VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network

ALIGARH

UNIT 1 Introductory Concept

CO 1 Explain Basic concept, OSI reference Model. Services .Role of each layer
in OSI Model. TCP/IP. Network devices. Transmission Media, Analog and
Digital Transmission
CO 2 Apply Channel allocation . Framing. Frame control and Error Control
Techniques
CO 3 Describe the function of Network Layer, Logical addressing and
Subletting, Routing Mechanism
CO 4 Explain the function of Session and Presentation Layer.
CO 5 Explain different Protocol used at different Application layer
HTTP.SNMP..FTP.TELNET. VPN
Content :
 Goal and Application of Computer Network
 Categories of Network
 Network Structure and Architecture
 Protocols and Standards
 OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Model
 Network Devices and Components
 Introduction of Physical Layer
 Network Topology Design
 Types of Connection
 Transmission Media
 Signal Transmission
 Switching Techniques
 Multiplexing
 ISP

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1.1 Introduction

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting the
nodes are known as communication channels.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several
computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task, each separate computer handles
a subset.

1.2 Goals of Computer Network

The main goals of computer networks are as follows −
Resource Sharing
The main goal of the computer network is Resource Sharing. It is to create all the programs,
data and hardware accessible to anyone on the network without considering the resource’s
physical area and the client.
Saving Money
The second goal of a computer network is saving money. Small computers have a much
excellent value proportion than higher ones. Mainframes are approximately a method ten
times quicker than the quickest single-chip microprocessors, but they cost a huge number of
times more.
This imbalance has made numerous system designers build systems, including dynamic
personal computers, one per customer, with data kept on at least one shared document server
machines. This objective prompts networks for specific computers situated in a similar
building, including a network is known as LAN (Local Area Network).
High Reliability
The third goal is to support high reliability by acquiring a different authority of supply. For
example, all files can be recreated on a few machines, and thus if one of them is non existent,
the additional copies could be available.
Improve Performance
The fourth goal of a computer network is to improve accessibility and the performance of the
system. A system’s performance can be improved by inserting one or more processors into it
as its workload grows.
For example, if the system is full, replacing it with a larger one at a large expense, it is better
to add more processors to it at less cost and less disruption to the user. This improves both
accessibilities as well as the performance of a system.
Communication Medium

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The fifth goal of the computer network offers a powerful communication medium. The
different user on the network can immediately identify a document that has been refreshed
on a network.
1.3 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols and standards. First, we define
protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which are agreed-upon
rules.
Protocols In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different
systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two
entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing
Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the
rest of the stream to be the message itself. O
Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message? o
Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will
be lost

Standards Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive
market for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunications technology and processes.
Standards provide guidelineto manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other
service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace
and in international communications. Data communication standards fall into two categories:
de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation"). o De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but
have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto
standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.
De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de
jure standards.

Standards Organizations

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Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums,
and government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment
of standards, data telecommunications in North America rely primarily on those published
by the following:
o International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a multinational body
whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of various
governments throughout the world. The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the
realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity.
o International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
By the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining national standards for
telecommunications, but there was still little international compatibility. The United Nations
responded by forming, as part of its International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a
committee, the Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony
(CCITT). This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular. On March 1,
1993, the name of this committee was changed to the International Telecommunication
UnionTelecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Despite its name, the American
National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with
the U.S. federal government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare
of the United States and its citizens occupying primary importance.
o Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in the world.
International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields
of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of
engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption of
international standards for computing and communications.
o Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries
Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of

1.4 Application of Computer Network

Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as individuals. Some of
its main uses are as follows −

 Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow organizations

having units which are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very
effective manner. Programs and software in any computer can be accessed by other

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computers linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware equipment, like
printers and scanners among varied users.
 Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks, users can retrieve
remote information on a variety of topics. The information is stored in remote
databases to which the user gains access through information systems like the World
Wide Web.
 Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks have increased the
speed and volume of communication like never before. Electronic Mail (email) is
extensively used for sending texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe.
Online communications have increased by manifold times through social networking
services.
 E-Commerce − Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and
commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce. Users and organizations
can pool funds, buy or sell items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer
funds and handle investments electronically.

 Highly Reliable Systems − Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in

nature, by the virtue of which data is stored in multiple sources. This makes the
system highly reliable. If a failure occurs in one source, then the system will still
continue to function and data will still be available from the other sources.
 Cost–Effective Systems − Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment
of computer systems in organizations. Previously, it was imperative for organizations
to set up expensive mainframes for computation and storage. With the advent of
networks, it is sufficient to set up interconnected personal computers (PCs) for the
same purpose.
 VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication
systems. Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols
instead of the regular analog phone lines.

1.5 Types of Computer Network

Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as
small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the
internet itself, covering the whole geographical world,

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This
may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity

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range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth
enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative
system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an
organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN
may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.The resources such as
printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

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LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local
servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private
IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and
controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN
technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.
LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable
TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to
expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect
all of its offices in a city.

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Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or
internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests,the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span
across provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide
Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are
equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

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WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame
Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple
administration.

Internetwork

A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest

network in existence on this planet.The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have
connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as
its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of
shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It
uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet
works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents,
fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is
accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using
some web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server
responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay is very low.
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media

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 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming

1.6 OSI Reference Model

1 Physical Layer

This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between
two machines that are communicating through a physical medium, which can be optical
fibres, copper wire or wireless etc. The following are the main functions of the physical layer:

1. Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface cards,
wireless radios, etc are a part of this layer.

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2 Encoding and Signalling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also
decided by this layer. For example, on the coppar wire medium, we can use
different voltage levels for a certain time interval to represent '0' and '1'. We
may use +5mV for 1nsec to represent '1' and -5mV for 1nsec to represent '0'.
All the issues of modulation is dealt with in this layer. eg, we may use Binary
phase shift keying for the representation of '1' and '0' rather than using
different volatage levels if we have to transfer in RF waves.

3 Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the
responsibility of this layer. This layer assures the transmission of each bit with a high
probability. The transmission of the bits is not completely reliable as there is no error
correction in this layer.

4 Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part
of the physical layer. Which part of the network is the router going to
be placed, where the switches will be used, where we will put the hubs,
how many machines is each switch going to handle, what server is
going to be placed where, and many such concerns are to be taken care
of by the physical layer. The various kinds of topologies that we decide
to use may be ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these topologies depending
on our requirements.

2 Data Link Layer

This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical
layer which transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned
with :

1. Framing : Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring
about the frame boundaries and the size of each frame.

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2. Acknowledgment : Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was
received without any error.
3. Sequence Numbering : To acknowledge which frame was received.
4. Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to
errors.The error control is on link to link basis.
5. Retransmission : The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive
acknowledgment.
6. Flow Control : Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.

3 Network Layer

Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.

Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to
destination. It can be of three types :

 Static : Routes are based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and are
rarely changed.
 Dynamic : All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon
the topology of the network, the shortest path and the current network load.
 Semi-Dynamic : A route is chosen at the start of each conversation and then all the
packets of the application follow the same route.

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The services provided by the network can be of two types :

 Connection less service: Each packet of an application is treated as an independent

entity. On each packet of the application the destination address is provided and the
packet is routed.
 Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection is established and then all
packets of the application follow the same route. To understand the above concept, we
can also draw an analogy from the real life. Connection oriented service is modeled
after the telephone system. All voice packets go on the same path after the connection
is established till the connection is hung up. It acts like a tube ; the sender pushes the
objects in at one end and the receiver takes them out in the same order at the other
end. Connection less service is modeled after the postal system. Each letter carries the
destination address and is routed independent of all the others. Here, it is possible that
the letter sent first is delayed so that the second letter reaches the destination before
the first letter.

Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks send
packet at the same time with maximum rate possible then the router may not be able to
handle all the packets and may drop some/all packets. In this context the dropping of the
packets should be minimized and the source whose packet was dropped should be informed.
The control of such congestion is also a function of the network layer. Other issues related

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with this layer are transmitting time, delays, jittering.

Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a way that
they act as one large network, connecting multiple office or department networks.
Internetworks are connected by networking hardware such as routers, switches, and bridges.
Internetworking is a solution born of three networking problems: isolated LANs, duplication
of resources, and the lack of a centralized network management system. With connected
LANs, companies no longer have to duplicate programs or resources on each network. This
in turn gives way to managing the network from one central location instead of trying to
manage each separate LAN. We should be able to transmit any packet from one network to
any other network even if they follow different protocols or use different addressing modes.

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Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended destination. There
are no reliability guarantees.

4 Transport Layer

Its functions are :

 Multiplexing / Demultiplexing : Normally the transport layer will create distinct

network connection for each transport connection required by the session layer. The
transport layer may either create multiple network connections (to improve
throughput) or it may multiplex several transport connections onto the same network
connection (because creating and maintaining networks may be expensive). In the
latter case, demultiplexing will be required at the receiving end. A point to note here
is that communication is always carried out between two processes and not between
two machines. This is also known as process-to-process communication.
 Fragmentation and Re-assembly : The data accepted by the transport layer from the
session layer is split up into smaller units (fragmentation) if needed and then passed to
the network layer. Correspondingly, the data provided by the network layer to the
transport layer on the receiving side is re-assembled.

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 Types of service : The transport layer also decides the type of service that should be
provided to the session layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be reliable
within certain tolerances or may not be reliable at all. The message may or may not be
received in the order in which it was sent. The decision regarding the type of service
to be provided is taken at the time when the connection is established.
 Error Control : If reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery
operations are also performed. It provides error control mechanism on end to end
basis.
 Flow Control : A fast host cannot keep pace with a slow one. Hence, this is a
mechanism to regulate the flow of information.
 Connection Establishment / Release: The transport layer also establishes and
releases the connection across the network. This requires some sort of naming
mechanism so that a process on one machine can indicate with whom it wants to
communicate.

5 Session Layer

It deals with the concept of Sessions i.e. when a user logins to a remote server he should be
authenticated before getting access to the files and application programs. Another job of
session layer is to establish and maintain sessions. If during the transfer of data between two
machines the session breaks down, it is the session layer which re-establishes the connection.
It also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it

breaks keeping it transparent to the end user. e.g. In case of a session with a database server,
this layer introduces check points at various places so that in case the connectoin is broken
and reestablished, the transition running on the database is not lost even if the user has not
committed. This activity is called Synchronization. Another function of this layer is Dialogue
Control which determines whose turn is it to speak in a session. It is useful in video
conferencing.

6 Presentation Layer

This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order
to make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data
structures to be exchanged can be defined in abstract way along with standard encoding. It
also manages these abstract data structures and allows higher level of data structures to be
defined an exchange. It encodes the data in standard agreed way(network format). Suppose
there are two machines A and B one follows 'Big Endian' and other 'Little Endian' for data
representation. This layer ensures that the data transmitted by one gets converted in the form
compatibale to other machine. This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted.In order to make it possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate data structures to be exchanged can be defined in abstract

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way along with standard encoding. It also manages these abstract data structres and allows
higher level of data structures to be defined an exchange. Other functions include
compression, encryption etc.

7 Application Layer

The seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains access to the
network. The choice of which specific protocols and their associated functions are to be used
at the application level is up to the individual user. Thus the boundary between the
presentation layer and the application layer represents a separation of the protocols imposed
by the network designers from those being selected and implemented by the network users.
For example commonly used protocols are HTTP(for web browsing), FTP(for file transfer)
etc.

Network Layers as in Practice

In most of the networks today, we do not follow the OSI model of seven layers. What is
actually implemented is as follows. The functionality of Application layer and Presentation
layer is merged into one and is called as the Application Layer. Functionalities of Session
Layer is not implemented in most networks today. Also, the Data Link layer is split
theoretically into MAC (Medium Access Control) Layer and LLC (Link Layer Control). But
again in practice, the LLC layer is not implemented by most networks. So as of today, the
network architecture is of 5 layers only.

1.7 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-network
layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer
is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly doing the job of the
session, presentation, and application layers with the transport layer in TCPIIP taking care of
part of the duties of the session layer. So in this book, we assume that the TCPIIP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application. The first
four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers
in the OSI model, however, are represented in TCPIIP by a single layer called the application
layer .

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.

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o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking,
and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and
these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-
level protocols.

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

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o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
o Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

o IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size
of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram
into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be
done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are
reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant

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network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by

routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

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o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device,
it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

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o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or
not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

o The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
o The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports
the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address
of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram
in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

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o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

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o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be

placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while
web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol
is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to
access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text,
audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework
used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used
to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

Physical Layer
Physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is recieved by

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the other side as 1 bit and not as 0 bit. In physical layer we deal with the communication
medium used for transmission.

1.8 Types of Medium

Medium can be classified into 2 categories.

1. Guided Media : Guided media means that signals is guided by the prescence of
physical media i.e. signals are under control and remains in the physical wire. For eg.
copper wire.
2. Unguided Media : Unguided Media means that there is no physical path for the
signal to propogate. Unguided media are essentially electro-magnetic waves. There is
no control on flow of signal. For eg. radio waves.

Communication Links

In a nework nodes are connected through links. The communication through links can be
classified as

1. Simplex : Communication can take place only in one direction. eg. T.V broadcasting.
2. Half-duplex : Communication can take place in one direction at a time. Suppose node
A and B are connected then half-duplex communication means that at a time data can
flow from A to B or from B to A but not simultaneously. eg. two persons talking to
each other such that when speaks the other listens and vice versa.
3. Full-duplex : Communication can take place simultaneously in both directions. eg. A
discussion in a group without discipline.

Links can be further classified as

1. Point to Point : In this communication only two nodes are connected to each other.
When a node sends a packet then it can be received only by the node on the other side
and none else.
2. Multipoint : It is a kind of sharing communication, in which signal can be recieved by
all nodes. This is also called broadcast.

Generally two kind of problems are associated in transmission of signals.

1. Attenuation : When a signal transmits in a network then the quality of signal degrades
as the signal travels longer distances in the wire. This is called attenuation. To
improve quality of signal amplifiers are used at regular distances.
2. Noise : In a communication channel many signals transmits simultaneously, certain
random signals are also present in the medium. Due to interference of these signals
our signal gets disrupted a bit.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth simply means how many bits can be transmitted per second in the communication
channel. In technical terms it indicates the width of frequency spectrum.

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Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Media

In Guided transmission media generally two kind of materials are used.

1. Copper
o Coaxial Cable
o Twisted Pair
2. Optical Fiber

1. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor and an outer conductor
which are seperated by an insulator. The inner conductor is usually copper. The outer
conductor is covered by a plastic jacket. It is named coaxial because the two
conductors are coaxial. Typical diameter of coaxial cable lies between 0.4 inch to 1
inch. The most application of coaxial cable is cable T.V. The coaxial cable has high
bandwidth, attenuation is less.

1. Twisted Pair: A Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically 1mm
thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form the purpose of twisting is to
reduce cross talk interference between several pairs. Twisted Pair is much cheaper
then coaxial cable but it is susceptible to noise and electromagnetic interference and
attenuation is large.

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Twisted Pair can be further classified in two categories:

Unshielded twisted pair: In this no insulation is provided, hence they are susceptible
to interference.
Shielded twisted pair: In this a protective thick insulation is provided but shielded
twisted pair is expensive and not commonly used.

The most common application of twisted pair is the telephone system. Nearly all
telephones are connected to the telephone company office by a twisted pair. Twisted
pair can run several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distances
repeaters are needed. Twisted pairs can be used for both analog and digital
transmission. The bandwidth depends on the thickness of wire and the distance
travelled. Twisted pairs are generally limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.

2. Optical Fiber: In optical fiber light is used to send data. In general terms presence of
light is taken as bit 1 and its absence as bit 0. Optical fiber consists of inner core of
either glass or plastic. Core is surrounded by cladding of the same material but of
different refractive index. This cladding is surrounded by a plastic jacket which
prevents optical fiber from electromagnetic interference and harshly environments. It
uses the principle of total internal reflection to transfer data over optical fibers.
Optical fiber is much better in bandwidth as compared to copper wire, since there is
hardly any attenuation or electromagnetic interference in optical wires. Hence there is
less requirement to improve quality of signal, in long distance transmission.
Disadvantage of optical fiber is that end points are fairly expensive. (eg. switches)

Differences between different kinds of optical fibers:

1. Depending on material
 Made of glass
 Made of plastic.
2. Depending on radius
 Thin optical fiber
 Thick optical fiber
3. Depending on light source
 LED (for low bandwidth)

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 Injection lased diode (for high bandwidth)

Wireless Transmission

1. Radio: Radio is a general term that is used for any kind of frequency. But higher
frequencies are usually termed as microwave and the lower frequency band comes
under radio frequency. There are many application of radio. For eg. cordless
keyboard, wireless LAN, wireless ethernet. but it is limited in range to only a few
hundred meters. Depending on frequency radio offers different bandwidths.
2. Terrestrial microwave: In terrestrial microwave two antennas are used for
communication. A focused beam emerges from an antenna and is recieved by the
other antenna, provided that antennas should be facing each other with no obstacle in
between. For this reason antennas are situated on high towers. Due to curvature of
earth terristial microwave can be used for long distance communication with high
bandwidth. Telecom department is also using this for long distance communication.
An advantage of wireless communication is that it is not required to lay down wires in
the city hence no permissions are required.
3. Satellite communication: Satellite acts as a switch in sky. On earth VSAT(Very
Small Aperture Terminal) are used to transmit and recieve data from satellite.
Generally one station on earth transmitts signal to satellite and it is recieved by many
stations on earth. Satellite communication is generally used in those places where it is
very difficult to obtain line of sight i.e. in highly irregular terristial regions. In terms
of noise wireless media is not as good as the wired media. There are frequency band
in wireless communication and two stations should not be allowed to transmit
simultaneously in a frequency band. The most promising advantage of satellite is
broadcasting. If satellites are used for point to point communication then they are
expensive as compared to wired media.

Digital Data Communication Techniques:

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For two devices linked by a transmission medium to exchange data ,a high degree of co-
operation is required. Typically data is transmitted one bit at a time. The timing (rate,
duration, spacing) of these bits must be same for transmitter and receiver. There are two
options for transmission of bits.

1. Parallel All bits of a byte are transferred simultaneously on separate parallel wires.
Synchronization between multiple bits is required which becomes difficult over large
distance. Gives large band width but expensive. Practical only for devices close to
each other.
2. Serial Bits transferred serially one after other. Gives less bandwidth but cheaper.
Suitable for transmission over long distances.

Transmission Techniques:

1. Asynchronous: Small blocks of bits (generally bytes) are sent at a time without any
time relation between consecutive bytes .when no transmission occurs a default state
is maintained corresponding to bit 1. Due to arbitrary delay between consecutive
bytes, the time occurrences of the clock pulses at the receiving end need to be
synchronized for each byte. This is achieved by providing 2 extra bits start and stop.

Start bit: It is prefixed to each byte and equals 0. Thus it ensures a transition from 1 to
0 at onset of transmission of byte.The leading edge of start bit is used as a reference
for generating clock pulses at required sampling instants. Thus each onset of a byte
results in resynchronization of receiver clock.

Stop bit: To ensure that transition from 1 to 0 is always present at beginning of a byte
it is necessary that default state be 1. But there may be two bytes one immediately
following the other and if last bit of first byte is 0, transition from 1 to 0 will not
occur. Therefore a stop bit is suffixed to each byte equaling 1. It's duration is usually
1,1.5,2 bits.

Asynchronous transmission is simple and cheap but requires an overhead of 3 bits i.e.
for 7 bit code 2 (start, stop bits)+1 parity bit implying 30% overhead. However % can
be reduced by sending larger blocks of data but then timing errors between receiver
and sender can not be tolerated beyond [50/no. of bits in block] % (assuming
sampling is done at middle of bit interval). It will not only result in incorrect sampling
but also misaligned bit count i.e. a data bit can be mistaken for stop bit if receiver's
clock is faster.

2. Synchronous - Larger blocks of bits are successfully transmitted.Blocks of data are

either treated as sequence of bits or bytes. To prevent timing drift clocks at two ends
need to be synchronized.This can done in two ways:
1. Provide a separate clock line between receiver and transmitter. OR
2. Clocking information is embedded in data signal i.e. biphase coding for digital
signals.

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Still another level of synchronization is required so that receiver determines beginning

or end of block of data. Hence each block begins with a start code and ends with a
stop code. These are in general same known as flag that is unique sequence of fixed
no. of bits. In addition some control characters encompass data within these flags.
Data +control information is called a frame. Since any arbitrary bit pattern can be
transmitted there is no assurance that bit pattern for flag will not appear inside the
frame thus destroying frame level synchronization. So to avoid this we use bit stuffing

Bit Stuffing: Suppose our flag bits are 01111110 (six 1's). So the transmitter will
always insert an extra 0 bit after each occurrence of five 1's (except for flags). After
detecting a starting flag the receiver monitors the bit stream . If pattern of five 1's
appear, the sixth is examined and if it is 0 it is deleted else if it is 1 and next is 0 the
combination is accepted as a flag. Similarly byte stuffing is used for byte oriented
transmission. Here we use an escape sequence to prefix a byte similar to flag and 2
escape sequences if byte is itself a escape sequence.

1.9 Multiplexing

When two communicating nodes are connected through a media, it generally happens that
bandwidth of media is several times greater than that of the communicating nodes. Transfer
of a single signal at a time is both slow and expensive. The whole capacity of the link is not
being utilized in this case. This link can be further exploited by sending several signals
combined into one. This combining of signals into one is called multiplexing.

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): This is possible in the case where transmission
media has a bandwidth than the required bandwidth of signals to be transmitted. A number of
signals can be transmitted at the same time. Each source is allotted a frequency range in
which it can transfer it's signals, and a suitable frequency gap is given between two adjescent
signals to avoid overlapping

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): This is possible when data transmission rate of the
media is much higher than that of the data rate of the source. Multiple signals can be
transmitted if each signal

is allowed to be transmitted for a definite amount of time. These time slots are so small that
all transmissions appear to be in parallel.

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1. Synchronous TDM: Time slots are preassigned and are fixed. Each source is
given it's time slot at every turn due to it. This turn may be once per cycle, or
several turns per cycle ,if it has a high data transfer rate, or may be once in a
no. of cycles if it is slow. This slot is given even if the source is not ready with
data. So this slot is transmitted empty.
2. Asynchronous TDM: In this method, slots are not fixed. They are allotted
dynamically depending on speed of sources, and whether they are ready for
transmission.

1.10 Network Topologies

A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. It is very much like a map of
a road. It details how key network components such as nodes and links are interconnected. A
network's topology is comparable to the blueprints of a new home in which components such
as the electrical system, heating and air conditioning system, and plumbing are integrated into
the overall design. Taken from the Greek work "Topos" meaning "Place," Topology, in
relation to networking, describes the configuration of the network; including the location of
the workstations and wiring connections. Basically it provides a definition of the components
of a Local Area Network (LAN). A topology, which is a pattern of interconnections among
nodes, influences a network's cost and performance. There are three primary types of network
topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network cabling. They are:

1. Star Topology: All devices connected with a Star setup communicate through a
central Hub by cable segments. Signals are transmitted and received through the Hub.
It is the simplest and the oldest and all the telephone switches are based on this. In a
star topology, each network device has a home run of cabling back to a network hub,
giving each device a separate connection to the network. So, there can be multiple
connections in parallel.

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Advantages

o Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is

isolated to central node
o Networks runs even if one host fails
o Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
o More suited for larger networks

Disadvantages

oBroadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality

needs to be provided to the central hub
o If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch
some kind of a bottleneck
o Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the
central switch
2. Bus Topology: The simplest and one of the most common of all topologies, Bus
consists of a single cable, called a Backbone, that connects all workstations on the
network using a single line. All transmissions must pass through each of the
connected devices to complete the desired request. Each workstation has its own
individual signal that identifies it and allows for the requested data to be returned to
the correct originator. In the Bus Network, messages are sent in both directions from a
single point and are read by the node (computer or peripheral on the network)
identified by the code with the message. Most Local Area Networks (LANs) are Bus
Networks because the network will continue to function even if one computer is
down. This topology works equally well for either peer to peer or client server.

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The purpose of the terminators at either end of the network is to stop the signal being
reflected back.

Advantages

o Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler

o Network is redundant in the sense that failure of one node doesn't effect the
network. The other part may still function properly
o Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network
switches are required
o Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds

Disadvantages

o
Trouble shooting and error detection becomes a problem because, logically, all
nodes are equal
o Less secure because sniffing is easier
o Limited in size and speed
3. Ring Topology: All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed circle of
cable. Messages that are transmitted travel around the ring until they reach the
computer that they are addressed to, the signal being refreshed by each node. In a ring
topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and
passed on to the next device. Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is
capable of supporting many devices in a somewhat slow but very orderly fashion.
There is a very nice feature that everybody gets a chance to send a packet and it is
guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.

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Advantages

o Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one
message
o Less expensive since less cable footage is required
o It is guaranteed that each host will be able to transmit within a finite time
interval
o Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
o Performs better than a star network under heavy network load

Disadvantages

o Failure of one node brings the whole network down

o Error detection and network administration becomes difficult
o Moves, adds and changes of devices can effect the network
o It is slower than star topology under normal load

4 Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology

has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have
hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

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Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have
direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in
the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It
provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.

Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host.
Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists
where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

5 Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of

network topology in use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.

This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.

Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer
is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer
and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point
of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

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All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar

to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers
even. Though it is not the single point of failure. Every connection serves as
point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable
segment.

6 Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.

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3 The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining

topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain
topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and
networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the
best example of largest Hybrid topology

1.11 Signal Transmission

Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use
the data, it must be in discrete digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be in analog
and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two
ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary
whereas block coding is optional.

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2 Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format.It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s
and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There

are three types of line coding schemes available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to
represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It
is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either
represents 1 or 0.

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Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four types:
 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive
voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no
rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

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 NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas

NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and
when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not
synchronized.

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 RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to

represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two
halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is
encountered.
 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle
of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.

Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

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Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-
parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original
number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with
n-bit block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
Division,
Substitution
Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is
analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital
conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete.
To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It
involves three steps:
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding.

Sampling

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The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at
which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at
least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.

Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the
amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the
maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation
of the instantaneous analog value.

Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Modes

The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.The binary
data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes: Parallel and Serial.
Parallel Transmission

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The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and receiver are
connected in parallel with the equal number of data lines. Both computers distinguish
between high order and low order data lines. The sender sends all the bits at once on all
lines.Because the data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame, a
complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go. Advantage of Parallel transmission is
high speed and disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in
parallel.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial transmission
requires only one communication channel.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there’is no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific pattern and
they help receiver recognize the start and end data bits.For example, a 0 is prefixed on every
data byte and one or more 1s are added at the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism followed to
recognize start and end data bits.There is no pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are

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sent in burst mode without maintaining gap between bytes (8-bits). Single burst of data bits
may contain a number of bytes. Therefore, timing becomes very important.
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.The advantage of synchronous
transmission is high speed, and it has no overhead of extra header and footer bits as in
asynchronous transmission.
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog
signal.There can be two cases according to data formatting.
Bandpass:The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a band
of frequencies which can pass the filter.
Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.
When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog
conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog signal, it is
called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion

When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted
into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three
kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:
 Amplitude Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
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 When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is set to 0.
Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.
 Frequency Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.

 This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen
to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0. Both
amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept intact.
 Phase Shift Keying
In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect
the binary data.

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
ALIGARH

 When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered.
Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two
different phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-
streams. The serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams and then each
stream is converted to digital signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital
signals are merged together.
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known
as Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is required when bandpass is used. Analog
to analog conversion can be done in three ways:

Amplitude Modulation
In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the analog data

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
ALIGARH

Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude of

modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier frequency,
which then reflects analog data.
The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.

 Frequency Modulation
In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect
the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
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The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.

Phase Modulation
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to reflect
the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
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Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase modulation

frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is signal is changed
(made dense and sparse) to reflect voltage change in the amplitude of modulating signal.

1.12 Internet Service Provider (ISP)

ISP stands for Internet Service Provide r which is a term used to refer to a company
that provides internet access to people who pay the company or subscribe to the company for
the same. For their services, the customers have to pay the internet service provider a nominal
fee which varies according to the amount of data they actually use or the data plan which they
purchase. An Internet Service Provider is also known as an Internet Access Provider or an
online service provider. An Internet Service Provider is a must if one wants to connect to the
internet.

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History
The first Internet Service Provider was Telenet. Telenet was the commercialized version of
the ARPANET – a precursor to the internet, of sorts. Telenet was introduced in 1974. Since
then, many Internet Service Providers have entered the scene and this was partly because of
the proliferation of the internet as a commodity that fuelled the consumerist attitude of the
people. Pretty soon, an Internet Service Provider called “The World” came to be in vogue and
ever since it started serving its customers today in 1989 has cemented itself as the first
archetypal Internet Service Provider. Examples of major Internet Service Providers include
Google Fiber, Verizon, Jio, AT&T etc.

Characteristics
 E-mail Account: Many Internet Service Providers offer an e-mail address to their
consumers.
 User Support: Professionals and an increasing number of lay users prefer an ISP that can
provide them with customer support so that they have someone they can refer to if things
go awry.
 Access to high-speed internet: Probably the most obvious item on this list as this feature
of an Internet Service Provider lies literally in its name. Furthermore, the higher the speed
an Internet Service Provider can offer one, the better it’s standing in the market and the
more customers it can attract.
 Spam Blocker: An Internet Service Provider that hinders its customers’ productivity by
way of not blocking spam and displaying frequent ads is not something that is generally
favoured in the market today. Therefore, many of the Internet Service Providers offer
spam blocking features to their customers.
 Web Hosting: Some of the ISPs offer web hosting services to their clientele as well.

Different types of ISP connections

 DSL
 Wi-Fi broadband
 mobile broadband
 fibre optic broadband
 cable broadband
List of ISP
 Reliance Jio
 Vodafone Idea
 Airtel
 BSNL
 Hathway

Advantages
 The customer need not then bother with either the technicalities or finances of investing
and inventing a web browser to work with. An ISP can readily do all of this for its
customers.
 Many ISPs, being professional companies, provide its clientele with high-speed internet
and that is not possible if one decides to sidesteps these companies.
 ISPs offer a very high degree of reliability and availability

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VISION INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Subject: Computer Network
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 The ISPs are secure – they offer a tremendous deal of protection against viruses and use
only the latest software patches whilst operating and thereby, maintaining the integrity of
the browser.
 User do not need to invest in user’s own web server.
 ISP’s should give the best uptime guarantee.

Disadvantages
 Because of the range of options available in the market and due to cut-throat competition,
some of the ISPs have been accused of violating the customers’ trust by way of inflated
pricing, data losses, etc. It is true that using an ISP makes the customer entirely dependent
on it.
 If an Internet Service Provider is stretched thin because of hosting too many sites on a
shared server, it can compromise the quality of the customers’ data by way of slow
download rates and poor performance of websites.
 User need to trust user’s ISP for uptime and security.
 ISP can directly affect user if the it gets blacklisted .

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