2

Historical perspectives on CALL

Graham Davies1, Sue E. K. Otto and Bernd Rüschoff

Summary
istorically computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has been shaped not only by
H trends in language pedagogy and second language acquisition (SLA) theories, but also
by the state of computer technology. While the evolution of computer technology can be
described in a relatively linear and organized fashion, SLA and language pedagogy have
developed as a disorganized, multipronged and often contradictory collection of notions and
practices. As a result, viewing the growth of CALL through a theoretical and pedagogical
lens reveals a complex and fascinating history that spans decades of technological
advancement and reflects the multifaceted field of language pedagogy and SLA research
from which it arose. This chapter traces the evolution of CALL from the last half of the
twentieth century – when cognitive and psycholinguistic theories of SLA predominated – into
the twenty-first century, when theories and pedagogies that emphasize the social dimensions
of language learning have gained traction. Computer technology grew from primitive
mainframes to powerful networked multimedia microcomputers with access to the internet
and World Wide Web. Within this context, CALL has progressed from drill and practice
exercises targeting grammar and vocabulary towards a wide array of sophisticated interactive
programs for reading, writing, listening, pronunciation and culture.
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Introduction

The history of CALL has been well documented. Sanders (1995) and Levy (1997) cover the
period from its beginnings in the 1960s until the mid-1990s, and Delcloque (2000) provides a
comprehensive account of CALL until the beginning of the new millennium. Davies (1997)
covers the period 1976–96, reflecting on his personal experiences and reminding us that there
are many lessons that we can learn from the past. Jung (2005) takes a bibliometric approach,
focusing on the contents and nature of publications on CALL and how they have reflected its

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 constantly changing manifestations. Butler-Pascoe (2011) takes us back to the early stages of
the use of courseware in second language teaching in the 1960s, through the emergence of
multimedia in the 1990s and up to new developments in the twenty-first century
encompassing the use of Web 2.0 tools that provide new opportunities for computer-mediated
communication (CMC). In light of these previous studies, the aim of this chapter is to
provide a historical overview of the ways in which language learning technologies have been
interpreted and to identify the antecedent conceptualizations, and relationships with other
disciplines that have contributed to current usages.
Historically computer-assisted language learning has been shaped not only by trends in
language pedagogy and SLA theories, but also by the state of computer technology. While
the evolution of computer technology can be described in a relatively linear and organized
fashion, SLA and language pedagogy have developed as a disorganized, multipronged and
often contradictory collection of notions and practices. As a result, viewing the growth of
CALL through a theoretical and pedagogical lens reveals a complex and fascinating history
that spans decades of technological advancement and reflects the multifaceted field of
language pedagogy and SLA research from which it arose. This chapter traces the evolution
of CALL from the last half of the twentieth century, when cognitive and psycholinguistic
theories predominated, through the first decade of the twenty-first century, during which
rising interest in theories and pedagogy that emphasize the social dimensions of language
learning has coincided with the explosion in social networking and mobile technologies.

Origin of the term CALL

It is not entirely clear when the term CALL first appeared. Computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) and computer-assisted learning (CAL) predate CALL as generic terms, and CALI
(computer-assisted language instruction) was incorporated into the name of the professional
association CALICO (Computer-Assisted Language Instructed Consortium), which was
founded in the United States in 1982. CALL appears to have originated in the United
Kingdom, reflecting a student-centred focus on learning rather than instruction. The earliest
documented use of the term CALL that we have found is in a conference paper by Davies
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and Steel (1981). By 1982 the term CALL was in widespread use in the United Kingdom,
featuring in the title of the newsletter CALLBOARD, which was first published by Ealing
College of Higher Education in 1982, and in Davies and Higgins (1982). TESOL also
adopted the term CALL, setting up its CALL Interest Section (CALL-IS) in 1983 (Kenner,
1996; Stevens, 2003).
An alternative term to CALL emerged in the 1980s, namely technology-enhanced
language learning (TELL), which was felt to provide a more accurate description of the
activities which fall broadly within the range of CALL (Brown, 1988; Bush & Terry, 1997).
TELL was adopted by the TELL Consortium (now defunct), founded at the University of
Hull in 1993, and it figured in the name of the journal of CALL-Austria, TELL&CALL (now

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 defunct). The fact that the academic community that was involved in attempts to integrate
computer technologies into language learning saw the need to rethink the original term and
acronym is indicative of the fact that from very early on theoreticians and practitioners alike
saw the potential for enhancing rather than simply assisting language learning and classroom
practice when assessing emerging technological applications and tools.

Early CALL: 1960s to 1970s

Most of the activity in CALL in its early days took place in the United States. Programs were
mainframe-based and primarily served the roles of tutor and drillmaster. These programs
were touted as a means to relieve teachers of repetitive tasks in the classroom, allowing them
to concentrate on communicative activities, give students immediate feedback on their errors
and track student performance, providing remedial work when indicated. Pedagogically,
language instruction was still guided by behaviourist models of cognitive theory, which
emphasized learning through repetitive practice and negative and positive feedback. The
audio-lingual method had emerged to place new emphasis on oral skills, but this method also
emphasized drill-and-practice and reflected the continued belief in the importance of
grammar, with roots in grammar-translation. Among the highest profile early mainframe
projects were the PLATO project (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations)
(Hart, 1995) at the University of Illinois and the TICCIT project (Time-shared Interactive
Computer Controlled Information Television) (Anderson, 1976; Jones, 1995) at the
University of Texas and Brigham Young University (BYU).
The PLATO project began in 1960 and hit its peak in the mid- to late 1970s with the
PLATO IV project. Based on the computing power of a large mainframe computer, the
PLATO IV system’s most notable features were the plasma graphics terminals, which could
display animation and smoothly rendered graphics, including complex foreign characters
such as Chinese, its multimedia capability using a computer-controlled audio device, the
touch-screen input option, centralized storage and delivery of large amounts of instructional
material and an online community space where bulletin board exchanges and multiplayer
gameplaying took place. PLATO’s advanced technical features foreshadowed a number of
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key capacities we take for granted in our era of social networking, media-rich information
and touch-screen hand-held technologies that increasingly rely on the Cloud for central
storage of assets.
Using the TUTOR programming language, curricular materials were developed for many
languages, including French, German, Hebrew, Chinese, Latin, Russian, ESL, Spanish,
Hindi, Swahili and Swedish. Traditional grammar drill-and-practice lessons coexisted with
lessons developed for Chinese tone recognition, German phonetics, English literature and
reading practice. Many PLATO terminals were installed at the University of Illinois, and by
the late 1970s over 50,000 hours of language instruction per semester were typically logged
(Hart, 1995). Part of the vision for PLATO was to have remote sites connected to the Illinois

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 mainframe and services sold by subscription. PLATO terminals could be based anywhere
there was a phone connection for distance time-sharing of the lesson development tools by
teachers and of the instructional materials by students. In addition to the specific equipment
involved and the cost of the subscription, the long-distance phone charges that accrued when
users accessed the system were one of the biggest drawbacks of PLATO and constituted one
factor for its lack of success as a viable distance learning option. Although PLATO did not
ultimately succeed as a commercial distance education venture, it did succeed as a large-scale
instructional platform during the years of its existence, delivering massive amounts of
language instruction in multiple languages to an enormous number of students.
The TICCIT project began in 1972 as a joint project of the Mitre Corporation with the
University of Texas and BYU that aimed to develop instructional materials for remedial
English and mathematics combining computer and television technologies. The system used
television to present information and examples. The student would select a desired video
choice on the computer, which would send a message to an operator, who would load the
appropriate tape and play the program, routing the signal to the television at the student’s
workstation (Anderson, 1976). Unlike some of the other instructional software of the time
that carefully controlled the learner’s pathway through lessons and prescribed the difficulty
level and help based on performance, learner control was one of the basic tenets that guided
TICCIT development (Jones, 1995). Students could move freely through the courseware,
able to skip ahead, go back and repeat or ask for more explanation or help on a concept, as
desired. Such developments, even when seen from a present-day perspective, can already be
described as innovative from an educational perspective too. Developers already had in mind
principles which are currently regarded as important ingredients of learning practice, such as
self-determined and autonomous learning, flexibility of access or even student-orientation.
In 1977 the original grant funding expired and TICCIT moved to BYU, where it was
expanded to include ESL, French, German, Italian and Spanish. (Although the TICCIT name
persisted, the television technology disappeared from the system at this point.) Students
could visually see what parts of the courseware they had completed and an advisor function
made suggestions for what they should do next but, in keeping with the original TICCIT
philosophy of learner control, it was up to the student to decide how to use the exercises
(which ones and in what order) and which help mechanisms to access. The best-known
foreign language work in TICCIT for languages was done at BYU by Randall Jones, who
created a comprehensive course for German grammar, which combined tutorials and practice
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components and continued until 1992, when it was replaced by a microcomputer-based

version known as CLIPS (Computerized Language Instruction and Practice Software).
CLIPS still exists for English, ESL and Spanish grammar, and it is available online by
subscription offered by a commercial learning software company.
The 1970s saw the production of many other smaller software development projects on
mainframes and minicomputers in the United States. These projects included development of
authoring tools to create exercises such as CALIS (Hussein, Phelps & Bessent, 1980) and
Dasher (Pusack & Otto, 1983–2010) – as well as packaged exercises and tutorials, such as
DECU/TUCO (Taylor, 1987), and the Course in Medical and Technical Terminology,
focusing on instruction in medical and scientific terms derived from Greek and Latin

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 (Tebben, 1979). It is interesting to note that authoring tools were among the first
developments in these early stages of CALL, as they were able to assist teachers in their
efforts to provide their learners with more authentic, up-to-date as well as target-group-
specific and learner-differentiated content.
In her article reporting the results of her 1978–9 survey on CAI in foreign languages in the
United States, Olsen (1980) lists 62 language departments from 52 institutions in 24 of the 50
states as using computers for language instruction. Programs almost exclusively targeted
first- and second-year language courses. Predictably, the top three languages for which CAI
programs existed were French, Spanish and German, with Latin a close fourth. Many of the
departments that responded to Olsen’s survey had indicated that they did not use CAI, citing
a number of common reasons, including: cost of equipment and program development;
scepticism about the ability of a machine to teach languages; lack of peer recognition of CAI
materials development efforts for tenure and promotion; lack of trained personnel; lack of
ready-made programs; and the inability of local computing technology to handle diacritical
marks or alternate fonts. Interestingly, these problems were to persist for decades, and one of
the most frustrating and stubborn issues was to be typing and display of foreign characters.
In the early days of computing, foreign characters were always problematic. Regular
terminals commonly used on campuses to connect to mainframes could not display the
special characters required for foreign languages. (The PLATO system was an exception, as
were a few other special graphics terminals available at the time.) Various conventions were
typically used to indicate special characters – for example a vowel followed by a colon
indicated an umlauted character or a vowel followed by an apostrophe indicated a character
with an acute accent. Even when it became possible to display text that contained foreign
characters, it was a long time before any real standardization existed for fonts containing
characters beyond those used in common European languages. A multiplicity of foreign
character fonts emerged for languages in non-Roman characters, such as Russian, Hebrew
and Arabic; and there were even special boards that enabled typing and displaying languages
such as Chinese. Solutions were often expensive and usually local – that is, dependent on
locally installed hardware and software. With the creation of the Unicode consortium and
their efforts over the last 20 years to establish a universal character encoding standard, these
issues have slowly been resolved.
There was little significant activity in CALL in the United Kingdom until the early 1980s.
Rex Last had been developing CALL materials on a mainframe ICL1904S computer at the
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University of Hull in the late 1970s, using an authoring package known simply as
EXERCISE, which was Last’s own creation, enabling him to produce large quantities of
drill-and-practice activities for students of German. EXERCISE was also used to create
materials for students of Dutch. Interesting though they were, Last’s materials could not be
used outside the environment in which they were created – one of the drawbacks of working
on a university’s mainframe computer (Last, 1984).
While most of the programs from the 1970s have long since disappeared, a few survived in
one form or another into the early twenty-first century due to success in commercial
distribution and sustained upgrading to new platforms, including Dasher, CALIS (later
WinCALIS ) and the Course in Medical and Technical Terminology, as mentioned above. Of

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 course, despite their longevity, these older drill-and practice programs by no means represent
current thinking about the best use of computer technology for language learning.
Nevertheless, each generation of CALL has resulted in valuable lessons learned, which
eventually filtered down to later adopters.
Each major advance in computing technology has triggered a temporary step backwards in
the production and delivery of CALL materials. What had arduously been developed for one
dominant technology had to be rethought and reprogrammed for the promising new
technology. When microcomputers first appeared, they did not seem to pose a real threat to
large mainframes that offered powerful data processing and centralized storage of lessons and
record-keeping data. With their 48K of memory and no easily accessible storage for
programs and data (floppy or hard disk), early microcomputers seemed more like toys than
serious computers. Nevertheless, they quickly grew into the much cheaper platform of choice
with graphics capabilities that allowed graphic, animation and foreign character entry and
display not available from standard mainframe systems. When the internet and World Wide
Web gained traction, developers had to shift gears again, facing problems such as a new
generation of underdeveloped development tools and the loss of the ability to control and
deliver media with the precision possible with older technologies such as videodisc. Of
course, these issues now seem irrelevant, given the advances that produced the social Web
that is defined by the mobile devices and creative tools and services that have emerged
during the first part of the twenty-first century (O’Reilly, 2005).
This last transition to the Web has also signalled a significant shift in the use of technology
for language learning. The exploitation of the technology as a tutor and drillmaster – that is, a
replacement for the teacher – has faded into the background, overshadowed by an extensive
array of Web-based tools to enable creative and communicative activities. Although there are
still tutorial and practice programs, they are now produced as a matter of course by textbook
publishers as part of the standard ‘ancillary’ package. At the same time, faculty developers no
longer focus on programming or authoring exercise materials. Instead they have shifted their
efforts to the design of activities that incorporate the powerful new communication tools at
their disposal (Otto & Pusack, 2009).

CALL and the microcomputer: The 1980s

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The impact of CALL and technology-enhanced applications for language learning changed
dramatically with the advent of the first affordable microcomputers, which appeared in
educational institutions in increasing numbers from the late 1970s onwards. This included
primary and secondary schools, which up until this time had little or no access to computers.
The first complete CALL packages for microcomputers emerged in the early 1980s, for
example Apfeldeutsch (Williams, Davies & Williams, 1981), a substantial set of drill-and-
practice exercises for beginners in German, which ran on the Apple II computer.
Compatibility between different microcomputers was a major problem at this time. Each

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 microcomputer manufacturer – and there were many of them – used its own operating
system, with the result that programs could not easily be exchanged between institutions, and
software publishers were unsure about which computer to target in order to achieve
reasonable sales. The microcomputer boom period of the early 1980s saw a flurry of
publications on CALL (Ahmad et al., 1985; Davies & Higgins, 1982; Davies & Higgins,
1985; Higgins & Johns, 1984; Hope, Taylor & Pusack, 1984; Kenning & Kenning, 1984;
Last, 1984). The first professional CALL associations were also founded at this time:
CALICO in the United States (1982) and EUROCALL in Europe (1986). EUROCALL was
put on a firmer footing in 1993, when it received funding from the European Commission
(EU) that enabled it to become a formal professional association.
Early microcomputers had limited graphic options and monochrome displays, but they
offered considerable possibilities for text-based practice. In terms of language teaching
pedagogy, however, the clock was turned back in the early 1980s, resulting in the production
of an abundance of grammar and vocabulary practice programs – drill-and-practice or ‘drill-
and-kill’ – in spite of the fact that the communicative approach was by now well established.
But some programs were more imaginative, for example CLEF (1985) and TUCO II (Taylor,
1987), offering a semi-intelligent approach, making use of extensive tutorial sequences,
discrete error analysis and feedback. Some CALL developers explored artificial intelligence
(AI), utilizing semantic and syntactic parsers for processing students’ natural language
responses. Among the earliest attempts to produce microcomputer-based AI software for
foreign language were the Spanish games for communicative practice, Juegos Comunicativos
(Bassein & Underwood, 1985) and the German spy game Spion (Sanders & Sanders, 1995).
These programs emphasized the communicative aspects of language, which resonated with
current classroom methodologies that focused on proficiency and communicative
competence.
Developers of CALL software began to find their feet using the new medium and
discovered new pedagogical approaches, which led to the production of text-only simulations
such as a Granville: The Prize Holiday Package (Cambridge University Press, 1986) and
London Adventure (The British Council/Cambridge University Press, 1986). There were also
computerized action mazes, based on printed works such as Berer and Rinvolucri (1981).
Apart from the simulations described above, there were few innovative pedagogical
approaches in CALL that arose as a direct result of the use of information and
communications technology (ICT). Respondents to Levy’s survey of CALL conceptual
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frameworks, which he concluded in 1991, cited Data-Driven Learning (DDL) – the use of
concordancers in the classroom – as the only approach that was ‘conceived with the
computer in mind’ (Levy, 1997, p. 123). This approach was rooted in the idea that discovery-
oriented, inductive or concept learning by or from examples might be more fruitful when
addressing grammar or vocabulary (Johns & King, 1991). In addition, the tools developed,
for example concordancing software or context-oriented learnware such as Johns’s
appropriately named Contexts program (Johns, 1997), are perfect examples of technology
empowering classroom practice with new and additional options that would not have been
possible without it.
It is interesting to note that the advent of technology-enhanced learning materials on

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 microcomputers coincided with a rethinking of the methodological framework of language
learning in general (Bax, 2003; Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Trends such
as task-based learning (TBL) and cognitive-constructivist approaches gradually found their
match in digital technologies, as it was recognized that computer tools might be one option to
facilitate the implementation of a methodology for language learning focusing more on
authenticity in contents, contexts and tasks. Digital technologies afforded more flexibility in
application and exploitation, as these were not restricted, to name but one aspect, by the
kinds of linearity in content presentation characteristic of analogue media, for example,
audiotapes or videos. Consequently, new technologies started to be seen by some as having
the potential to solve a number of practical problems, particularly in more flexibly exploiting
authentic resources and exposing learners to ‘thinking tasks’, rather than pure exercises. This
theoretical background did, in fact, stimulate both theoreticians and practitioners. DDL can
be summarized as follows:

• a focus on the exploitation of authentic materials even when dealing with tasks such as
the acquisition of grammatical structures and lexical items;
• a focus on real, exploratory tasks and activities rather than traditional ‘drill-and-kill’
exercises;
• a focus on learner-centred activities;
• a focus on the use of computer-assisted cognitive tools, for example text corpora and
concordancing software, rather than ready-made or off-the-shelf learnware.

The ideas underlying DDL are, in fact, firmly rooted in some of the English as a Foreign
Language paradigms emerging in the course of the 1980s. Most obviously, concepts
described as TBL – an approach initially developed in the 1980s by the Indian language
teaching specialist, N. S. Prabhu – form a relevant backbone to such developments in CALL
(Prabhu, 1987). There can be no doubt that TBL is relevant to the exploitation of new
technologies for language teaching in general as well as DDL in particular. TBL is based on
the idea that the acquisition of language and linguistic competence as well as language and
language learning awareness can best be realized through tasks which encourage the learner
not to focus explicitly on the structure and the rules of the new language. Learners will
acquire the form of the foreign language because they are engaged in exploring aspects of the
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target language on the basis of authentic content. Task-oriented integration of CALL

applications into language learning processes, based on constructivist principles, gradually
became more common practice, and some of the following examples can be regarded as
exemplary for that (Rüschoff, 2002a, 2002b).
Consequently, CALL developers started to consider options of facilitating the integration
of genuine or authentic materials in the language classroom as well as to focus on more
genuine and real activities in CALL-enhanced learning practice. Authentic or genuine
materials, as Widdowson (1979, p. 80) pointed out, are language samples not constructed for
the purpose of language learning. Authentic tasks would then be tasks and learning projects
as well as activities of knowledge construction, which truly enable learners to explore the

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 target language in its structure and functionality when working with such genuine ‘texts’.
Little (1989, p. 5) describes this approach to authenticity in language learning as creating
opportunities for the learner to ‘psychologically interact’ with the target language, ‘by which
we mean the psychological processing of target language input in such a way that it
interlocks with and modifies the learner’s existing knowledge’.
Among the innovative uses of new technologies in language learning, tools for the creation
of discovery-based and exploratory learning materials rank very highly within a typology of
TELL software. One such tool is concordancing software, originally developed as a device to
assist research in corpus linguistics. Concordancers can be used with any textual corpus
consisting of a potentially unlimited number of texts compiled into a database. Their basic
function is to extract lists with contexts of any word or structure entered into the search
option, allowing the learner to research ‘the company that words keep’, as Johns (1986, p.
121) put it (based on Firth, 1957), and to try to discover how language works or what
particular terms or vocabulary mean from sample contexts extracted from text corpora.
Software such as Oxford University Press’s Micro-Concord (Johns, 1986), Longman’s Mini-
Concordancer and later tools such as Athelstan’s MonoConc, provided access to any
electronic text and the possibility of conducting a search for the occurrence of particular
words, structures or combination of words. These are then listed in contexts lists – so-called
concordances. Learners are invited to deduce for themselves the exact difference in meaning,
connotation and grammatical features with regard to the key word in context. Grammatical
rules can be acquired as well when learners can discover, rather than to be taught, rules by
examining many instances of targeted grammatical features. Options for developing learning
tasks based on contexts and lists have been described in detail in publications by Johns
(1986), Johns and King (1991), Tribble and Jones (1997) and Rézeau (2001).
‘Total Cloze’ programs such as Higgins’s Storyboard, published by Wida Software in
1982, are another example of a pedagogical approach that necessitated the use of a computer,
Storyboard was derived from Johns’s Textbag program, in which a whole text is deleted,
leaving only punctuation and markers representing the shape of words (Higgins & Johns
1984, pp. 54–7). In such programs the student’s task was to complete the text using
intelligent guesswork, trial and error and a variety of other strategies as documented, for
example, by Trippen, Legenhausen and Wolff (1988). Storyboard spawned numerous
imitations and spin-offs, including Developing Tray, CopyWrite, Eclipse, Rhubarb, Quartext
and Fun with Texts.
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At the same time as the development of CALL programs during the 1980s, there was a
growth in generic applications such as word-processors, databases, desktop publishing
software, spreadsheets and communications software (e.g., email). The increasing availability
of these applications – dubbed ‘office programs’ by Hardisty and Windeatt (1989, pp. 29–46)
– led to language teachers discovering innovative ways in which they could be exploited. The
use of such generic programs could even be considered as a very early step towards the
process of ‘normalization’ of the use of computers in the foreign languages classroom as
described by Bax (2003). This can also be concluded from the fact that at this time the first
add-ons and tools for word-processors for language learning were developed, which allowed
for almost automatic processing of electronic text into worksheets and exercise materials.

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 Such developments, which were started in the 1980s and could be defined as first-generation
applications for language teachers, resulted in currently available tools such as LingoFox, an
application that enables the production of electronic and printed exercises on lexis,
orthography, syntax or reading comprehension from computer readable texts in many
languages. After detailed parsing of a chosen text, the program provides information about
the text, enabling the teacher to determine the difficulty level and to decide on its precise
usage in learning. Exercise types range from a variety of gap-filling, cloze and scrambling to
games and activities fostering reading and comprehension strategies, all generated from
authentic texts.
A major drawback at this time was that microcomputers did not have the capability of
recording and playing back sound, although various peripheral devices emerged to meet this
need, including the TCCR 530 (Tandberg Computer Controlled Cassette Recorder). The
Tandberg TCCR 530 was a modified audiocassette recorder that could be connected to a
microcomputer, making it possible to integrate sound into learning materials in a controlled
way. While this unit was initially used in more traditional exercise formats, such as listening
comprehension tests, the option of integrating simple commands in learning software to play
predefined clips quickly led to more interactive ways of integrating sound into CALL
software. Learners were, for example, given the option of choosing and replaying alternative
versions of a dialogue before dealing with comprehension questions. In addition, selected
extracts from such dialogues could be made available as part of the help offered or integrated
into the feedback provided by a learning package. This was, of course, a rather crude and –
for the software developer – time-consuming way of creating such first-generation interactive
audio-enhanced software, but ideas developed for such systems were quickly adapted to truly
interactive digital sound-enhanced CALL software with the advent of sound cards, which
began to appear in around 1988.
In the 1980s CALL programs in the United States took on new dimensions with advances
in technology, particularly in the proliferation of microcomputers such as the Apple and the
IBM PC. Many software packages of this period reflected a shift away from a grammar focus
towards an emphasis on narrative contexts, listening, reading and intrinsic motivation
through engagement with a game, story and/or an exploratory environment. During this
decade interactive videodiscs represented the cutting-edge technology, one that provided easy
and precise control over playback of content (video, text, audio and still images). A survey
(Rubin et al., 1990) identified 72 interactive videodisc-based programs.
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Among the highest profile CALL projects launched in the 1980s were the ambitious
videodisc-based simulations that aimed to provide immersion experiences in the target
language. The two best-known videodisc-based simulation projects were BYU’s
Montevidisco, for learners of Spanish, and MIT’s A la rencontre de Philippe, for learners of
French. In Montevidisco the learner is cast in the role of a tourist in a fictitious town in
Mexico and must interact with salesmen, waitresses, policemen and other inhabitants
(Schneider & Bennion, 1984). A la rencontre de Philippe wraps up language learning in a
real-life simulation set in Paris. The learner must help Philippe, a freelance journalist living
in Paris who has just broken up with his girlfriend, find an apartment and help him get a
better job. A la rencontre de Philippe first appeared in the late 1980s, having been developed

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 by the Athena Language Learning Project that ran from 1984 to 1989. It was later published
by Yale University Press (Furstenberg, 1993), and a version on CD-ROM came out in 2006.
EXPODISC (conceived in the late 1980s and published in 1990) simulated a business trip to
Madrid in which the learner played the role of assistant to the export manager of a British
company (Davies, 1991). The Domesday videodisc, which was published by the BBC in
1986 to commemorate the 900th anniversary of the creation of the original Domesday Book,
was not intended primarily as a resource for language learning and teaching, but the rich
collection of authentic texts that it contained, in combination with hundreds of photographs
and maps, proved to be invaluable for teachers of English as a foreign language. The main
drawback was that it required a cumbersome and unique hardware set-up, combining a BBC
Master computer (an upgraded version of the BBC Micro), expanded with a SCSI controller
and linked to a Philips VP415 videodisc player. The Domesday videodisc quickly became
obsolete, but the BBC has now relaunched the project online (see
www.bbc.co.uk/history/domesday).
However, there were only a modest number of videodiscs produced expressly for the
foreign language market – in the range of 300 titles, not counting commercially distributed
feature films, and the videodisc’s failure to thrive in the commercial market led to its
replacement in the educational market during the course of the 1990s by other technologies,
particularly CD-ROMs, DVDs and, eventually, by streaming media servers.

Repositioning CALL: The 1990s

In the course of the 1990s the use of ICT in language learning and teaching became firmly
established, and the use of the term CALL and its earlier associations with drills seemed
inappropriate for newer approaches, for example Johns’s concept of DDL as mentioned
above. Levy, on the other hand, saw CALL in a much wider context, namely ‘the search for
and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (Levy, 1997, p.
1), and it is this definition that appears to have been accepted ever since.
When CALL began to reach a wider audience in the 1990s, a number of efforts were made
to document its history and to identify its changing phases. Sanders (1995), Levy (1997) and
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

Davies (1997) have already been mentioned. Warschauer (1996) and Warschauer and Healey
(1998) identified three phases of CALL, classified according to their underlying pedagogical
and methodological approaches:

Behaviourist CALL: In this phase, which was conceived in the 1950s and implemented in
the 1960s and 1970s, the computer played the role of tutor, serving mainly as a vehicle for
delivering instructional materials to the learner. Drill-and-practice programs were a
prominent feature of this phase.
Communicative CALL: In this phase, which became prominent in the 1970s and 1980s,
the computer continued to be used as a vehicle for practising language skills, but in a non-

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
Created from umac on 2025-03-09 09:58:40.
 drill format and with a greater degree of student choice, control and interaction.
Integrative CALL: This phase was marked by the introduction of two important
innovations: multimedia and the Internet, both of which had become prominent by the
mid-1990s.

The dates of these three phases can be called into question, however, as pointed out by Bax
(2003). Bax offered a different critical examination and reassessment of the history of CALL,
defining and describing three approaches to CALL as opposed to the three phases of CALL
identified by Warschauer (1996) and Warschauer and Healey (1998). Bax saw the history of
CALL in terms of (i) Restricted CALL, (ii) Open CALL and (iii) Integrated CALL, arguing
that this allows a more detailed analysis of institutions and classrooms than earlier analyses.
It was suggested that in 2003 we were using the second approach, Open CALL, but that the
aim should be to attain a state of ‘normalization’ in which the technology is invisible and
truly integrated into teachers’ everyday practice.
The advent of the multimedia PC in the 1990s led to programs that were able to record and
play back sound, a major breakthrough that language teachers had been waiting for since the
first microcomputers appeared. This led to new pedagogical approaches, moving further
away from the drill-and-practice programs of the 1980s and earlier. The Brøderbund series of
‘Talking Books’ CD-ROMs was launched, beginning with Just Grandma and Me (1992),
which offered text and sound in three languages, US English, Latin American Spanish and
Japanese. The learner could switch between the different languages, read and listen to the
texts, and also click on objects on the screen, triggering a range of animations, sound effects
and spoken language.
Simulations on videodisc, which had appeared in the 1980s (see previous section), soon
began to give way to simulations on CD-ROM, such as Nuevos Destinos, companion
software to a Spanish telenovela in which the student performs the role of a legal assistant to
one of the main characters (Blake, McGraw-Hill College & WGBH/Boston, 1993), and the
multilingual mystery game, Who is Oscar Lake? (1995). Initially the quality of video on CD-
ROMs was much inferior to that on interactive videodiscs, but it gradually caught up. The
quality of audio recordings was, however, good and CD-ROMs offered new opportunities for
students to engage in listen/respond/playback activities, for example, as in the Encounters
series of CD-ROMs, published by Hodder and Stoughton and the TELL Consortium in 1997.
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

CD-ROMs incorporating Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) also appeared around this
time, for example Syracuse’s Triple Play series (later renamed Smart Start) and Auralog’s
Talk to Me and Tell me More series.
The appearance of the World Wide Web – now known simply as the Web – is probably the
most significant development in ICT during the last 30 years. The Web was the brainchild of
a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee, who developed the idea while working at the Centre
Européen pour la Recherche Nucleaire (CERN) in Switzerland. Initially a closed system, the
Web went public with the launch of the first Web browser, Mosaic (1993), which was
followed by Netscape in 1994. In its early days the Web was used mainly as a tool for
locating resources. Most websites offered only texts, but some offered both texts and images.
On the whole, however, Web interactivity was very limited, for example to discussion lists

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 and forums. There was a growth of interactive possibilities on the Web when audio and video
were introduced, but the quality of audio and video was initially inferior to that offered by
interactive videodiscs and CD-ROMs.
The demand for interactive materials on the Web led in turn to a demand from teachers for
authoring tools. Hot Potatoes (Arneil & Holmes, 1998–2009) is a typical example of a Web
authoring tool. The Hot Potatoes templates enable the speedy creation of multiple choice,
gap-filling, matching, jumbled sentences, crosswords and short text entry exercises. While it
can be argued that such exercises are essentially drill-and-practice, this tool proved extremely
popular with language teachers and it continues to be used extensively for the creation of
interactive exercises and tests on the Web.
‘E-learning’ – usually interpreted as learning online – became the buzz word in the late
1990s, and there was an explosion of virtual learning environments (VLEs), such as
Blackboard, to serve this need. VLEs proved to be useful in providing teachers with tools to
create online courses, together with facilities for teacher-learner communication and peer-to-
peer communication. However, they also attracted criticism insofar as the underlying
pedagogy attempted to address a very wide range of subjects, and thus did not necessarily fit
in with established practice in language learning and teaching. VLEs continue to be popular,
however. The advent of Moodle, an open-source VLE, in the late 1990s has led to the wider
adoption of VLEs. The UK Open University, for example, selected Moodle for the delivery
of a wide range of its courses, including language courses, making it the largest user of
Moodle in the world.
Faster and more efficient internet connectivity became available as the Web expanded,
with the result that language teachers could exploit applications that went beyond offering
sets of grammar exercises. Such applications included MUDs and MOOs – multi-user
domains and multi-user-domains object oriented. MUDs were originally designed as text-
based, role-playing adventure games to be engaged in across computer networks but they
also offered opportunities for collaboration and education, including language learning.
Players log into a MOO to communicate with other MOO users either synchronously or
asynchronously. Von der Emde et al. (2001) and Shield (2003) describe how MOOs have
been used as language learning tools.
MOOs were followed by MUVEs (Multi-User Virtual Environments), three-dimensional
virtual environments, which are also known as virtual worlds. Examples of such virtual
worlds, which appeared from the mid-1990s onwards, include Active Worlds (1995) and
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

Traveler (1996). Svensson (2003) describes ways in which these 3D worlds could be
exploited for language learning and teaching (see also Sadler & Dooly, this volume).

CALL and Web 2.0: The 2000s

By the early 2000s the quality of audio and video on the Web had improved considerably,
and complete language courses began to appear, notably the range of courses offered by

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 commercial entities, such as the BBC (www.bbc.co.uk/languages/) and by university and
government projects, for example Chinese Online (East China Normal University,
www.hanyu.com.cn/), LangNet (US Departments of Defense, Education and State,
www.langnet.org/) and the CAMILLE Group’s InGenio Project (Universidad Politécnica de
Valencia, camilleweb.upv.es/camille/).
It should be noted though that the limitations of complete individualization by means of
online self-study courses without guidance and integration had been recognized by this time.
This resulted in the fact that ‘e-learning’ was redefined as ‘blended learning’ as it became
clear that Web-based activities in a traditional self-study mode could not ‘replace’ classroom
practice and social interaction on language learning but would support and extend it.
The term Web 2.0 gained popularity following the first of a series of Web 2.0 conferences
initiated in 2004 (O’Reilly, 2005). Essentially, the term Web 2.0 was an attempt to redefine
what the Web might potentially achieve or had become: a social platform for collaboration,
knowledge sharing and networking. It was not a break with the past but more of a move
towards the vision of the Web as originally conceived by its creator, Tim Berners-Lee,
namely as a ‘common information space in which we communicate by sharing information’
and ‘a realistic mirror (or in fact the primary embodiment) of the ways in which we work and
play and socialize’ (Berners-Lee, 1998, n.p.).
From the early 2000s there was a breath-taking increase in the number of Web-based
communities that make use of typical Web 2.0 tools such as discussion lists, blogs, wikis and
podcasts, as well as dedicated social networking websites and virtual worlds or MUVEs that
promote sharing, collaboration and interaction (Thomas, 2009).
A host of Web applications now ‘facilitate participatory information sharing,
interoperability, user-centred design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web’ – as the
Wikipedia article on Web 2.0 puts it. The ever growing diversity and flexibility of digital
media, together with the increased ease with which the communicative, interactive,
multimedia and networking potential of computers and the internet can now be exploited,
have also had a considerable influence on the way current principles and paradigms
underlying foreign language learning methodology can now be put into practice. Current
pedagogy advocates collaborative knowledge construction rather than simple instructivist
learning, as well as authenticity and task orientation. Furthermore, new opportunities for
research into language acquisition processes are opening up, as the tools and platforms
available on the Web make traceable both the processes of creating and publishing
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

meaningful output as well as the actual products themselves.

Digital media in their current realization have now become truly creative spaces which
have become as naturalized in the real world as radio or television and telephones. In
addition, access to personal or shared information has become so much easier than in the
past, as tablet PCs, smartphones and other mobile devices have been developed into powerful
appliances for daily use. In addition, data shared via social platforms, shared resources in the
form of cloud computing and applications such as Dropbox have the potential to make
collaborative creation, distribution and sharing of learning materials a regular part of teaching
and learning languages. Looking at current trends in language education confirms this
perception.

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
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 In addition, such platforms and Web 2.0 tools for the publication of text, for example
Wikispaces, as well as media products in the form of podcasts or videocasts, such as
YouTube, have become a realistic option to broaden the scope of output-oriented project
work in language learning. This approach, very much rooted in current thinking in language
teaching methodology, appears to be in line with current deliberations within the CALL and
TELL community, and digital media are in the process of becoming part of the standard
repertoire of language teaching and learning, making output-oriented language learning
scenarios with a focus on stimulating meaning negotiation and output production more
practical at the grassroots level. As Swain and Deters (2007, p. 831) put it, in language
learning ‘participation has found its place alongside acquisition’. Similar to the notion that
language learning might benefit from contexts, in which language production results from
processes of meaning negotiation, Web technologies and social software are rooted in the
idea that knowledge can be accumulated more fruitfully when negotiated collaboratively by
groups sharing a common goal. One of the remaining challenges that needs to be faced with
regard to the full integration of digital media into language learning is to define appropriate
frameworks for research into the actual processes that learners go through when participating
in learning opportunities of the kind outlined in this chapter. Digital media offer new
opportunities in this area, too, since participatory platforms and social software tools, such as
wikis and podcasting, do offer the option of tracing processes of output-production, thereby
making them observable. Consequently, all edits can be considered in terms of what they
document and represent as far as acts and processes of language learning are concerned.
Research of this kind will allow us to broaden the understanding of the effects and
effectiveness of digital media in innovative, creative and participatory language learning.
In 2003 the 3D virtual world of Second Life (SL) was launched, following on from the
earlier 3D virtual worlds of the 1990s mentioned above. Second Life soon began to attract
the attention of language teachers. In 2005, Languagelab (www.languagelab.com), the first
large-scale language school, was opened in Second Life, and since 2007 a series of in-world
annual conferences known as SLanguages have taken place. Cooke-Plagwitz (2008) provides
an introduction to Second Life and examines some of the advantages and disadvantages of its
use as an instructional tool for foreign language students and educators. Molka-Danielsen
and Deutschmann (2009) look at the wider context of learning in Second Life, focusing on
instructional design, learner modelling and building simulations (see Sadler & Dooly, this
volume).
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

Conclusions

There is no question that digital media are now having a significant impact on the way
foreign languages are being taught and learned. It can now be argued that computer-assisted
language learning has come of age, and that we are now entering a fully integrated and
naturalized phase of CALL. Digital tools for learning have become integrated elements both

Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warschauer, M. (Eds.). (2014). Contemporary computer-assisted language learning. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
Created from umac on 2025-03-09 09:58:40.
 in the real world and also in foreign language syllabuses. In view of the development of even
more flexible tools for social networking and knowledge sharing, it can be said that CALL
has reached the stage of normalization insofar as so-called Web 2.0 applications have become
a common social phenomenon.
Nevertheless, the debate on normalization simmers on. In a Special Issue of IJCALLT,
dedicated to this topic, Bax (2011) now questions the assumption that normalization is both
inevitable and desirable, and he asks if normalization occurs to the same degree with each
technology and if it follows the same steps for each technology.
Returning to the starting point of this chapter, namely our aim to match technological
developments with pedagogical and methodological progress in language learning, one can
say that in a number of cases the methodologies and paradigms discussed for quite some time
seem to have found their match in recent phenomena observable in the way technologies are
used in real life and language learning. One such example is the concept of process writing,
where the focus is more on the process of creating written text rather than the end product,
which is a principle underlying the use of and participation in wikis, writing blogs etc., as
well as contributing to social networks (see Hegelheimer & Lee, this volume). In
technological terms, simple use and consumption has been replaced by participation and
contribution, principles which are now also seen as corner-stones of language learning, where
‘participation has found its place alongside acquisition’ (Swain & Deters, 2007, p. 831). As
stated in an article on output-oriented language learning (Rüschoff, 2009), the challenge that
needs to be faced, with regard to the full integration of digital media into language learning,
is to define appropriate frameworks for research into the actual processes that learners go
through when participating in learning opportunities of this kind. Such research would
broaden our understanding of the effects and effectiveness of digital media in output-
oriented, creative and participatory language learning.

Note
1 To the great sorrow of many friends and colleagues worldwide, Graham Davies passed away on June 20, 2012. Graham
was a pioneer in the field of computer-assisted language learning—a smart, funny, creative, entrepreneurial, warm, and
Copyright © 2014. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.

generous man, who will be fondly remembered as a dedicated teacher, prolific scholar, experienced software developer
and publisher, and exceptional leader in our profession. Although he is gone, his voice can be heard one more time in the
pages of this chapter.

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