together by glycosidic bonds. They are
Glucose: The main source of energy in less common than monosaccharides
the body, glucose is essential for and disaccharides but are found in
cellular respiration. Foods like certain plants and used as food
rice, bread, and pasta are rich in additives.
glucose, which is broken down during
digestion to release energy. Uses:
-​ These mildly sweet compounds
Fructose: Known as fruit sugar, are often used to improve the
fructose is naturally present in fruits texture of foods and are seen as
like mango, honeydew, and pineapple. partial substitutes for fats and
sugars.
Galactose: Another simple sugar, -​ Sources: Onions, garlic, and
galactose, combines with glucose to legumes are naturally rich in
form lactose, the sugar found in milk. oligosaccharides.

●​ Disaccharides ●​ Polysaccharides
are formed when two monosaccharide are large carbohydrate molecules
molecules are bonded together consisting of hundreds to thousands of
through a glycosidic bond. This bond is monosaccharide units linked together.
formed via a condensation reaction, These macromolecules serve either as
which results in the release of a water storage molecules or structural
molecule. components in living organisms.

Examples: Examples:

Sucrose (table sugar): consists of one Starch: Plants store energy in the form
glucose molecule and one fructose of starch, a polysaccharide composed
molecule. It is commonly found in of glucose monomers. Starch is a
sugar cane, sugar beets, and certain major component of foods like
fruits. potatoes and grains.

Lactose (milk sugar): is made up of Glycogen: In animals, excess glucose is

glucose and galactose and is found in stored as glycogen, primarily in
milk and other dairy products. the liver and muscles. Glycogen can be
quickly broken down to release
glucose when energy is needed.
Cellulose: The most abundant organic solid (e.g., butter, lard) while oils
molecule on Earth, cellulose, remain liquid (e.g.,
provides structural support in plant olive oil, corn oil)..
cell walls. Unlike starch, humans
cannot digest cellulose, but it plays an Phospholipids: Essential for forming
important role as dietary fiber. cell membranes, phospholipids have a
hydrophilic (water attracting) head and
Chitin: Found in the exoskeletons of hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails.
insects and crustaceans, chitin
provides structural strength to these Steroids: These include cholesterol
organisms. and hormones, which are involved in
cellular signaling and membrane
Starch serves as food for the young fluidity.
plant. During growth and
development, the enzymes in the seed
hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds in
starch, releasing the disaccharide
maltose, which in turn becomes
glucose monomers that fuel the
energy needs of the growing plant.

Lipids Fats and Oils

Are a diverse group of hydrophobic are essential macromolecules that
molecules that play critical roles in serve as nutrient reserves in animals
energy storage, cell membrane and plants. They play a crucial role in
structure, and signaling. Like energy storage and are involved in
carbohydrates, they contain carbon, various biological processes.
hydrogen, and oxygen, but lipids
have a much lower proportion of Plant-based oils
oxygen relative to carbon and such as corn oil, canola oil, and
hydrogen. olive oil is typically yellowish and liquid
at room temperature. In contrast,
Lipids make certain food oily. animal fats, like lard and butter, are
Lipids are divided into several types, solid or semisolid at room temperature
including fats, oils, phospholipids, and are generally whitish in color.
and steroids. Each type of lipid has a
unique structure and function in two main components:
biological systems.
Glycerol
Three main types of lipids include: is a three-carbon alcohol that is highly
soluble in water due to its hydroxyl
Fats and Oils: These are energy groups.
reserves found in both plants and
animals. At room temperature, fats are Fatty acids are long chains of carbon
atoms attached to a carboxyl group,
giving them acidic properties. Fatty Increase bad cholesterol (LDL) and
acids can be classified based on their raise risk of cardiovascular
chain length, dietary importance issues.
(essential or nonessential), or the
presence of double or triple bonds Healthier Options:
(saturated or unsaturated). Unsaturated fats (from plants) improve
heart health and reduce the risk of
Triglycerides obesity.

are formed by one glycerol molecule Saturated and Unsaturated Fats

and three fatty acids. Found in adipose
tissue, butter, lard, and olive oil. Serve
as the main form of stored energy in
the body.

Animal triglycerides contain high

levels of saturated fatty acids, where all
carbon atoms are bonded to hydrogen
atoms. These straight-chain polymers
are packed closely together, resulting
in fats that are solid or semisolid at
room temperature. Examples include
bacon fat and lard.
Phospholipids
consist of a glycerol molecule, a
Plant triglycerides, on the other hand,
phosphate group, and two fatty acid
have higher proportions of
chains. The phosphate head is
unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic
hydrophilic, while the fatty acid tails
acid and linoleic acid.
are hydrophobic, creating a unique
This prevents close packing, leading to
amphipathic molecule.
lower melting points and liquid forms
at room temperature. Olive oil and
form the basic structure of all cell
peanut oil are good examples of plant
membranes. They organize into a
triglycerides.
bilayer, with hydrophobic tails facing
inward and hydrophilic heads facing
Health Considerations
outward, creating a barrier that
regulates what enters and exits cells.
Saturated Fats:
Found in cheese, butter, coconut oil,
Structure
and red meat.
Can cause plaque buildup in arteries,
leading to heart disease.

Trans Fats:
Found in processed foods.
 signaling. Fats and oils provide energy,
while phospholipids and
steroids support cellular structure and
communication.

Choosing the right balance of

carbohydrates and lipids in the diet
can promote better health and
prevent diseases like heart disease and
obesity.

Steroids
are organic compounds characterized
by a four-ring structure. They are found
in cell membranes, where they help
maintain membrane fluidity and play a
role in cellular signaling.

Sterols
such as cholesterol, androgens,
estrogens, and adrenal corticosteroids,
are key examples of steroids that
contribute to cellular structure,
metabolism, and communication.

Terpenes
which are found in essential oils and
plant pigments like carotene and
lycopene, are related to fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, K) that are essential
for processes like blood clotting and
tissue maintenance.

Summary:
Carbohydrates provide energy and
structural support in both plants
and animals. They come in various
forms, from simple sugars to
complex polysaccharides.

Lipids are crucial for energy storage,

cell membrane integrity, and
NUCLEIC ACID AND PROTEIN Levels of Protein Organization​
The functionality of a protein structure
Overview: depends on the following four
Proteins and nucleic acids are essential hierarchical organizations: primary,
biomolecules in living organisms. They secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
play key roles in various biological structures. The interactions that take
processes, enabling life to exist and place between the different protein
thrive. structures give them three
-​ Proteins are required for diverse -dimensional arrangements that
biological functions across the enable them to facilitate different
body. functions in the body.
-​ Nucleic Acids store, transmit,
and express hereditary Primary
information. structure
is simply a
Life would be impossible without linear chain
these two biomolecules. of amino
acids in a
PROTEINS polypeptide strand. The amino acid
-consist of long chains of amino acids, sequence is the main determinant of
called polypeptides, which serve as the the overall structure of the protein.
building blocks of protein structure This sequence also determines the
and function. amino acid chain's ultimate biological
function.
Amino Acids: Monomers of proteins,
typically arranged in chains of 100 Secondary
to 10,000 amino acids. structure
-​ Each amino acid contains a refers to the
central carbon atom bonded to local three
an amino group, hydrogen, dimensional
carboxyl group, and a unique folding of the
side chain (R-group). polypeptide
-​ There are 20 common amino chain in
acids, each with distinct side the protein. The alpha helix (spiral) and
chains that contribute to the beta sheet (beta strand forming an
protein diversity. accordion-like pleated sheet) are the
Structure of Amino Acid two more common secondary
structure motifs. Varying
arrangements of weak hydrogen
bonds are responsible for these
configurations.
Tertiary Types of Proteins According to
structure Function
is formed
when the Structural proteins
distant are proteins involved in maintaining
segments of the shape and framework of the cell.
a primary An example is collagen. Collagen is the
structure and the relationships of the most abundant protein found in the
side chains are bound in a human body It is a type of structural
three-dimensional folding of the entire protein that is fibrous in nature. It gives
polypeptide chain. This structure is strength and support to tissues that
stabilized both by noncovalent undergo continual wear and tear such
(hydrophobic interactions, as skin and bone.
electrostatic bonds, hydrogen
bonding, Van der Waals forces), and Transport proteins
covalent (disulfide) bonds. carry other substances in and out of
cells. These are involved in cal
Quaternary transport as discussed in Chapter 1.
structure
involves the fitting Regulatory proteins
together of two or control numerous cell processes. These
more polypeptide are proteins that bind to segments of
chains, eventually DNA and control the replication of
forming a functional protein. This DNA in mitosis and meiosis.
structure is stabilized by the same
bonds as those in the tertiary Enzymes
structure. An example of a protein with facilitate many chemical reactions.
a quaternary structure is hemoglobin. They do this by lowering the amount
Subunit or domain is the term used to of energy needed to start the reaction
denote each chain in a protein. while not being permanently altered in
the process.
Twenty Essential Amino Acids The induced fit model describes how
enzymes work. There is an active site in
the enzyme with which specific
molecules, called substrates, interact.
This interaction causes the enzyme to
change shape, which favors a chemical
reaction. Enzymes are affected by pH
and temperature.
 Defense proteins NUCLEIC ACID
such as antibodies are highly specific are larger organic molecules that carry
proteins that are responsible for the “code/blueprint of life”. They carry
detecting a foreign substance or the instructions both for the
"antigen." The body produces a specific characteristics passed on to the
antibody to respond to an antigen to offspring and for translating the
inactivate it. A good example to see hereditary message into proteins that
how antibodies work is to know how will be built into new cell structure, cell
vaccines work in the body. This is and organism.
especially important in times of a
pandemic, when vaccines are very There are two main types of nucleic
much in demand to fight diseases acid: Deoxyribonucleic acid
such as COVID-19. (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
these nucleic acids are polymers of
Proteins play a critical role in immune nucleotides- their building blocks.
defense, especially antibodies that DNA exists as a double helix, while
detect and neutralize foreign RNA as a single helix.
substances, such as viruses and
bacteria. Each nucleotide consists of
three components: a purine
Antibodies: Proteins that identify and or pyrimidine nucleobase
neutralize specific antigens. (sometimes termed
-​ Vaccines introduce weakened nitrogenous base), a pentose
or inactivated antigens to sugar, and a phosphate
stimulate antibody production, group.The substructure composed of a
helping build immunity. nucleobase plus sugar is termed a
-​ Upon re-exposure, memory nucleosides.
cells trigger a rapid antibody
response, offering long-term
protection.

Fluid balance is also regulated by

proteins, primarily albumin in blood
plasma. Proteins exert oncotic
pressure on capillary pores, and
through the process of osmosis, pull
fluid from the interstitial space back
into the intravascular space to prevent
significant loss of fluid volume. When
protein levels are low, fluid escapes the
blood vessels and collects in the
Nucleic acid types differ in the
lungs (pulmonary edema), abdomen
structure of the sugar in their
(ascites), or in other parts of the body.
nucleotides such that RNA contains
ribose, while DNA contains
2'-deoxyribose (a derivative of
ribose where the hydroxyl group at also drawn from the studies of
the 2' position was replaced by different scientists such as the Swiss
hydrogen, leading to a net loss of chemist Friedrich Miescher, American
oxygen). chemist Phoebus Levene, American
biochemist Erwin Chargaff, and the
Four different nitrogen-containing English chemist Rosalind Franklin.
bases are found in DNA: adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA In 1962, Francis Crick and James
also contains adenine, guanine, and Watson, together with Maurice Wilkins
cytosine, but instead of thymine, it has (a New Zealand-bom British physicist
uracil as its fourth base. These are the who also studied DNA structure) were
bases that make up the nucleic acid awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology
alphabet. The nitrogenous bases in or Medicine.
DNA pair specifically with each other:
thymine pairs with adenine, while
cytosine pairs with guanine. This base
pairing rule is important in the
following: (1) DNA replication in
mitosis/meiosis, (2) protein sythesis,
and (3) maintaining the
molecular stability of DNA as a double
helix molecule.

In addition, the sugars and phosphates

in nucleic aids are linked to
each other in an alternating chain via
phosphodiester linkages. DNA
consists two chains of nucleotides
twisted around each other in a
double helix and held together by
hydrogen bonds. On the other
hand, RNA is composed of single
chains that fold into complex
shapes or remain stretched out as long
threads. The sequence of the
nucleotides in the DNA determines
the structure of every protein in
an organism.

James Watson, an American

molecular biologist, and Francis Crick,
a British molecular biologist, published
in 1953 the classic paper that describes
DNA as a double helical structure.
Their groundbreaking conclusion was
Additional Notes: o Answer: TETRAD
It is the process where solvent
molecules such as water move It is the process where diploid cells
from a region of less concentrated undergo cell division and
solution (hypotonic solution) to a differentiation through meiosis to
region of more concentrated form mature haploid gametes or
solution (hypertonic solution) sex cells is called:
through a selectively permeable o Answer: GAMETOGENESIS
membrane.
o Answer: OSMOSIS What is the process of sperm cell
formation?
It is a type of cell division that takes o Answer: SPERMATOGENESIS
place in sexually matured
organism. It is a process that What is the process of egg cell
results in the reduction of the formation?
chromosomes number from o Answer: OOGENESIS
diploid to haploid.
o Answer: MEIOSIS What are primordial cells inside the
ovaries called?
It is a cross-shaped structure o Answer: OOGONIA
formed during meiosis, the process
of cell division that produces During _______, in mitotic division
gametes (sperm and egg cells). It's the chromatin condenses into
the point where two homologous more discrete chromosomes.
chromosomes (one from each o Answer: PROPHASE
parent) exchange genetic material.
o Answer: CHIASMA (plural term During which phase of mitosis
CHIASMATA) does the nucleolus disappear?
o Answer:PROPHASE
It refers to a pair of chromatids
joined at a centromere after the What kind of protein that regulates
separation of a tetrad during the progression of the cell cycle?
meiosis. o Answer: CYCLIN
o Answer: DYAD
How many cells are produced after
· It is a group of four mitosis of one cell?
chromatids formed during the o Answer: TWO (2)
early stages of meiosis. It consists
of two homologous chromosomes, Which part of the chromosomes is
each composed of two identical attached to the spindle finer?
sister chromatids.
o Answer: CENTROMERE During which stage of mitosis are
(specifically KINETOCHORE) the chromosomes aligned at the
equatorial plate?
How many chromosomes will a o Answer: METAPHASE
diploid cell with 30 chromosomes
have after undergoing mitosis? Which two cell organelles
o Answer: THIRTY (30) disintegrate during the prophase
stage?
o Answer: NUCLEAR ENVELOPED
What is the diploid number of OR MEMBRANE & NUCLEOLUS
human chromosomes?
o Answer: FORTY-SIX (46)with In a chromosome, the short arm is
TWENTY-THREE (23) PAIRS called:
o Answer: P ARM
In what stage of interphase are the
chromosomes replicated? The most significant stage in
o Answer: S PHASE meiosis is reduction division. When
does this happen?
Which stage of the cell cycle is o Answer: ANAPHASE 1
considered the longest stage?
o Answer: INTERPHASE In what process is cell energy
needed?
In what stage of interphase o Answer: ACTIVE TRANSPORT
checkpoint takes place prior to
mitosis? Materials that cannot diffuse into
o Answer: G2 CHECKPOINT/ M the cell may enter the cell through
CHECKPOINT (G2 PHASE) what process?
o Notes:Cell Cycle Checkpoints o Answer: ENDOCYTOSIS (ACTIVE
o G1/ S Checkpoint- checks for the TRANSPORT)
size of the cell, nutrient levels
available and needed for cell An amoeba is a unicellular
division, cues from outside of the organism that engulfs food
cell, as well as the integrity of its through phagocytosis. What type
DNA. of active transport is this?
o G2/M Checkpoint- the o Answer: ENDOCYTOSIS
checkpoint prior to mitosis.
o M Checkpoint- the checkpoint What is the process called when a
that happens during mitosis, cell expels materials by fusing a
particularly during the metaphase vesicle with the cell membrane?
stage. o Answer: EXOCYTOSIS
The sodium-potassium pump cellular signaling and membrane
moves _____ of the cell and fluidity?
_____against their concentration o Answer: STEROIDS
gradients, using energy from ATP. Name the steroid that is a key
o Answer: SODIUM IONS OUT, component of cell membranes and
POTASSIUM IONS IN. plays a role in maintaining
membrane fluidity.
It is the movement of particles o Answer: CHOLESTEROL
from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower What class of organic compounds,
concentration: found in essential oils and plant
o Answer: DIFFUSION pigments, is related to fat-soluble
vitamins essential for blood
A molecule is composed of a clotting and tissue maintenance?
glycerol molecule bonded to three o Answer: TERPENES
fatty acid chains. This molecule is a
major component of cell Which type of lipids are primarily
membranes and is also used for responsible for providing energy in
energy storage. What type of the form of fats and oils?
biomolecule is this? o Answer: TRIGLYCERIDES
o Answer: LIPID

Identify the pigment-rich terpenes · What type of biomolecule

that are precursors to vitamin A provides energy and structural
and are responsible for the support in both plants and
orange-red color in foods like animals, and ranges from simple
carrots and tomatoes. sugars to complex
o Answer: CAROTENES polysaccharides?
o Answer: CARBOHYDRATES
Which category of steroids
includes hormones like androgens, What part of a phospholipid
estrogens, and adrenal molecule is hydrophilic?
corticosteroids that contribute to o Answer: PHOSPHATE
metabolism and communication HEAD/HEAD
within the body?
o Answer: STEROL/S What type of fat is commonly
found in processed foods and can
What type of organic compounds increase the risk of heart disease?
are characterized by a four-ring o Answer: TRANS FAT
structure and are involved in
What type of fat is associated with Leptonema- At this stage
plaque buildup in arteries? replicated chromosomes have
o Answer: SATURATED FAT coiled and are already visible. The
number of chromosomes present
Which type of cholesterol is raised is the same as the number in the
by trans-fat consumption? diploid cell.
o Answer: LDL BAD
CHOLESTEROL (low-density Zygonema- Homologous
lipoprotein) chromosomes begin to pair, and
twist around each other in a highly
What type of bond connects specific manner. The pairing is
monosaccharides in called Synapsis. And because the
oligosaccharides? pair consist of four chromatids it is
o Answer: GLYCOSIDIC BOND/S referred to as bivalent or tetrad.

What is the range of Pachynema- The chromosomes

monosaccharide units in become much shorter and thicker.
oligosaccharides? A form of physical exchange
o Answer: 3 TO 9 UNITS between homologous takes place
at specific regions. The process of
Which disaccharide is composed of physical exchange of a
two glucose molecules? chromosome’s region is termed
o Answer: MALTOSE crossing-over.

What is the most common Diplonema- Here, the two pairs of

disaccharide found in table sugar? sister chromatids begin to separate
o Answer: SUCROSE from each other. It is at this point
where crossing-over is shown to
have taken place. The area of
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR contact between two sister
PROPHASE 1 IN MEOSIS chromatids, called chiasma,
STAGES OF PROPHASE 1 BEFORE become evident.
METAPHASE 1
Diakinesis- During this stage, the
The stage is longer that its mitotic four chromatids of each tetrad
counterpart, and has been even more condensed, and the
subdivided into five substages: chiasmata (plural form) often move
Leptonema, Zygonema, down the chromatids to the ends
Pachynema, Diplonema, and (terminalized). This delays the
Diakinesis separation of homologous
chromosomes.
Chromosomal Aberrations: A Brief division that produces sex cells) or
Overview mitosis (cell division that produces
Chromosomal aberrations, also body cells) can lead to
known as chromosome chromosomal abnormalities.
abnormalities, occur when there is · Environmental Factors:
a change in the structure or Exposure to certain chemicals,
number of chromosomes. These radiation, or viruses can increase
changes can lead to a variety of the risk of chromosomal
genetic disorders, affecting abnormalities.
physical and cognitive Consequences of Chromosomal
development. Aberrations
The consequences of chromosomal
Types of Chromosomal Aberrations aberrations vary widely, depending
1.​ Numerical Aberrations: on the specific type and the genes
o Aneuploidy: This involves an involved. Some common
abnormal number of consequences include:
chromosomes. · Developmental Delays:
§ Trisomy: An extra copy of a Slowed physical or cognitive
chromosome (e.g., Down development.
syndrome, trisomy 21). · Physical Abnormalities:
§ Monosomy: Missing a copy of a Unusual facial features, heart
chromosome (e.g., Turner defects, or other physical
syndrome, monosomy X). anomalies.
o Polyploidy: An extra complete · Intellectual Disability:
set of chromosomes. Difficulty with learning and
problem-solving.
2.​ Structural Aberrations: · Fertility Problems: Difficulties
o Deletions: A portion of a conceiving or carrying a pregnancy
chromosome is missing. to term.
o Duplications: A portion of a · Increased Risk of Cancer:
chromosome is repeated. Certain chromosomal
o Inversions: A segment of a abnormalities can predispose
chromosome is reversed. individuals to cancer.
o Translocations: A segment of Diagnosis and Treatment
one chromosome is exchanged Chromosomal abnormalities can
with a segment of another be diagnosed through various
chromosome. genetic tests, including:
Causes of Chromosomal · Karyotyping: A test that
Aberrations analyzes the number and structure
· Errors in Cell Division: of chromosomes.
Mistakes during meiosis (cell
· Fluorescence In Situ
Hybridization (FISH): A technique
that uses fluorescent probes to
identify specific DNA sequences on
chromosomes.
· Chromosomal Microarray
Analysis (CMA): A test that can
detect small deletions or
duplications of DNA.