ENGINEERING GEOLOGY &

GEOMECHANICS (CENG204)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
COURSE LECTURER
Ms. P. Mutekwa
Department of Construction and Civil Engineering
E-mail: [email protected]

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 SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
• The texture of a soil is its surface appearance or “feel” and it
depends on the relative sizes and shapes of the particles as well as
the range or distribution of those sizes.

Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

0.075 mm (USCS)
0.06 mm (BS) (Hong Kong)

SIEVE ANALYSIS HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

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SIEVE ANALYSIS

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• The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining
the percentage by mass of particles within the different size
ranges.
• The particle size distribution of a coarse soil can be determined by
the method of sieving.
• The soil sample is passed through a series of standard test sieves
having successively smaller mesh sizes.
• The mass of soil retained in each sieve is determined and the
cumulative percentage by mass passing each sieve is calculated.
• Uniformly graded soils are usually used for controlled drainage
applications because they are not susceptible to loss of fines by
internal erosion and their hydraulic conductivity can be
maintained within definable and narrow limits.
 Wet sieving
• Wet sieving is a procedure used to evaluate particle size distribution or gradation
of a granular material.

• Ideal sample preparation process for specimens with a high fraction of granular
materials and enough fines content present to impede the separation process
making sieving difficult.

• The fines can stick together in clumps, preventing an accurate assessment by

sieving

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 Procedure

• The sample is washed through the 75mm (No. 200) sieve with a 2mm mesh sieve
placed on top of it to protect it.

• Washing is most easily done by the decantation method.

• Water is slowly added to the bowl or tray and the contents are vigorously stirred.

• Allow the contents to settle for a few seconds before pouring.

• The excess water is decanted carefully over the side of the bowl through the 2 mm
sieve and into the 75 mm sieve, making sure all the water passes through the 75
mm sieve before running to waste.
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• This process is continued until the water
leaving the bowl is perfectly clear and all clay
and silt particles have been washed through
the sieve.

• Make sure that the fine sieve does not

become overloaded, either by retained soil or
by water

• NB: During this process DO NOT rub the

material on the 75 mm sieve with your fingers
or otherwise. This is likely to damage the sieve
and give errors in the test results.

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 Dry Sieving
• The particle size distribution of a soil is presented as a curve on a semilogarithmic
plot,
• The flatter the distribution curve the larger the range of particle sizes in the soil;
• The steeper the curve the smaller the size range.
• A coarse soil is described as well graded if there is no excess of particles in any
size range and if no intermediate sizes are lacking.
• A well-graded soil is represented by a smooth, concave distribution curve.
• A poorly graded soil
• high proportion of the particles have sizes within narrow limits (a uniform
soil) or
• if particles of both large and small sizes are present but with a relatively low
proportion of particles of intermediate size (a gap-graded or step-graded soil).
Particle Size Distribution Curve

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• The size D10 is defined as the effective size - a good measure to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.

• The general slope and shape of the distribution curve can be described by means of

• Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) :

• Coefficient of curvature (Cz), :

• A soil with Cu > 5 to 10 is considered well-graded

• The higher the value of the coefficient of uniformity the larger the range of particle
sizes in the soil.
• A well-graded soil has a coefficient of curvature between 1 and 3.
In the textural classification system, the soils are named after their principal
components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, 8/25/2022 12
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UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

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Unified soil classification chart

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ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST
• Determination of the texture of the soil for practical applications.
• It can be used to define the grading specification of a drainage filter
(clogging).
• It can be a criterion for selecting fill materials of embankments and earth
dams, road sub-base materials, and concrete aggregates.
• It can be used to estimate the results of grouting and chemical injection,
and dynamic compaction.
• Effective Size, D10, can be correlated with the hydraulic conductivity
(describing the permeability of soils). (Hazen’s Equation).(Note:
controlled by small particles)

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 EXAMPLE 1

From the particle size distribution curve, determine:

 Hydrometer Analysis
• Determination of the particle size distribution in a soil for the
fraction finer than # 200 sieve( 0.075 mm)
• A soil specimen is dispersed in water. In a dispersed state in the
water, the soil particles will settle individually.
• Assumption: soil particles are spheres, and the velocity of the
particles can be given by Stoke's law as:

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• Stokes’ law governs the velocity at which spherical particles settle in a suspension:
• the larger the particles the greater is the settling velocity and vice versa.

• If a hydrometer is suspended in water in which soil is dispersed it will measure the

specific gravity of the soil-water suspension at a depth L.

• The depth L is called the effective depth

• So, at a time t minutes from the beginning of the test, the soil particles‘ that settle
beyond the zone of measurement (i.e., beyond the effective .depth L) will have a
diameter given by

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• 50g soil specimen with sodium
hexametaphosphate is added to a
sedimentation cylinder and filled with
water to the 1litre mark.
• A plunger is used for mixing the
suspension and a hydrometer is
lowered quickly but gently, into the
suspension

• A stop watch is immediately started

upon removal of the plunger from the
cylinder.
• Readings of the hydrometer are taken at
different time intervals beginning at 15,
30 seconds, 1,2,4,8,15 and 30 minutes,
and at 1,2,4, 24 and 48hrs.
• After reading, remove the hydrometer
carefully and place it with a spinning
motion in a rinsing cylinder of clean
distilled water, at the same temperature
as the sedimentation cylinder. 24
 Atterberg Limits
• Atterberg limits are used in geotechnical engineering for the
identification, description, and classification of soils and as a basis
for preliminary assessment of their mechanical properties
(Mitchell, 1993).

• Atterberg limits results depend precisely on the same physical

factors which determine the resistance and the permeability of
soil,

• Factors such as the shape of particles, effective size, uniformity,

and water retention (Yong and Warkentin, 1966; Mitchell, 1993).
• Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine soils,
• The term plasticity describing the ability of a soil to undergo
unrecoverable deformation without cracking or crumbling.
• Depending on its water content, a soil may exist in one of the
liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid states.
• Plasticity is due to the presence of a significant content of clay
mineral particles (or organic material) in the soil.
• Fine grained soils are cohesive - Grains stick together when
mixed with water due to pore water suction and physicochemical
pore fluid-mineral interaction
ATTERBERG LIMITS

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Plasticity Index (PI)
• For describing the range of water content over which a soil was plastic.
• PI = LL – PL
Liquidity index (LI)
• For scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the Limits.
LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared
0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared
LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared

Liquid State
Liquid Limit, LL w  PL w  PL
Plastic State LI  
Plastic Limit, PL PI LL  PL
Semisolid State w is the water content
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State

Increasing water content 8/25/2022 29

PLASTICITY CHART: BRITISH SYSTEM- BS5930 1999

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 DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT
• The condition of a soil can be altered by changing the moisture
content.
• The liquid limit is the empirically established moisture content
at which a soil passes from the plastic to the liquid state.
• A knowledge of the liquid limit allows the engineer to correlate
several engineering properties with the soil.
• Two main types of test are used.
• The Casagrande type which has been used for many years
• The cone penetrometer method which is now the definitive method
specified in BS 1377 and ZWS185.
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 LIQUID LIMIT DEVICE (CASAGRANDE’S LIQUID LIMIT DEVICE)

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 PROCEDURE
• A soil sample of about 100 grams of material passing the 425μm (#40)
sieve shall be placed in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled or demineralized water by alternately and repeatedly, stirring,
kneading and chopping with a spatula.
• Further additions of water shall be made in small (1-3ml) increments.
• With each increment, the water shall be thoroughly mixed with the soil
before another increment of water is added.
• When sufficient water has been mixed with the soil to form a uniform
mass of stiff consistency, a sufficient quantity of this mixture is placed in
the liquid cup and spread out by use of the spatula.
• The soil shall be leveled with the spatula and trimmed to a depth of
100μm at the point of its maximum thickness.
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• The soil in the cup shall be divided by a firm stroke of the grooving tool
along the diameter through the centerline of the cam follower so that a
clean sharp groove of the proper dimensions will be formed.
• The cup containing the sample shall be lifted and dropped by turning the
crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until the two sides of the
sample come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of
about 12mm (1/2 inch).
• Record the number of blows required to close the groove.
• The moisture content of the soil is determined.
• Repeat the procedure for three other consistencies evenly distributed
between 10 and 50 blows.
• Plot a graph of moisture content against the log number of blows.
• The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows is the liquid limit of the
soil. 8/25/2022 35
Cut a groove at the center line of the soil cup.

Crank the device at a rate of 2

revolutions per second until there
is a clear visible closure of ½ inch
or 12.7 mm in the soil pat placed
in the cup

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 Professor Casagrande standardized the
test and developed the liquid limit
device. Ref: (ASTM D4318-95a);
SAZ 185

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Graph of log No. of
Blows Vs Moisture
content

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 DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID LIMIT USING THE CONE
PENETROMETER APPARATUS

• Take a sample of soil approx. 300g passing the 425µm BS sieve.

• Mix thoroughly on the glass plate adding sufficient water as
necessary until the mass becomes a smooth homogeneous
paste.
• Push the mixed soil into the cup with the spatula taking care
not to trap air.
• Strike off the excess soil with the bevelled edge of the straight
edge to give a smooth surface.
• Lower the cone so that just touches the surface of the soil.
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Cone Penetrometer Apparatus

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• When the cone is in the correct position, a slight movement of
the cup will just mark the surface of the soil.
• Read the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1mm and then release the
cone for a period of 5±1 seconds. Read the new dial gauge
reading.
• Determine the moisture content of the soil.
• Repeat the test for four different samples.
• Plot a graph of cone penetration against moisture content.
• The moisture content corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm
is the liquid limit, to the nearest whole number.
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DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT OF A SOIL SAMPLE

• The plastic limit is defined as the lowest moisture content of a soil that will
permit a sample to be rolled into threads of 3 mm diameter without the
threads breaking.
• Take a sample of soil approximately 20 g from the thoroughly mixed
portion of material passing the 425 µm BS sieve.
• Thoroughly knead the sample until the mass becomes plastic enough
to be shaped easily into a ball.
• Divide the sample into two portions, each sufficient to produce a
thread approximately 3 mm in diameter and 150mm long (approx.
10g).
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• Form one of these portions into a uniform mass roughly ellipsoidal in shape and
roll between the fingers and a clean dry glass plate with sufficient pressure to form
a thread of uniform diameter.
• When the diameter of the thread becomes approx. 3mm, break it into 6 or 8
pieces.
• Form each piece into a uniform mass roughly ellipsoidal in shape and reroll to a
thread of approximately 3 mm diameter.
• Continue the alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles when the
diameter approaches 3mm.
• Place sufficient portions of the crumbled soil in a suitable container to give a
sample mass approx. 10g.
• Determine the moisture content of the portions.
• Repeat the procedure using a second portion of the original sample.
• Report the mean of the two moisture contents as the plastic limit expressed to the
nearest 0.1%.
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 SHRINKAGE LIMIT DETERMINATION
 Reduction in the moisture past the
plastic limit, brings about a state
when with a decrease in moisture,
the volume of the soil mass does
not decrease but remains the
same.
 The sample changes from semi-
solid to solid state at the shrinkage
limit
Plot the point A in the Figure in next
slide using the values of LL and PI
determined experimentally, extend
the point A to meet O.
The intercept of the line AO on the
X- axis gives the shrinkage limit. 45
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 DETERMINATION OF THE PLASTICITY INDEX AND PRODUCT
• Plasticity Index (PI or Ip) = Liquid limit (𝝎L or LL) – Plastic limit (𝝎P or PL)

• Report the numerical difference, expressed to the nearest whole number, as the
plasticity index, except under the following conditions:
 When the LL cannot be determined, report the PI as non plastic (NP).
 When the soil has a mesurable LL and a PI of 2 or less, report the soil as slightly plastic (SP).

• Plasticity Product (PP) = Plasticity Index (PI or Ip)*Fineness Index (FI)

• or product of material passing the 75 µm BS sieve and the plasticity index.

• If the material is non plastic the plasticity product shall be recorded as the
percentage passing the 75 µm BS sieve.
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• When the material is non plastic the PI shall be assumed as 1 in
order to determine the Plasticity product.

• Fineness Index (FI): The percentage by mass passing the 75 µm

BS expressed as a whole number.

• Coarseness Index (CI): The mass of material passing a 37.5 mm

BS sieve and retained on the 2.36 mm BS sieve calculated as a
percentage, expressed to the nearest whole number, of the
total mass of material passing the 37.5 mm BS sieve.

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UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

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UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART

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 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
• The Atterberg limits enable clay soils to be classified.

• The Atterberg limits are usually correlated with some engineering

properties such as the permeability, compressibility, shear strength,
and others.

• In general, clays with high plasticity have lower permeability, and they
are difficult to be compacted.

• The values of Shrinkage Limit can be used as a criterion to assess and

prevent the excessive cracking of clay liners in the reservoir
embankment or canal.
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SOIL TEXTURAL TRIANGLE
Assuming through particle size
analysis, a soil sample contains 55%
sand, 23% silt, and 22% clay.
1. First, become accustomed with the
textural triangle’s three axes.

2. Now, follow the sand axis to

halfway between 50 and 60%.

3. Dotted lines travelling upwards

and to the left from each of these
two values represent 50 and 60%
sand anywhere along their length.

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4. The lines travelling straight across the triangle, from left to right,
represent 10% graduations for percent clay.

5. Follow the lines for 50 and 60% sand up to slightly past the dotted line
for 20% clay, to approximately 22%.
This point will also coincide with 23% silt if you were to travel downwards and to
the left from between the 20 and 30% silt graduations.
This point, therefore, is the point on the graph where your sand, silt, and clay
percentages add to 100%.

6. In this case, the bold lines around this point contain the textural class of
“sandy clay loam.”
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 SALINE AND SODIC SOILS

• Occurs in arid or semiarid climates,

• Rainfall is insufficient to leach soluble salts from the soil,
• Surface or internal soil drainage is restricted.
• Can occur on irrigated land, particularly when irrigation water quality is
marginal.
• Common salt ions • a
• g
• a
• l
• S
• H
•

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 SALINE SOILS
• Saline soils contains water-soluble salts which are harmful to seed
germination and plant growth
• Saline soils often are in normal physical condition with good structure and
permeability.
• They are characterized by irregular plant growth and salty white crusts on the
soil surface.
• These salts are mostly sulfates and/or chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
• Electrical conductivity =4.0 mS/cm or greater pH < 8.5,
• Sodium < 15% of the exchangeable cations
• Easy reclamation if good-quality water is available and the site is well drained.
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 SODIC (DISPERSIVE) SOILS

• Sodic soils are soils in which the clay particles detach spontaneously
from each other and from the soil structure and go into suspension in
quiet water
• Low in total salts but high in exchangeable sodium.
• Exchangeable sodium percentages (ESP) > 15
• Sticky when wet, nearly impermeable to water and have a slick look.
• As they dry, they become hard, cloddy, and crusty.
• pH > 8.5,
• Electrical conductivity (EC) is < 4 mS/cm.

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• Sodium causes the soil particles to disperse–may cause the formation of
piping phenomena in earth dams
• once a crack or opening occurs, the dispersed clay particles go into suspension and
are easily carried away with the water moving through the opening.

• Deterioration and demolition of roads (Nevels, 1993),

• Highly erodible- erosion of the compacted soils of landfill clay liners
• Sodic soils have low to very low permeability rates thus the velocity of water
moving through the pores is insufficient to move the soil particles.
• Individual clay particles clog soil pores-difficult for water and air movement
and root penetration
• Slope failure
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Reclamation of Sodic Soils

• Replace them with another soil

• Chemical treatments- use of lime, gypsum, or aluminum sulfate
(Ryker, 1977)
• Replacement of excess sodium ions with another cation
• Gypsum ( aS • H ) is considered the cheapest soluble calcium
source for reclamation of sodic soils.
• They can be reclaimed, but it may be slow and expensive due to the
lack of a stable soil structure, which slows water drainage

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 Saline-Sodic Soils

• These soils contain large amounts of total soluble salts

• Exchangeable sodium percent (ESP) >15 percent.
• pH < 8.5
• Physical properties of these soils are good as long as an excess of
soluble salts is present.
• Saline-sodic soils reclamation- the leaching of excess soluble salts
must be preceded by the replacement of exchangeable sodium by
calcium.
NB: If the excess salts are leached and calcium does not replace the
exchangeable sodium, the soil will become sodic.
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• Electrical Conductivity (EC) is the ability of a soil solution to carry
electrical current, and salts increase this ability
• Therefore the higher the salt level the higher the conductivity.

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 CENG204 PRACTICAL PRESENTATIONS
1. TITLE
2. OBJECTIVE/S (AIM/S)
3. MATERIALS (CONSUMABLES e.g. Chemical)
4. EQUIPMENT /APPARATUS (Non Consumables). Include diagrams and
photos
5. PROCEDURE/ METHODOLOGY: In past participle tense-reported speech
e.g. Water and soil were mixed
6. RESULTS
7. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
8. CONCLUSION/S
9. RECOMMENDATIONS
10.REFERENCES 61
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 THANK
YOU
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