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1
Introduction to Microelectronics

Over the past five decades, microelectronics has revolutionized our lives. While beyond the realm
of possibility a few decades ago, cellphones, digital cameras, laptop computers, and many other
electronic products have now become an integral part of our daily affairs.
Learning microelectronics can be fun. As we learn how each device operates, how devices
comprise circuits that perform interesting and useful functions, and how circuits form sophisti-
cated systems, we begin to see the beauty of microelectronics and appreciate the reasons for its
explosive growth.
This chapter gives an overview of microelectronics so as to provide a context for the material
presented in this book. We introduce examples of microelectronic systems and identify important
circuit “functions” that they employ. We also provide a review of basic circuit theory to refresh
the reader’s memory.

1.1 Electronics versus Microelectronics

The general area of electronics began about a century ago and proved instrumental in the radio
and radar communications used during the two world wars. Early systems incorporated “vacuum
tubes,” amplifying devices that operated with the flow of electrons between plates in a vacuum
chamber. However, the finite lifetime and the large size of vacuum tubes motivated researchers
to seek an electronic device with better properties.
The first transistor was invented in the 1940s and rapidly displaced vacuum tubes. It exhibited
a very long (in principle, infinite) lifetime and occupied a much smaller volume (e.g., less than 1
cm3 in packaged form) than vacuum tubes did.
But it was not until 1960s that the field of microelectronics, i.e., the science of integrating
many transistors on one chip, began. Early “integrated circuits” (ICs) contained only a handful
of devices, but advances in the technology soon made it possible to dramatically increase the
complexity of “microchips.”

Example 1.1
Today’s microprocessors contain about 100 million transistors in a chip area of approximately
3 cm  3 cm. (The chip is a few hundred microns thick.) Suppose integrated circuits were not
invented and we attempted to build a processor using 100 million “discrete” transistors. If each
device occupies a volume of 3 mm 3 mm 3 mm, determine the minimum volume for the
processor. What other issues would arise in such an implementation?

Solution
The minimum volume is given by 27 mm3  108 , i.e., a cube 1.4 m on each side! Of course, the
1
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 2 (1)

2 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

wires connecting the transistors would increase the volume substantially.

In addition to occupying a large volume, this discrete processor would be extremely slow; the
signals would need to travel on wires as long as 1.4 m! Furthermore, if each discrete transistor
costs 1 cent and weighs 1 g, each processor unit would be priced at one million dollars and weigh
100 tons!

Exercise
How much power would such a system consume if each transistor dissipates 10 W?

This book deals with mostly microelectronics while providing sufficient foundation for gen-
eral (perhaps discrete) electronic systems as well.

1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems

At this point, we introduce two examples of microelectronic systems and identify some of the
important building blocks that we should study in basic electronics.

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone

Cellular telephones were developed in the 1980s and rapidly became popular in the 1990s. To-
day’s cellphones contain a great deal of sophisticated analog and digital electronics that lie well
beyond the scope of this book. But our objective here is to see how the concepts described in this
book prove relevant to the operation of a cellphone.
Suppose you are speaking with a friend on your cellphone. Your voice is converted to an elec-
tric signal by a microphone and, after some processing, transmitted by the antenna. The signal
produced by your antenna is picked up by the your friend’s receiver and, after some processing,
applied to the speaker [Fig. 1.1(a)]. What goes on in these black boxes? Why are they needed?

Transmitter (TX) Receiver (RX)

Microphone Speaker

? ?

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 (a) Simplified view of a cellphone, (b) further simplification of transmit and receive paths.

Let us attempt to omit the black boxes and construct the simple system shown in Fig. 1.1(b).
How well does this system work? We make two observations. First, our voice contains frequen-
cies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz (called the “voice band”). Second, for an antenna to operate efficiently,
i.e., to convert most of the electrical signal to electromagnetic radiation, its dimension must be a
significant fraction (e.g., 25%) of the wavelength. Unfortunately, a frequency range of 20 Hz to
20 kHz translates to a wavelength1 of 1:5  107 m to 1:5  104 m, requiring gigantic antennas
for each cellphone. Conversely, to obtain a reasonable antenna length, e.g., 5 cm, the wavelength
must be around 20 cm and the frequency around 1.5 GHz.

1 Recall that the wavelength is equal to the (light) velocity divided by the frequency.
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 3 (1)

Sec. 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 3

How do we “convert” the voice band to a gigahertz center frequency? One possible approach is
to multiply the voice signal, x(t), by a sinusoid, A cos(2fc t) [Fig. 1.2(a)]. Since multiplication
in the time domain corresponds to convolution in the frequency domain, and since the spectrum

Output Waveform
x (t ) A cos( 2 π f C t )
Voice
Signal

t t t

(a)

Spectrum of Cosine Output Spectrum

X (f )
Voice
Spectrum

−fC
+20 kHz
−20 kHz

0 f −fC 0 +fC f 0 +fC f

(b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Multiplication of a voice signal by a sinusoid, (b) equivalent operation in the frequency
domain.

of the sinusoid consists of two impulses at fc , the voice spectrum is simply shifted (translated)
to fc [Fig. 1.2(b)]. Thus, if fc = 1 GHz, the output occupies a bandwidth of 40 kHz centered
at 1 GHz. This operation is an example of “amplitude modulation.”2
We therefore postulate that the black box in the transmitter of Fig. 1.1(a) contains a
multiplier,3 as depicted in Fig. 1.3(a). But two other issues arise. First, the cellphone must deliver
Power
Amplifier

A cos( 2 π f C t ) Oscillator

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3 (a) Simple transmitter, (b) more complete transmitter.

a relatively large voltage swing (e.g., 20 Vpp ) to the antenna so that the radiated power can reach
across distances of several kilometers, thereby requiring a “power amplifier” between the mul-
tiplier and the antenna. Second, the sinusoid, A cos 2fc t, must be produced by an “oscillator.”
We thus arrive at the transmitter architecture shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
Let us now turn our attention to the receive path of the cellphone, beginning with the sim-
ple realization illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). Unfortunately, This topology fails to operate with the
principle of modulation: if the signal received by the antenna resides around a gigahertz center
frequency, the audio speaker cannot produce meaningful information. In other words, a means of

2 Cellphones in fact use other types of modulation to translate the voice band to higher frequencies.
3 Also called a “mixer” in high-frequency electronics.
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 4 (1)

4 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

translating the spectrum back to zero center frequency is necessary. For example, as depicted in
Fig. 1.4(a), multiplication by a sinusoid, A cos(2fc t), translates the spectrum to left and right by
Output Spectrum
Received Spectrum Spectrum of Cosine

−fC 0 +fC f −fC 0 +fC f −2 f C 0 +2 f C f

(a)

Low−Noise
Amplifier Amplifier
Low−Pass Low−Pass
Filter Filter

oscillator oscillator

(b) (c)

Figure 1.4 (a) Translation of modulated signal to zero center frequency, (b) simple receiver, (b) more
complete receiver.

fc , restoring the original voice band. The newly-generated components at 2fc can be removed
by a low-pass filter. We thus arrive at the receiver topology shown in Fig. 1.4(b).
Our receiver design is still incomplete. The signal received by the antenna can be as low as
a few tens of microvolts whereas the speaker may require swings of several tens or hundreds
of millivolts. That is, the receiver must provide a great deal of amplification (“gain”) between
the antenna and the speaker. Furthermore, since multipliers typically suffer from a high “noise”
and hence corrupt the received signal, a “low-noise amplifier” must precede the multiplier. The
overall architecture is depicted in Fig. 1.4(c).
Today’s cellphones are much more sophisticated than the topologies developed above. For
example, the voice signal in the transmitter and the receiver is applied to a digital signal processor
(DSP) to improve the quality and efficiency of the communication. Nonetheless, our study reveals
some of the fundamental building blocks of cellphones, e.g., amplifiers, oscillators, and filters,
with the last two also utilizing amplification. We therefore devote a great deal of effort to the
analysis and design of amplifiers.
Having seen the necessity of amplifiers, oscillators, and multipliers in both transmit and re-
ceive paths of a cellphone, the reader may wonder if “this is old stuff” and rather trivial compared
to the state of the art. Interestingly, these building blocks still remain among the most challenging
circuits in communication systems. This is because the design entails critical trade-offs between
speed (gigahertz center frequencies), noise, power dissipation (i.e., battery lifetime), weight, cost
(i.e., price of a cellphone), and many other parameters. In the competitive world of cellphone
manufacturing, a given design is never “good enough” and the engineers are forced to further
push the above trade-offs in each new generation of the product.

1.2.2 Digital Camera

Another consumer product that, by virtue of “going electronic,” has dramatically changed our
habits and routines is the digital camera. With traditional cameras, we received no immediate
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 5 (1)

Sec. 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 5

feedback on the quality of the picture that was taken, we were very careful in selecting and
shooting scenes to avoid wasting frames, we needed to carry bulky rolls of film, and we would
obtain the final result only in printed form. With digital cameras, on the other hand, we have
resolved these issues and enjoy many other features that only electronic processing can provide,
e.g., transmission of pictures through cellphones or ability to retouch or alter pictures by com-
puters. In this section, we study the operation of the digital camera.
The “front end” of the camera must convert light to electricity, a task performed by an array
(matrix) of “pixels.”4 Each pixel consists of an electronic device (a “photodiode” that produces
a current proportional to the intensity of the light that it receives. As illustrated in Fig. 1.5(a),
this current flows through a capacitance, CL , for a certain period of time, thereby developing a

Amplifier
25
00
C
ol
um
ns

2500 Rows
I Diode
Light

CL V out

Signal
Photodiode Processing

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.5 (a) Operation of a photodiode, (b) array of pixels in a digital camera, (c) one column of the
array.

proportional voltage across it. Each pixel thus provides a voltage proportional to the “local” light
density.
Now consider a camera with, say, 6.25-million pixels arranged in a 2500  2500 array [Fig.
1.5(b)]. How is the output voltage of each pixel sensed and processed? If each pixel contains
its own electronic circuitry, the overall array occupies a very large area, raising the cost and the
power dissipation considerably. We must therefore “time-share” the signal processing circuits
among pixels. To this end, we follow the circuit of Fig. 1.5(a) with a simple, compact amplifier
and a switch (within the pixel) [Fig. 1.5(c)]. Now, we connect a wire to the outputs of all 2500
pixels in a “column,” turn on only one switch at a time, and apply the corresponding voltage
to the “signal processing” block outside the column. The overall array consists of 2500 of such
columns, with each column employing a dedicated signal processing block.

Example 1.2
A digital camera is focused on a chess board. Sketch the voltage produced by one column as a
function of time.

4 The term “pixel” is an abbreviation of “picture cell.”

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 6 (1)

6 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Solution
The pixels in each column receive light only from the white squares [Fig. 1.6(a)]. Thus, the

V column
V column
t

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.6 (a) Chess board captured by a digital camera, (b) voltage waveform of one column.

column voltage alternates between a maximum for such pixels and zero for those receiving no
light. The resulting waveform is shown in Fig. 1.6(b).

Exercise
Plot the voltage if the first and second squares in each row have the same color.

What does each signal processing block do? Since the voltage produced by each pixel is an
analog signal and can assume all values within a range, we must first “digitize” it by means of an
“analog-to-digital converter” (ADC). A 6.25 megapixel array must thus incorporate 2500 ADCs.
Since ADCs are relatively complex circuits, we may time-share one ADC between every two
columns (Fig. 1.7), but requiring that the ADC operate twice as fast (why?). In the extreme case,

ADC

Figure 1.7 Sharing one ADC between two columns of a pixel array.

we may employ a single, very fast ADC for all 2500 columns. In practice, the optimum choice
lies between these two extremes.
Once in the digital domain, the “video” signal collected by the camera can be manipulated
extensively. For example, to “zoom in,” the digital signal processor (DSP) simply considers only
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 7 (1)

Sec. 1.3 Basic Concepts 7

a section of the array, discarding the information from the remaining pixels. Also, to reduce the
required memory size, the processor “compresses” the video signal.
The digital camera exemplifies the extensive use of both analog and digital microelectronics.
The analog functions include amplification, switching operations, and analog-to-digital conver-
sion, and the digital functions consist of subsequent signal processing and storage.

1.2.3 Analog versus Digital

Amplifiers and ADCs are examples of “analog” functions, circuits that must process each point
on a waveform (e.g., a voice signal) with great care to avoid effects such as noise and “distortion.”
By contrast, “digital” circuits deal with binary levels (ONEs and ZEROs) and, evidently, contain
no analog functions. The reader may then say, “I have no intention of working for a cellphone
or camera manufacturer and, therefore, need not learn about analog circuits.” In fact, with digital
communications, digital signal processors, and every other function becoming digital, is there
any future for analog design?
Well, some of the assumptions in the above statements are incorrect. First, not every func-
tion can be realized digitally. The architectures of Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 must employ low-noise and
power amplifiers, oscillators, and multipliers regardless of whether the actual communication is
in analog or digital form. For example, a 20-V signal (analog or digital) received by the antenna
cannot be directly applied to a digital gate. Similarly, the video signal collectively captured by
the pixels in a digital camera must be processed with low noise and distortion before it appears
in the digital domain.
Second, digital circuits require analog expertise as the speed increases. Figure 1.8 exemplifies
this point by illustrating two binary data waveforms, one at 100 Mb/s and another at 1 Gb/s. The
finite risetime and falltime of the latter raises many issues in the operation of gates, flipflops, and
other digital circuits, necessitating great attention to each point on the waveform.
10 ns

x 1 (t )

t
1 ns

x 2 (t )

t
Figure 1.8 Data waveforms at 100 Mb/s and 1 Gb/s.

1.3 Basic Concepts

Analysis of microelectronic circuits draws upon many concepts that are taught in basic courses
on signals and systems and circuit theory. This section provides a brief review of these concepts
so as to refresh the reader’s memory and establish the terminology used throughout this book.
The reader may first glance through this section to determine which topics need a review or
simply return to this material as it becomes necessary later.

1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals

An electric signal is a waveform that carries information. Signals that occur in nature can assume
all values in a given range. Called “analog,” such signals include voice, video, seismic, and music

 This section serves as a review and can be skipped in classroom teaching.

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 8 (1)

8 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

waveforms. Shown in Fig. 1.9(a), an analog voltage waveform swings through a “continuum” of

V (t ( V ( t ( + Noise

t t

(a) (b)

Figure 1.9 (a) Analog signal , (b) effect of noise on analog signal.

values and provides information at each instant of time.

While occurring all around us, analog signals are difficult to “process” due to sensitivities
to such circuit imperfections as “noise” and “distortion.”5 As an example, Figure 1.9(b) illus-
trates the effect of noise. Furthermore, analog signals are difficult to “store” because they require
“analog memories” (e.g., capacitors).
By contrast, a digital signal assumes only a finite number of values at only certain points in
time. Depicted in Fig. 1.10(a) is a “binary” waveform, which remains at only one of two levels for

V (t ( ONE V ( t ( + Noise

ZERO
t t
T T
(a) (b)

Figure 1.10 (a) Digital signal, (b) effect of noise on digital signal.

each period, T . So long as the two voltages corresponding to ONEs and ZEROs differ sufficiently,
logical circuits sensing such a signal process it correctly—even if noise or distortion create some
corruption [Fig. 1.10(b)]. We therefore consider digital signals more “robust” than their analog
counterparts. The storage of binary signals (in a digital memory) is also much simpler.
The foregoing observations favor processing of signals in the digital domain, suggesting that
inherently analog information must be converted to digital form as early as possible. Indeed,
complex microelectronic systems such as digital cameras, camcorders, and compact disk (CD)
recorders perform some analog processing, “analog-to-digital conversion,” and digital processing
(Fig. 1.11), with the first two functions playing a critical role in the quality of the signal.

Digital
Analog Analog Analog−to−Digital
Processing
Signal Processing Conversion
and Storage

Figure 1.11 Signal processing in a typical system.

It is worth noting that many digital binary signals must be viewed and processed as analog
waveforms. Consider, for example, the information stored on a hard disk in a computer. Upon re-
trieval, the “digital” data appears as a distorted waveform with only a few millivolts of amplitude

5 Distortion arises if the output is not a linear function of input.

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 9 (1)

Sec. 1.3 Basic Concepts 9

(Fig. 1.12). Such a small separation between ONEs and ZEROs proves inadequate if this signal

~3 mV
Hard
Disk t

Figure 1.12 Signal picked up from a hard disk in a computer.

is to drive a logical gate, demanding a great deal of amplification and other analog processing
before the data reaches a robust digital form.

1.3.2 Analog Circuits

Today’s microelectronic systems incorporate many analog functions. As exemplified by the cell-
phone and the digital camera studied above, analog circuits often limit the performance of the
overall system.
The most commonly-used analog function is amplification. The signal received by a cellphone
or picked up by a microphone proves too small to be processed further. An amplifier is therefore
necessary to raise the signal swing to acceptable levels.
The performance of an amplifier is characterized by a number of parameters, e.g., gain, speed,
and power dissipation. We study these aspects of amplification in great detail later in this book,
but it is instructive to briefly review some of these concepts here.
A voltage amplifier produces an output swing greater than the input swing. The voltage gain,
Av , is defined as
Av = vvout : (1.1)
in
In some cases, we prefer to express the gain in decibels (dB):

Av jdB = 20 log vvout : (1.2)

in
For example, a voltage gain of 10 translates to 20 dB. The gain of typical amplifiers falls in the
range of 101 to 105 .

Example 1.3
A cellphone receives a signal level of 20 V, but it must deliver a swing of 50 mV to the speaker
that reproduces the voice. Calculate the required voltage gain in decibels.

Solution
We have

Av = 20 log 50 mV
20 V (1.3)

 68 dB: (1.4)

Exercise
What is the output swing if the gain is 50 dB?
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 10 (1)

10 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

In order to operate properly and provide gain, an amplifier must draw power from a voltage
source, e.g., a battery or a charger. Called the “power supply,” this source is typically denoted by
VCC or VDD [Fig. 1.13(a)]. In complex circuits, we may simplify the notation to that shown in
Amplifier
VCC
V CC
V in Vout V in Vout V in Vout

Ground

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.13 (a) General amplifier symbol along with its power supply, (b) simplified diagram of (a), (b)
amplifier with supply rails omitted.

Fig. 1.13(b), where the “ground” terminal signifies a reference point with zero potential. If the
amplifier is simply denoted by a triangle, we may even omit the supply terminals [Fig. 1.13(c)],
with the understanding that they are present. Typical amplifiers operate with supply voltages in
the range of 1 V to 10 V.
What limits the speed of amplifiers? We expect that various capacitances in the circuit begin
to manifest themselves at high frequencies, thereby lowering the gain. In other words, as depicted
in Fig. 1.14, the gain rolls off at sufficiently high frequencies, limiting the (usable) “bandwidth”
Amplifier Gain

High−Frequency
Roll−off

Frequency
Figure 1.14 Roll-off an amplifier’s gain at high frequencies.

of the circuit. Amplifiers (and other analog circuits) suffer from trade-offs between gain, speed
and power dissipation. Today’s microelectronic amplifiers achieve bandwidths as large as tens of
gigahertz.
What other analog functions are frequently used? A critical operation is “filtering.” For ex-
ample, an electrocardiograph measuring a patient’s heart activities also picks up the 60-Hz (or
50-Hz) electrical line voltage because the patient’s body acts as an antenna. Thus, a filter must
suppress this “interferer” to allow meaningful measurement of the heart.

1.3.3 Digital Circuits

More than 80% of the microelectronics industry deals with digital circuits. Examples include
microprocessors, static and dynamic memories, and digital signal processors. Recall from basic
logic design that gates form “combinational” circuits, and latches and flipflops constitute “se-
quential” machines. The complexity, speed, and power dissipation of these building blocks play
a central role in the overall system performance.
In digital microelectronics, we study the design of the internal circuits of gates, flipflops,
and other components. For example, we construct a circuit using devices such as transistors to
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 11 (1)

Sec. 1.3 Basic Concepts 11

realize the NOT and NOR functions shown in Fig. 1.15. Based on these implementations, we

NOT Gate NOR Gate

A
A Y =A Y =A +B
B

Figure 1.15 NOT and NOR gates.

then determine various properties of each circuit. For example, what limits the speed of a gate?
How much power does a gate consume while running at a certain speed? How robustly does a
gate operate in the presence of nonidealities such as noise (Fig. 1.16)?

Figure 1.16 Response of a gate to a noisy input.

Example 1.4
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.17, where switch S1 is controlled by the digital input. That

RL

V DD
A S1
Vout

Figure 1.17

is, if A is high, S1 is on and vice versa. Prove that the circuit provides the NOT function.

Solution
If A is high, S1 is on, forcing Vout to zero. On the other hand, if A is low, S1 remains off, drawing
no current from RL . As a result, the voltage drop across RL is zero and hence Vout = VDD ; i.e.,
the output is high. We thus observe that, for both logical states at the input, the output assumes
the opposite state.

Exercise
Determine the logical function if S1 and RL are swapped and Vout is sensed across RL .

The above example indicates that switches can perform logical operations. In fact, early dig-
ital circuits did employ mechanical switches (relays), but suffered from a very limited speed (a
few kilohertz). It was only after “transistors” were invented and their ability to act as switches
was recognized that digital circuits consisting of millions of gates and operating at high speeds
(several gigahertz) became possible.

1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems

Of the numerous analysis techniques taught in circuit theory courses, some prove particularly
important to our study of microelectronics. This section provides a review of such concepts.
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 12 (1)

12 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

I1 In

I2 Ij

Figure 1.18 Illustration of KCL.

Kirchoff’s Laws The Kirchoff Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of all currents flowing
into a node is zero (Fig. 1.18):
X
Ij = 0: (1.5)
j
KCL in fact results from conservation of charge: a nonzero sum would mean that either some of
the charge flowing into node X vanishes or this node produces charge.
The Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltage drops around any closed loop
in a circuit is zero [Fig. 1.19(a)]:

V2 V2 2
3
V3
1 V1 1 V1 V3 3
V4
V4
4
4

(a) (b)

Figure 1.19 (a) Illustration of KVL, (b) slightly different view of the circuit .

X
Vj = 0; (1.6)
j
where Vj denotes the voltage drop across element number j . KVL arises from the conservation
of the “electromotive force.” In the example illustrated in Fig. 1.19(a), we may sum the voltages
in the loop to zero: V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0. Alternatively, adopting the modified view shown
in Fig. 1.19(b), we can say V1 is equal to the sum of the voltages across elements 2, 3, and 4:
V1 = V2 + V3 + V4 . Note that the polarities assigned to V2 , V3 , and V4 in Fig. 1.19(b) are different
from those in Fig. 1.19(a).
In solving circuits, we may not know a priori the correct polarities of the currents and voltages.
Nonetheless, we can simply assign arbitrary polarities, write KCLs and KVLs, and solve the
equations to obtain the actual polarities and values.
BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 13 (1)

Sec. 1.3 Basic Concepts 13

Example 1.5
The topology depicted in Fig. 1.20 represents the equivalent circuit of an amplifier. The
dependent current source i1 is equal to a constant, gm ,6 multiplied by the voltage drop across

v out
v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out
m RL

Figure 1.20

r . Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier, vout =vin .

Solution
We must compute vout in terms of vin , i.e., we must eliminate v from the equations. Writing a
KVL in the “input loop,” we have

vin = v ; (1.7)

and hence gm v = gmvin . A KCL at the output node yields

gm v + vRout = 0: (1.8)
L
It follows that
vout = ,g R :
vin m L (1.9)

Note that the circuit amplifies the input if gm RL > 1. Unimportant in most cases, the negative
sign simply means the circuit “inverts” the signal.

Exercise
Repeat the above example if r ! infty.

Example 1.6
Figure 1.21 shows another amplifier topology. Compute the gain.

rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out
m

v in

Figure 1.21

6 What is the dimension of gm ?

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 14 (1)

14 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Solution
Noting that r in fact appears in parallel with vin , we write a KVL across these two components:

vin = ,v : (1.10)

The KCL at the output node is similar to (1.8). Thus,

vout = g R :
vin m L (1.11)

Interestingly, this type of amplifier does not invert the signal.

Exercise
Repeat the above example if r ! infty.

Example 1.7
A third amplifier topology is shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine the voltage gain.

v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ
m

RE v out

Figure 1.22

Solution
We first write a KVL around the loop consisting of vin , r , and RE :

vin = v + vout : (1.12)

That is, v = vin , vout . Next, noting that the currents v =r and gm v flow into the output
node, and the current vout =RE flows out of it, we write a KCL:
v + g v = vout :
r m  RE (1.13)

Substituting vin , vout for v gives

1   
vin r + gm = vout R1 + r1 + gm ; (1.14)
 E 
and hence
1
vout = r + gm
vin 1 1 (1.15)
RE + r + gm
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