Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

STRAIN MEASUREMENT 1
Introduction

(BENDING AND TORSION)

Strain is the amount of deformation of a material due to an applied force or stress, and measured by a strain gauge that consists of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. As the material is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change is related to the strain by the quantity known as gauge factor. Therefore, one of the most widely used methods of experimental stress analysis is based on the strain gauge. This manual contains some fundamental theory for understanding the experiment, description of the apparatus and experimental procedure for measurement of the bending and torsion strains.

Objective
The objectives of this experiment are 1. To determine the strain in bending and torsion for various load configurations. 2. To develop an understanding of electrical strain gauges apparatus, and to verify its accuracy.

Theory
1. Strain When a material is stretched due to the external forces and the length of the object increases from L to L+L (Figure 1), the ratio L/L is called strain . The deformation is related to the forces F [N] by Hookes law and the elastic modulus E [N/m2 or Pa] in the expression

= L / L = F / EA 0

(1) L F L+L Fig. 1 Material bar in tension F A0

As the ratio of deformation is often very small, it is often represented in a unit of 106 or strain. 2. Strain Gauge A strain gauge (Figure 2) can be used to measure the strain of a material. The most common type of strain gauge consists of a flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern etched onto the backing material. As the material is deformed, the foil pattern is deformed (Figure 3), causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure 4), can be used to calculate the exact amount of deformation by means of the quantity known as the gauge factor. The gauge factor of a strain gauge relates strain to change in electrical resistance, which is the ratio between fractional change of resistance and strain. The gauge factor GF is defined by the formula

Active grid length Solder tabs

GF =

R / R G R / R G = L / L

(2)

Fig. 2 Bonded metallic strain gauge

where RG is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, R is the change in resistance caused by strain. For many electrical resistance strain gauges, the gauge factor is 2.1 and the resistance about 120 .

Carrier

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Tension:

Compression:

Strain sensitive pattern

Terminals

Area narrows, Resistance increases

Area thickens, Higher Resistance decreases resistance

Lower resistance

Fig. 3 Visualization of the working concept behind the strain gauge on a material under exaggerated bending 3. Strain Gauge Measurement The Wheatstone bridge is said to transducer strain into a voltage. The Wheatstone bridge is simply a set of fixed and/or variable resistances Ri, arranged in a diamond pattern as shown in Figure 4. The excitation voltage VEX, is one output to the bridge, whose output is VO. The output from the Wheatstone bridge can be expressed as:

VO R4 R 1R 3 R 2 R 4 R1 = = V EX R 1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4 ( R 1 + R 2 )( R 3 + R 4 )
The bridge is balanced and produced no output (VO = 0).

R1 (3) VO + R2

R4 + VEX R3

R4 R3 R1 R2 or = = R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4 R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4

(4)

In order to calculate the output from a bridge, assume that R1 is an active strain gauge and it has changes by R due to strain. Then, the output voltage is,

Fig. 4 Wheatstone bridge circuit R1+R R4 VO + + VEX R3

VO =

( R 1 + R )R 3 R 2 R 4 V EX ( R 1 + R + R 2 )( R 3 + R 4 )
R 2 + R R R 2 V EX ( 2R + R )( 2R )

(5)

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4

VO =

(6)

R2

Since R may be regarded extremely larger than R,

Fig. 5 Quarter-bridge circuit (7) Active gauge (R+R)

VO =

R 1 V EX = G F V EX 4R 4

This is the output for what is termed a Quarter-Bridge (Figure 5). Ideally, the resistance of the strain gauge changes only in response to applied strain. However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to which the gauge is applied, will also respond to changes in temperature. Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen material for which the gauge is intended. While compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally remove it.

F
Specimen Dummy gauge (R, inactive) Fig. 6 Use of dummy gauge to eliminate temperature effects

By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be further minimized. For example, Figure 6 illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one gauge is active (R+R), and a second gauge is placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gauge,

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

called the dummy gauge. However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way. Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance does not change, the voltage V0 does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized. Gauge in tension (R1+R) F R1+R R4 VO + R2 R3 The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both gauges active in a HalfBridge configuration. For example, Figure 7 illustrates + VEX a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in tension (R1+R) and the other mounted in compression (R2R).

Gauge in compression (R2R)

VO =

R 1 V EX = G F V EX 2R 2

R2R Fig. 7 Half-bridge circuit

R4R R1+R R2R R4 VO + R2 R3 R3+R + VEX

This half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also illustrated in Figure 7, yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit. Finally, the sensitivity of the circuit can be further increased by making all four of the arms of the bridge active strain gauges in a Full-Bridge configuration. The full-bridge circuit is shown in Figure 8. 4. Bending and Torsion Strains Measurement Bending (Figure 9) Using the theory of bending at the point of attachment of the strain gauge

VO =

R V EX = G F V EX R

Fig. 8 Full-bridge circuit

M /I = / y = E/R
where M = Bending moment [Nm] I = Second moment of area [m4] = bd3/12 (b: width, d: thickness) = Surface stress [N/m2] y = Half of the thickness of cantilever (= d/2) [m] E = Modulus of elasticity [N/m2 or Pa] R = Radius of curvature of cantilever [m]

(8) W L d b Fig. 9 Bending cantilever beam with quarter-bridge

At the middle plane of the cantilever, the length is unchanged by bending. Hence the increase in length of AB (Figure 10) due to bending can be written as

dL = AB CD = ( R + y ) d R d = y d
Strain is defined as change in length per unit length, that is

(9)

= dL / L = ( y d ) /( R d ) = y / R
From the theory of bending, the bending strain is

(10)

C A

M D B y y

= y / R = My / EI

(11)

Fig. 10 Beam subjected to pure bending, after the moment M has been applied

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

Torsion (Figure 11) The comparable theoretical equation is used for the torsion specimen

T / J = / r = G / L
where T J = Torque [Nm] = Polar moment of inertia of tube [m4] = (d04 d14)/32 (d0: outer diameter, d1: inner diameter) = Surface shear stress [N/m2] r = Outside radius of tube [m] G = Modulus of rigidity [N/m2 or Pa] = Angle of twist [rad]

(12)

r T Fig. 11 Torsion specimen with half-bridge

The shear stress acts circumferentially and has to be accompanied by a system of complementary stresses including diagonal tensile and compressive stresses which are perpendicular to each other. Hence, there are equal direct strains along opposing 45 helices on the surfaces of the tube given by

= / E = Tr / EJ
and the meter will indicate 2.

(13)

Description of Strain Gauge Apparatus

The HSM18 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge Apparatus (Figure 12) has been designed to illustrate the basic features of electrical resistance strain gauges and their application to measurement of strain and the derivation of stress levels, in bending, torsion, tension and compression. The apparatus is a read-out strain meter in a base box to which a pillar carrying an aluminium alloy cantilever has been fixed. An electrical resistance strain gauge has been fixed to the top surface of the cantilever 150 mm from the loading point. A temperature compensation gauge is supplied fixed to a small piece of aluminium alloy. The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is laid out on the top of the base, showing the use of a zeroing control. An analogue meter with a centre zero scale has been designed to read true strain in units of micro-strain, the calibration being achieved by Fig. 12 HSM18 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge Apparatus adjusting the gain of the meter amplifier during assembly. The torsion accessory consists of an aluminium alloy tube with loading arm welded across one end. A clamp is provided to enable the tube to replace the cantilever strip used above, the loading arm being set horizontally. A load hanger can be suspended on the vertical axis of the tube, or at horizontal eccentricities of 50 or 100 mm. The torsion bar having two gauges bonded orthogonally at 45.

Specimen and Equipments

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. HSM18 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge Apparatus Load hanger 0.5 N with C hook Weights: 5 N, 10 N Stirrup Allen key and spanner Vernier caliper Bending and torsion specimens (E = 69000 N/mm2)

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

Procedures
Bending Strain Measurement 1. Measure the width, thickness and length of the specimen. 2. Switch on the apparatus and adjust the set zero apex potentiometer to zero the meter. Note whether any drift of the zeroed reading occurs as the strain gauges warm up. To show the effect of temperature warm the temperature compensation gauge by placing ones finger on it. 3. Suspend the C hook of load hanger in the groove at the end of the cantilever. This will upset the zero reading which should now be re-zeroed. 4. Press downward on the end of the cantilever and observe the direction in which the meter reads. Lift the end of the cantilever and note that the meter reads in the reverse direction. Hence the polarity of the reading determines whether the gauge is in tension or compression. 5. Load the cantilever to 30 N by 5 N increments and read the meter at each increment. 6. Repeat the readings as the load is removed. Enter the result in the following Table 1. Torsion Strain Measurement 1. Measure the inner and outer diameters of the specimen. 2. Place the torsion specimen and clamp. 3. Connect the two pairs of leads from the torsion tube to the pairs of terminals, noting where gauge A is connected. 4. Switch on the apparatus and adjust the apex potentiometer to zero the meter. 5. Re-zero if drift occurs as the gauges warm up. 6. Place the load hanger at zero eccentricity and record the strain readings as the 30 N load is added by 10 N increments to the hanger. 7. Note any meter reading, and check that the meter returns to zero when the loads are removed. 8. Move the load hanger to 50 mm offset. Record the strain readings as the 30N load is added by 5N increments to the hanger. Repeats the readings as the weights are removed. 9. Repeat the step 8 for 100 mm offset. It will be necessary to hold the base box to prevent it being toppled over the eccentric load.

Results
Bending Strain Measurement 1. Show all the measurements of specimen. i) Width b [mm] ii) Thickness d [mm] 2. Record the values of bending strain , and calculate the theory values of strain in Table 1. Table 1 Experimental results of bending strain measurement Load W [N] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 3. Tabulate the result and plot on the graph of indicated bending strain against load W. 4. Draw the best fit straight line through plotted points and add theoretical line calculated from the same table. Strain Reading [] Decrg. Load

Incrg. Load

Theory

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering, University of Putra Malaysia

5. By using the gauge factor GF, calculate the change of resistance as a percentage of the nominal gauge resistance R/R (%) for the maximum strain indicated in the experiment. Torsion Strain Measurement 1. Show all the measurements of specimen. i) Outer diameter d0 [mm] ii) Inner diameter d1 [mm] 2. Record the values of torsion strain, and calculate the diagonal strain in Table 2. Table 2 Experimental results of torsion strain measurement Eccentricity [mm] 0 Load W [N] 10 20 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 Meter Reading [] Diagonal Strain []

50 / 100

3. Tabulate the result and plot on the graph of indicated torsion strain against load W. 4. Draw the best fit straight line through plotted points and add theoretical line calculated from the same table. 5. Use the best fit straight line to determine the relationship between torsion and shear strain.

Discussion
1. Discuss on the obtained graphs. 2. Compare the experimental results with the theory. 3. How accurate would the both experiments have been in assessing the stress, where the strain gauges were attached? 4. If a strain gauge was use on an elastic materials, which was non-linear (i.e. did not obey Hookes law), how could stress be determined? 5. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental results.

Conclusion
1. Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results. 2. Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

References
1. HiTech. Instruction Manual for HSM18 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge Apparatus Measurement of Strain. HiTech. 1998. 2. Arges. K.P. and Palmer. A.E. Mechanics of Materials. McGraw-Hill. 1963. 3 National Instruments. Measuring Strain with Strain Gauges. Available: http://www.ni.com, 2007. 4. Kyowa. How Strain Gauges Work. Available: http://www.kyowa-ei.co.jp, 2007. 5. Vishay. Force and Torque Measurement. Available: http://www.vishay.com, 2007.