Fluid Mechanics

1
Contents
UNIT I
⚫ Introductory definitions, Fluid, Types of Fluids, Continuum
approach, Fluid Properties, Fluid at rest, Pascal’s law,
Barometers, Manometers, Hydrostatic pressure thrusts,
Buoyancy, Stability, Scalar and velocity fields, Flow fields
and description of fluid motion
Continue…………….

2
Contents
UNIT II
⚫ Continuity Equation, Momentum Equation, Energy Equation,
Euler’s Equation, Bernoulli Equation, Ideal Fluids, Navier-
stokes equation, Exact solutions, Laminar boundary Layer,
Boundary layer equations,Momentum-integral equation of
boundary layer

Continue…………….

3
Contents
UNIT III
⚫ Turbulent flow, Laminar-Turbulent Transition, Fluctuation,
Turbulent boundary layer equation, shear stress models,
Universal velocity distribution law, Pipe flow, friction factor,
Fully developed pipe flow, Pipe bends, pipe Losses,
Dimensional homogeneity, Raleigh method, Buckingham’s
theorem, typical non dimensional parameters, Geometric,
Kinematics and Dynamics similarity, Model Testing.

4
Books
⚫ White, F.M., “Fluid Mechanics”, Mc-Graw Hill, 2001.
⚫ Reference Books
1. Munson, B.R., “ Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics”, John
Wiley, 2002.
2. Cengal Y., Fluid Mechanics”, Mc-Graw Hill, 2001.

5
What is a Fluid?
▪ Substances with no strength
▪ Deform when forces are applied
▪ Include water and gases
Solid:
Deforms a fixed amount or breaks completely when a stress is
applied on it.
Fluid:
Deforms continuously as long as any shear stress is applied.

6
What is Mechanics?
The study of motion and the forces which cause (or prevent)
the motion.
Three types:
▪ Kinematics (kinetics): The description of motion:
displacement, velocity and acceleration.
▪ Statics: The study of forces acting on the particles or bodies at
rest.
▪ Dynamics: The study of forces acting on the particles and
bodies in motion.

7
Type of Stresses?
Stress = Force /Area
▪ Shear stress/Tangential stress:
The force acting parallel to the surface per unit area of the
surface.
▪ Normal stress:
A force acting perpendicular to the surface per unit area of
the surface.

8
How Do We Study Fluid Mechanics?
Basic laws of physics:
▪ Conservation of mass
▪ Conservation of momentum – Newton’s second law of motion
▪ Conservation of energy: First law of thermodynamics
▪ Second law of thermodynamics
+ Equation of state
Fluid properties e.g., density as a function of pressure and
temperature.
+ Constitutive laws
Relationship between the stresses and the deformation of the material.

9
Density and Specific Gravity
⚫ The density ρ of an object is its mass per unit volume:

The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Density is also sometimes

given in g/cm3; to convert g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 1000.
Water at 4°C has a density of 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.
⚫ The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to
that of water.

10
Viscosity
It is defined as the internal resistance offered by one layer of
fluid to the adjacent layer.
In case of liquids main reason of the viscosity is molecular
bonding or cohesion.
In case of gases main reason of viscosity is molecular
collision.
⚫ Variation of viscosity with temperature:
In case of liquids, due to increase in temperature the
viscosity will decrease due to breaking of cohesive bonds
In case of gases, the viscosity will increase with temperature
because of molecular collision increases
11
Newton’s law of viscosity:
This law states that “shear stress is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain”.
τ ά du/dy
τ = µdu/dy
where µ= Dynamic Viscosity having
Unit: SI: N-S/m2 or Pa-s
CGS: Poise= dyne-Sec/cm2
1Poise= 0.1 Pa-sec
1/100 poise is called Centipoise.
Note: All those fluids are known as Newtonian Fluids for
which viscosity is constant with respect to the rate of
deformation.
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Kinematic Viscosity (ν)
⚫ It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to
density.
ν = µ/ρ
Units: SI:m2/s
CGS: Stoke= cm2/s
1 Stoke= 10-4 m2/s
Note: Dynamic viscosity shows resistance to motion
between two adjacent layers where as kinematic
viscosity shows resistance to molecular momentum
transfer (molecular collision)

13
Types of Fluid
▪ Common fluids, e.g., water, air, mercury obey Newton's law
of viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluid.
▪ Other classes of fluids, e.g., paints, polymer solution, blood
do not obey the typical linear relationship of stress and
strain. They are known as Non-Newtonian fluids.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids

15
Shear Stress and Rate of Deformation
Relationship for different fluids

16
Surface Tension
⚫ The surface tension of water provides the necessary wall
tension for the formation of bubbles with water. The
tendency to minimize that wall tension pulls the bubbles
into spherical shapes

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Surface Tension
⚫ The pressure difference between the inside and outside of
a bubble depends upon the surface tension and the radius
of the bubble.

⚫ The relationship can be obtained by visualizing the bubble

as two hemispheres and noting that the internal pressure
which tends to push the hemispheres apart is counteracted
by the surface tension acting around the circumference of
the circle.

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Surface Tension

19
Surface Tension
⚫ The net upward force on the top hemisphere of the
bubble is just the pressure difference times the area of the
equatorial circle:

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Surface Tension
⚫ The surface tension force downward around circle is twice
the surface tension times the circumference, since two
surfaces contribute to the force:

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Surface Tension
⚫ This gives

⚫ This latter case also applies to the case of a bubble

surrounded by a liquid

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Capillarity
⚫ Capillary action is the result of adhesion and surface
tension. Adhesion of water to the walls of a vessel will
cause an upward force on the liquid at the edges and result
in a meniscus which turns upward. The surfacetension acts
to hold the surface intact, so instead of justthe edges
moving upward, the whole liquid surface isdragged
upward.

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Capillarity
⚫ Capillary action occurs when the adhesion to the walls is
stronger than the cohesive forces between the liquid
molecules. The height to which capillary action will take
water in a uniform circular tube is limited by surface
tension. Acting around the circumference, the upward
force is

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Capillarity
⚫ The height h to which capillary action will lift
water depends upon the weight of water which the
surface tension will lift:

25
Pressure in Fluids
The pressure at a depth h below the surface of the liquid is due
to the weight of the liquid above it. We can quickly calculate:

This relation is valid for any

liquid whose density does not
change with depth.

26
Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge
Pressure
At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about
1.013 × 105 N/m2; this is called one atmosphere (atm).
Another unit of pressure is the bar:
1 bar = 1.00 × 105 N/m2
Standard atmospheric pressure is just over 1 bar.
This pressure does not crush us, as our cells maintain an
internal pressure that balances it.

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Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge
Pressure
Most pressure gauges measure the pressure above the
atmospheric pressure—this is called the gauge pressure.
The absolute pressure is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and
the gauge pressure.
P = PA + PG

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Hydrostatic Law
⚫ The variation of pressure in vertical direction in a fluid is
directly proportional to specific weight.
⚫ dp/dh = ρg=w
⚫ P =ρgh (N/m2)
⚫ Note: When you move vertically down in a fluid, the pressure
increases as +ρgh.
⚫ When you move vertically up in a fluid, the pressure
decreases as -ρgh.
⚫ On the same horizontal level thee is no change of pressure.

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Pascal’s Principle
If an external pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure
at every point within the fluid increases by that amount.
This principle is used, for example, in hydraulic lifts and
hydraulic brakes.

30
Measurement of Pressure; Gauges and
the Barometer
There are a number of
different types of pressure
gauges. This one is an open-
tube manometer. The pressure
in the open end is
atmospheric pressure; the
pressure being measured will
cause the fluid to rise until
the pressures on both sides at
the same height are equal.

31
Measurement of Pressure; Gauges and
the Barometer
Here are two more devices for
measuring pressure: the aneroid
gauge and the tire pressure gauge.

32
Measurement of Pressure; Gauges and
the Barometer
This is a mercury barometer,
developed by Torricelli to measure
atmospheric pressure. The height of
the column of mercury is such that
the pressure in the tube at the surface
level is 1 atm.
Therefore, pressure is often quoted
in millimeters (or inches) of
mercury.

33
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
This is an object submerged in a fluid. There is a net force on
the object because the pressures at the top and bottom of it are
different.
The buoyant force is found to be
the upward force on the same
volume of water:

34
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

The net force on the

object is then the
difference between
the buoyant force
and the gravitational
force.

35
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

If the object’s density is

less than that of water,
there will be an upward net
force on it, and it will rise
until it is partially
out of the water.

36
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
For a floating object, the fraction that is submerged is given
by the ratio of the object’s density to that of the fluid.

37
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

This principle also works in the air;

this is why hot-air and helium balloons
rise.

38
Types of Fluid Flow
⚫ Steady and unsteady flow
⚫ Steady flow: flow in which fluid properties are not changing
w.r.t. time but at given cross section.
⚫ Unsteady flow: flow in which fluid properties are changing
w.r.t. time but at given cross section.
⚫ Uniform and Non uniform flow
⚫ Uniform flow: Fluid is said to be in uniform flow if the
velocity is not changing w.r.t. cross section but at a given
interval of time.
⚫ Non- uniform flow: Fluid is said to be in uniform flow if the
velocity is changing w.r.t. cross section but at a given interval
39 of time.
Types of Fluid Flow
⚫ Laminar and Turbulent flow
⚫ Laminar flow: A laminar flow is one in which fluidflow
is in the form of layers and there is no intermixing of
fluid particles or molecular momentum transfer.
⚫ Turbulent flow: A turbulent flow is one in which there
is high order of intermixing of fluid particles.
⚫ Rotational and irrotational flow
⚫ Rotational flow: If the fluid particles rotate about their
axis or centre of mass.

40
Tools used to study fluid flow
⚫ Streamlines are a family of curves that are instantaneously
tangent to the velocity vector of the flow. These show the
direction a fluid element will travel in at any point in time.
⚫ Streak lines are the locus of points of all the fluid particles that
have passed continuously through a particular spatial point in the
past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed point extends
along a streak line.
⚫ Path lines are the trajectories that individual fluid particles
follow. These can be thought of as a "recording" of the path a
fluid element in the flow takes over a certain period. The
direction the path takes will be determined by the streamlines of
41 the fluid at each moment in time.
Stream tube
⚫ A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only
a part of the total fluid in isolation from the rest.
⚫ This can be done by imagining a tubular surface formed by
streamlines along which the fluid flows. This tubular
surface is known as a stream tube.

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Stream tube
⚫ The "walls" of a stream tube are made of streamlines.
⚫ Fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid cannot cross a
stream tube wall.
⚫ The stream tube can often be viewed as a solid walled pipe. A
stream tube is not a pipe - it differs in unsteady flow as the
walls will move with time.
⚫ It differs because the "wall" is moving with the fluid

43
Generalized Continuity Equation

 − •  → (u) (v) (w)

= (
V) = − − −
t x y z

“Convergence of Density”
44
Conservation of mass: Continuity
Equation:

“The water all has to go somewhere”

The rate a fluid enters a pipe must equal the rate the fluid leaves the pipe.
45 i.e. There can be no sources or sinks of fluid.
Conservation of mass: Continuity
Equation:
fluid in →

v2t
v1t
A2
A1

m = V1 =  A1 v1t m = V2 =  A2v2t

m
flow rate : =  Av continuity eqn : Av = A v
46
t 1 1 2 2
Conservation of mass: Continuity
Equation:
⚫ Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s.
It passes through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow
rate increases to 6.0 m/s. How deep is the gorge?

47
Conservation of mass: Continuity
Equation:
What happens to the energy density of the fluid if I raise the ends ?

Energy per unit

volume v v

48
Total energy per unit volume is constant
at any point in fluid.
p + 12  v2 +  g y = const
Conservation of mass: Continuity
Equation:
⚫ Q. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a
hole in the side 1 metre below the water level.

49
Momentum Conservation Equation
From Newton' s second law : Force= (mass)(acceleration)

Consider a small element xyz as shown below.

The element experiences an acceleration

DV  V
m = ( x y z) + V V V 
u +v +w
 
Dt t x y z
 
y as it is under the action of various forces:
normal stresses, shear stresses, and gravitational force.

 +  yx 
z
x
 yx y  y 
 x z
 

 xx y z   xx  x  y z
+ x
  xx
 
 
50  yx x z
Momentum Balance (cont.)
Net force acting along the x-direction:

+ +
x x x

Normal stress Shear stresses (note: zx: shear stress acting Body force
on surfaces perpendicular to the z-axis, not
shown in previous slide)

The differential momentum equation along the x-direction is

 xx +  yx +  zx +  g  u + u + u u 
= u v +w
x x x x  t x y z 
 
similar equations can be derived along the y & z directions
51
Euler’s Equations
For an inviscid flow, the shear stresses are zero and the normal stresses
are simply the pressure:  = 0 for all shear stresses,  xx =  yy =  zz = −P

P +  g  u + u + u u 
− =   t +
z 
u v w
x x
x y
 
Similar equations for y & z directions can be derived
P +  g  v + v + v v 
− =   t +
z 
u v w
y y
x y
 
P +  g  w + w + w w 
− = u v +w
z z  t x y z 
 

Note: Integration of the Euler’s equations along a streamline will give rise to the Bernoulli’s
equation.
52
Navier and Stokes Equations
For a viscous flow, the relationships between the normal/shear stresses and the rate of
deformation (velocity field variation) can be determined by making a simple assumption. That is, the
stresses are linearly related to the rate of deformation (Newtonian fluid). The proportional
constant for the relation is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (). Based on this, Navier and
Stokes derived the famous Navier-Stokes equations:
P
 u u u u  = − +   u  u  u 2 2 2
 +u +v +w + + +
 t  2 
z 
g
x y x x y2 z2
x

   
P
 v v v v  = − +    2 v  2v  2 v 
 +u +v +w + + +
 t x y  2 
z 
g
y x y2 z2
y

   2 
P  w 2
 w w w w  = − +  +  +  w 2w 
 +u +v +w +
 t  g  2 
x y z z x y2 z2
z

   
53
Bernoulli’s Equation

A fluid can also change its

height. By looking at the work
done as it moves, we find:

This is Bernoulli’s equation.

One thing it tells us is that as
the speed goes up, the
pressure goes down.

54
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood
Flow
Using Bernoulli’s principle, we find that the speed of fluid
coming from a spigot on an open tank is:

This is called Torricelli’s

theorem.

55
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood
Flow

A sailboat can move against

the wind, using the pressure
differences on each side of
the sail, and using the keel to
keep from going sideways.

56
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood Flow

A ball’s path will curve due

to its spin, which results in
the air speeds on the two
sides of the ball not being
equal.

57
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood Flow

• A person with constricted arteries will find that they may

experience a temporary lack of blood to the brainas blood
speeds up to getpast the constriction, thereby reducing the
pressure.
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood Flow
A venturi meter can be used to measure fluid flow by
measuring pressure differences.

59
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
Torricelli, Airplanes, Baseballs, Blood Flow
Air flow across the top helps smoke go up a chimney, and air
flow over multiple openings can provide the needed
circulation in underground burrows.

60
Flow in Tubes; Poiseuille’s Equation,
Blood Flow
The rate of flow in a fluid in a round tube depends on the
viscosity of the fluid, the pressure difference, and the
dimensions of the tube.
The volume flow rate is proportional to the pressuredifference,
inversely proportional to the length of the tube and to the
pressure difference, and proportional to the fourth power of
the radius of the tube.

61
Flow in Tubes; Poiseuille’s Equation,
Blood Flow
This has consequences for
blood flow—if the radius of
the artery is half what it
should be, the pressure has
to increase by a factor of 16
to keep the same flow.
Usually the heart cannot
work that hard, but blood
pressure goes up as it tries.

62
Drag on a surface – 2 types

⚫ Pressure stress / form drag

⚫ Shear stress / skin friction drag

⚫ A boundary layer forms due to skin fr iction

63
Boundary layer – velocity profile

⚫ Far from the surface, the fluid velocity

is unaffected.
⚫ In a thin region near the surface, the
velocity is reduced

⚫ Which is the “most correct” velocity

profile?

…this is a good
approximation near the
“front” of the plate
64
Boundary layer growth

⚫ The free stream velocity is u0, but next to the

plate, the flow is reduced by drag
⚫ Farther along the plate, the affect of the drag is
felt by more of the stream, and because of this
⚫ The boundary layer grows

65
Boundary layer transition
⚫ At a certain point, viscous forces become to small relative
to inertial forces to damp fluctuations
⚫ The flow transitions to turbulence
⚫ Important parameters:
⚫ Viscosity μ, density ρ
UOx UOx
⚫ Distance, x Re x = =
⚫ Velocity UO  

66 ⚫ Reynolds number combines these into one number

First focus on “laminar” boundary layer
⚫ A practical “outer edge” of the boundary layer is
where u = uo x 99%

⚫ Across the boundary layer there is a velocity

gradient du/dy that we will use to determine τ
67
 ⚫ Let’s look at the growth of the boundary layer
quantitatively.

68
⚫ The velocity profiles grow along the surface

⚫ What determines the growth rate and flow profile?

69
Laminar Flat-Plate
Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
• Governing Equations

• For
incompressible
steady 2D
cases:

70
Laminar Flat-Plate
Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
• Boundary Conditions

• Equations are Coupled, Nonlinear, Partial Differential

Equations
• Blassius Solution:
– Transform to single, higher-order, nonlinear, ordinary
differential equation
71
 Laminar Flat-Plate
Boundary Layer: Exact Solution

72
Boundary Layer Procedure
⚫ Before defining and * and  are there analytical
solutions to the BL equations?
⚫ Unfortunately, NO
⚫ Blasius Similarity Solution boundary layer on a flat
plate, constant edge velocity, zero external
pressure gradient

73
Blasius Similarity Solution
⚫ Blasius introduced similarity variables

⚫ This reduces the BLE to

⚫ This ODE can be solved using

Runge-Kutta technique
⚫ Result is a BL profile which holds at
every station along the flat plate

74
Blasius Similarity Solution

75
Blasius Similarity Solution
⚫ Boundary layer thickness can be computed by assuming
that  corresponds to point where U/Ue = 0.990. At this
point,  = 4.91, therefore
Recall

⚫ Wall shear stress w and friction coefficient Cf,x can be

directly related to Blasius solution

76
Displacement Thickness
⚫ Displacement thickness * is the
imaginary increase in thickness of the
wall (or body), as seen by the outer flow,
and is due to the effect of a growing BL.
⚫ Expression for * is based upon control
volume analysis of conservation of mass

⚫ Blasius profile for laminar BL can be

integrated to give

(1/3 of )

77
Momentum Thickness
⚫ Momentum thickness  is another
measure of boundary layer
thickness.
⚫ Defined as the loss of momentum
flux per unit width divided by U2
due to the presence of the growing
BL.
⚫ Derived using CV analysis.

 for Blasius solution,

identical to Cf,x
78
Turbulent Boundary Layer

Illustration of unsteadiness of a
turbulent BL Comparison of laminar and
turbulent BL profiles

79
Turbulent Boundary Layer
⚫ All BL variables [U(y), , *, ] are determined
empirically.
⚫ One common empirical approximation for the time-
averaged velocity profile is the one-seventh-power
law

80
81
Results of Numerical Analysis

82
Momentum Integral Equation
• Provides Approximate Alternative to
Exact (Blassius) Solution

83
Momentum Integral Equation
Equation is used to estimate the boundary-layer thickness
as a function of x:
1. Obtain a first approximation to the free stream velocity
distribution, U(x). The pressure in the boundary layer is
related to the free stream velocity, U(x), using the Bernoulli
equation
2. Assume a reasonable velocity-profile shape inside the
boundary layer
3. Derive an expression for tw using the results obtained from
item2
85

Introduction- Pipe Flow

• Average velocity in a pipe
– Recall - because of the no-slip
condition, the velocity at the walls of
a pipe or duct flow is zero
– We are often interested only in Vavg,
which we usually call just V (drop the
subscript for convenience)
– Keep in mind that the no-slip
condition causes shear stress and
friction along the pipe walls

Friction force of wall on fluid

86
Introduction
• For pipes of constant
diameter and incompressible
flow
– Vavg stays the same down
the pipe, even if the
velocity profile changes
• Why? Conservation
Vavg Vavg
of Mass

same same
same
87
Introduction
⚫ For pipes with variable diameter, m is still the same due to
conservation of mass, but V1 ≠ V2

88
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
⚫ Laminar flow: characterized by
smooth streamlines and highly
ordered motion.
⚫ Turbulent flow: characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly
disordered motion.
⚫ The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow does not occur
suddenly; rather, it occurs over some
region in which the flow fluctuates
between laminar and turbulent flows
before it becomes fully turbulent.

89
Reynolds Number
⚫ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature,
and type of fluid, among other things.
⚫ British engineer Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) discovered
that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces in the fluid.
⚫ The ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for
internal flow in a circular pipe as

90
Reynolds Number
⚫ At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces are large relative to
the viscous forces  Turbulent Flow
⚫ At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the viscous forces are large
enough to suppress these fluctuations  Laminar Flow
⚫ The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent iscalled
the critical Reynolds number, Recr.
⚫ The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different
geometries and flow conditions. For example, Recr = 2300 for
internal flow in a circular pipe.

91
Reynolds Number
⚫ For flow through noncircular
pipes, the Reynolds number is
based on the hydraulicdiameter
Dh defined as

Ac = cross-section area
P = wetted perimeter
⚫ The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow also depends on
the degree of disturbance of the
flow by surface roughness, pipe
vibrations, and fluctuations in
the flow.
92
Reynolds Number
⚫ Under most practical
conditions, the flow in a
circular pipe is

⚫ In transitional flow, the

flow switches between
laminar and turbulent
randomly.

93
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ In this section we consider the
steady laminar flow of an
incompressible fluid with
constant properties in the fully
developed region of a straight
circular pipe.
⚫ In fully developed laminar flow,
each fluid particle moves at a
constant axial velocity along a
streamline and no motion in the
radial direction such that no
acceleration (since flow is
steady and fully-developed).

94
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ Now consider a ring-shaped differential
volume element of radius r, thickness dr,
and length dx oriented coaxially withthe
pipe. A force balance on the volume
element in the flow direction gives

⚫ Dividing by 2pdrdx and rearranging,

95
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ Taking the limit as dr, dx → 0 gives

⚫ Substituting t = -m(du/dr) gives the desired equation,

⚫ The left side of the equation is a function of r, and the

right side is a function of x. The equality must hold for
any value of r and x; therefore, f (r) = g(x) = constant.

96
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ Thus we conclude that dP/dx =
constant and we can verify that

⚫ Here tw is constant since the

viscosity and the velocity profile are
constants in the fully developed
region. Then we solve the u(r) eq.
by rearranging and integrating it
twice to give
r2

97
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ Since u/r = 0 at r = 0 (because of symmetry about the centerline)
and u = 0 at r = R, then we can get u(r)

⚫ Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a

pipe is parabolic. Since u is positive for any r, and thus the dP/dx
must be negative (i.e., pressure must decrease in the flow direction
because of viscous effects).
⚫ The average velocity is determined from

98
LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
⚫ The velocity profile is rewritten as

⚫ Thus we can get

⚫ Therefore, the average velocity in fully developed laminar pipe

flow is one half of the maximum velocity.

99
100
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ The pressure drop ∆P of pipe flow is related to the power
requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow. Since dP/dx =
constant, and integrating from x = x1 where the pressure is P1 to
x = x1 + L where the pressure is P2 gives

⚫ The pressure drop for laminar flow can be expressed as

⚫ ∆P due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure loss,

and it is called pressure loss ∆PL to emphasize that it is a loss.
101
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are
commonly expressed in terms of the equivalent fluid
column height, called the head loss hL.

(Frictional losses due to viscosity)

102
Friction Losses
The resulting pressure (energy and head) losses are usually
computed through the use of modified Fanning’s friction
factors:

where Fk is the characteristic force, S is the friction surface area. This

equation is general and it can be used for all flow processes.
F
(p1 − p2 ) D2π (p − p )D Δp D

Used for a pipe: f= k

= 4 = 1 2
=
2 2
v v 2Lρv2 L 2ρv2
Sρ (DπL)ρ
2 2
where Fk is the press force, S is
the area of curved surface.
Rearranged, we get a form of L v2ρ = λ L v2ρ v2 ρ
pressure loss: ΔpL = 4f =ζ
D
Determination of Friction Factor with Dimensional
Analysis
vD vDρ
The Funning’s friction factor is a function of Re = =
Reynolds number, f = f(Re): ν μ

Many important chemical engineering problems cannot be solved completely by

theoretical methods. For example, the pressure loss from friction losses in a long,
round, straight, smooth pipe depends on all these variables: the length and diameter
of pipe, the flow rate of the liquid, and the density and viscosity of the liquid.
If any one of these variables is changed, the pressure drop also changes. Theempirical
method of obtaining an equation relating these factors to pressure drop requires that
the effect of each separate variable be determine in turn by systematically varying
that variable while keeping all others constant.
It is possible to group many factors into a smaller number of dimensionless groups of
variables. The groups themselves rather than separate factors appear in the final
equation. These method is called dimensional analysis, which is an algebric treatment
of the symbols for units considered independtly of magnitude.
104
Determination of Friction Factor with
Dimensional Analysis
Many important chemical engineering problems cannot be solved completely by theoretical
methods. For example, the pressure loss from friction losses (or the pressure difference
between two ends of a pipe) in a long, round, straight, smooth pipe a fluid is flowing depends
on all these variables: pipe diameter d, pipe length , fluid velocity v, fluid density
, and fluid viscosity .
Δp = p1 − p2
ρ μ l

p1 p2

l
105
The relationship may be written as: Δp = f (D, l, v, ρ, μ) (1)
The form of the function is unknown, but since any function can be expanded as a power
series, the function can be regarded as the sum of a number of terms each consisting of
products of powers of the variables. The simplest form of relations will be where the
function consists simply of a single term, when:
The requirement of dimensional consistency is that the combined term on the right-hand
side will have the same dimensions as that the on the left, i.e. it must have the dimensions
of pressure.
Each of the variables in equation (2) can be expressed in terms of mass, length, and time.
Thus, dimensionally:
Δp = const Da l b v c ρ d μ e ( 2)
Δp = ML−1T−2 v = LT−1

D=L ρ = ML−3
l=L μ = ML−T−1
i.e.:

ML−1T−2 = La Lb (LT−1 )c (ML−3 )d (ML−1T−1 )e

106
The conditions of dimensional consistency must be met for the fundamentals of M, L, and
T and the indices of each of these variables can be equated. Thus:
In
M 1= d+e
L −1 = a + b + c − 3d − e
T − 2 = −c − e
Thus three equations and five unknowns result and the equations may be solved in terms
of any two unknowns. Solving in terms of b and e:

d = 1− e (from the equation in M)

c = 2−e (from the equation in T)
Substituting in the L equation:

−1 = a + b + (2 − e ) − 3(1 − e ) − e
0=a+b+e
a = −b − e
107
Thus, substituting into equation (2): Δp = const D −b−e l b v 2−e ρ 1−e μ e =

= const D −b D −e l b v 2 v −e ρρ −e μ e =
= const (D −1l ) (Dvρμ −1 ) (v 2 ρ )
b −e

i.e. −e
 l   Dvρ 
b
Δp

ρv2 = const  D   μ 
   
k
Let: const =
2
b
Thus: Δp k  l b
Δp = k  l  ρv 2


=  Re −e  

ρv2 2 D Ree  D  2

b=1, and k and e have to determinate by experiments.

For laminar flow k=64 and e=1
 For turbulent flow k=0,0791 and e=0,25.

k l ρv 2 l ρv2
108
Δp = e = 4f
Re D
If a theoretical equation for this problem exist, it can be written in the general
form. List of relevant parameters:
Δp
= f (D, v,ρ,μ)
L
If Eq.1. is a valid relationship, all terms in the function f must have the same
dimensions as those of the left-hand side of the equation . Δp/L
Let the phrase the dimensions of be shown by the use of brackets. Then any
term in the function must conform to the dimensional formula
Δp
= const.Da v bρc μ d
L
b c d
N
( )a  m   kg   kg 
= m      
m m
2
 s   m  ms
3

 
MT −2 L−2 = La (LT −1 ) (ML−3 ) (ML−1T −1 )
b c d
 −2
MT L −2 = La (Lb T −b )(M c L−3c )(M d L−d T −1 )
109
 M: 1 = c+d
L: -2 = a+b -3c - d
T: -2 = -b - d

M: c=1-d
T: b=2-d
L: a=-2-b+3c+d=-2-2+d+3-3d+d
a=-1-d

Δp A
= const D−1−d v2−d ρ1−d ηd f =
L Red

−d
Δp  Dvρ  v 2 ρ
= const. 
L v2ρ
L  η  D Δp = f  
D 2
−d
Δp  Dvρ  1 v2ρ
 = A    
L  η  D 2
110
Fluid Flow in Pipes
Goals: determination of friction losses of fluids in pipes or ducts, and of pumping power
requirement.

) + (v )
− v22 ρ
2
The resulting pressure (energy and head) loss ΔpL = (z1 − z 2 )ρg + (p1 − p 2 1
2

is usually computed through the use of the modified Fanning friction factor:

F
(p1 − p2 ) D2π (p − p )D Δp D

Used for a pipe: f= k

= 4 = 1 2
=
v2 v2 2Lρv2 L 2ρv2
Sρ (DπL)ρ
2 2

where Fk is the press force, S is the area of curved surface. Rearranged, we get a form of pressure
loss: 2
L v ρ =λL v ρ
2
vρ
2
ΔpL = 4f =ζ
D
The Funning’s friction factor is a function of Reynolds number, f = f(Re):
 vD vDρ
Re = =
ν μ
111