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CSC 203 Discrete Structures Note 2

The document discusses logical arguments, including premises and conclusions, and outlines inference rules such as Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, Disjunctive Syllogism, and Hypothetical Syllogism with examples. It also introduces predicate logic, explaining predicates and quantifiers, including universal and existential quantifiers, along with translations of statements into predicate logic. Additionally, it provides exercises for translating statements into predicate logic.

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Olowo Abdulwaris
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38 views13 pages

CSC 203 Discrete Structures Note 2

The document discusses logical arguments, including premises and conclusions, and outlines inference rules such as Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, Disjunctive Syllogism, and Hypothetical Syllogism with examples. It also introduces predicate logic, explaining predicates and quantifiers, including universal and existential quantifiers, along with translations of statements into predicate logic. Additionally, it provides exercises for translating statements into predicate logic.

Uploaded by

Olowo Abdulwaris
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LOGICAL ARGUMENT AND INFERENCE

An argument is a set of statement that are intended to persuade or


convince someone of a particular point of view or a conclusion.
An argument typically consists of:
• A Premise: This is a statement assumed to be true or accepted
as true.
• Conclusion: This is a statement that is derived from the premises.
Inference rules
1. Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)
Rule: if p, then q. P. Therefore, q.

Example 1:
• If it is raining, then the streets will be wet.
• It’s raining.
• Therefore, the streets will be wet.
Example 2:
• If Aliu exercises regularly, then he will be healthy.
• Aliu exercises regularly.
• Therefore, Aliu will be healthy.

Example 3:
• If I study hard and attend all my classes, then I will pass the exam.
• I am studying hard and attending all my classes.
• Therefore, I will pass the exam
2. Modus tollens (Denying the Consequent)
Rule: If P, then Q. Q is false; therefore, P is false.

Example 1:
• If it is raining, then the streets will be wet.
• The streets are not wet.
• Therefore, it is not raining.

Example 2:
• If a John is a doctor, then he has a medical degree
• John does not have a medical degree.
• Therefore, John is not a doctor.
3. Disjunctive Syllogism
Rule: p or q. Not p. Therefore, q.

Example 1:
It is either raining or sunny.
It is not raining.
Therefore, it is sunny
Example 2:
John is either a citizen of the United States or a citizen of Canada.
John is not a citizen of the Canada.
Therefore, John is a citizen of the United States
4. Hypothetical Syllogism
Rule: if p, then q, if q, then r. Therefore, if p, then r.

Example 1:
If a person is a lawyer, then the person has a law degree.
If a person has a law degree, then the person can practice law.
Therefore, if a person is a lawyer, then the person can practice law

Example 2:
If a team wins the championship, then the team will receive a trophy.
If a team receives a trophy, then the team will be recognized as the best
team.
Therefore, if a team wins the championship, then the team will be
recognized as the best team.
PREDICATE LOGIC (FIRST ORDER LOGIC)
In Predicate logic, a predicate is a statement that contains variables and
expresses a property or relationship between the variables. Here are
some examples of predicates:
• A(x) = x is an animal
• G(x,3) = x is greater than 3
• F(x, y) = x is a friend of y
• T(x,y,z) = x is taller than y and z
• C(x, Ghana) = x is a citizen of Ghana

Consider the statement: x is an animal


Here, x is a subject
“is an animal” is a predicate (this is a property that the subject of the
statement can have)
Translate the following sentences into predicate logic:
1. The fruit is bad
B(x)
2. Solomon and Kevin are both dogs
D(s) Ʌ D(k)
3. Carlos is happier than Ade, but sadder than Fred
H(c, a) Ʌ S(c, f)
4. James is a troublemaker when Kevin dislikes him
D(k, j) → T(j)
5. The Cat sleeps on the sofa
S(c, s)
6. The boy is playing football
P(x, football)
7. The boy is playing
P(x)
QUANTIFIERS
In predicate logic, quantifiers are symbols that indicate the scope of a
predicate, specifying whether it applies to one or more individuals, or to
all individuals.
There are two main types of quantifiers and they are:
1. Universal Quantifiers (∀)
The universal quantifier expresses that a statement is true for all
elements in the domain.
Meaning: "For all," "for every," or "for each.“
Example: ∀x P(x) means For all x, P(x) is true.
Interpretation: The predicate P(x) is true for every individual x in the
domain.
2. Existential Quantifier (∃)
The existential quantifier expresses that there is at least one element in
the domain that satisfies a given predicate.
Meaning: "There exists," "for some," or "there is at least one.“
Example: ∃x P(x) means There exists an x such that P(x) is true
Interpretation: The predicate P(x) is true for at least one individual x in the
domain.
Translate the following statements into predicate logic:
1. All mammals love fred
∀x M(x) → L(x,f)
Interpretation
∀x: For all x
M(x): x is a mammal
L(x,f): x love fred
2. All dogs chase all kittens
∀x ∀y (D(x) Ʌ K(y) → C(x,y))
Interpretation
∀x: For all x (where x represents an individual).
∀y: For all x (where x represents another individual).
D(x): x is a dog.
K(y): y is a kitten.
C(x,y): x chases y

3. A kid is angry
∃x (K(x) Ʌ A(x))
Interpretation
∃x: there exist some x
K(x): x is a Kid
A(x): x is angry
4. Some friends are loving and caring
∃x (F(x) ∧ L(x) ∧ C(x))
Interpretation
∃x: there exist some x (a variable representing a “friend”)
F(x): x is a friend
L(x): x is loving
C(x): x is caring
∧: “And” operator indicates that all conditions hold together

5. Some kids made fun of fred and ate his food


∃x (K(x) ∧ M(x,Fred) ∧ A(x,food))
Interpretation
∃x: there exist some individual x
K(x): x is a kid
M(x,Fred): x made fun of fred
A(x,food): x ate fred’s food
6. All cats are mammals but some are black
(∀x (C(x) → M(x))) Ʌ (∃x C(x) Ʌ B(x))
Interpretation
(∀x): For all x
C(x): x is a cat
M(x): x is a mammal
∃x: for some
B(x): x is black
Exercise
1. All humans have two legs but some are dark in complexion,
and some are fair.
2. Some friends are loving, some are caring and some are hateful.

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