Plato's The Republic 9.

The Three Parts of the Soul The structure

of the soul mirrors that of the state,
1. Justice as the Interest of the Stronger
consisting of three parts: rational (reason),
Thrasymachus claims that justice serves the
spirited (will/emotion), and appetitive
advantage of the powerful, arguing that
(desire). Justice in the individual is achieved
those in authority define justice to benefit
when reason governs, with support from the
themselves. Socrates counters this by
spirited part and restrained desires.
asserting that true rulers, as experts, should
prioritize the well-being of their subjects 10. The Virtues in the Individual Individual
over personal gain. virtues reflect those of the state: wisdom
(reason in control), courage (spirited
2. Ruling as an Art Socrates likens ruling to
support of reason), moderation (agreement
an art, comparable to medicine or
among parts), and justice (each part
navigation. Just as a doctor aims for the
functioning properly).
health of patients, rulers should seek the
welfare of the state and its citizens, making 11. Equality of Women Plato advocates for the
decisions that benefit society as a whole equal opportunities of women in his ideal
rather than their own interests. state, arguing that they should have the
same chances as men to become rulers or
3. The Rudiments of Social Organization
guardians based on capability rather than
Plato advocates for a class-based society
gender.
where individuals fulfill roles aligned with
their abilities. This division of labor is 12. Abolition of the Family for the Guardians
essential for achieving justice and harmony, To minimize conflicts of interest, Plato
with rulers, auxiliaries, and producers each proposes communal living for guardians,
contributing to the common good. with children raised collectively. This
structure promotes loyalty to the state over
4. The Luxurious State The emergence of a
individual family ties.
luxurious state occurs when basic societal
needs are met, leading to desires for 13. The Paradox: Philosophers Must Be
excess. This complexity results in wars and Kings Plato posits that philosopher-kings,
social inequalities. Plato contrasts this with possessing true knowledge of the Forms,
the "healthy state," which satisfies only especially the Form of the Good, are the
essential needs, promoting simplicity for ideal rulers. This paradox highlights that
maintaining harmony. those seen as impractical philosophers are,
in fact, best suited to govern.
5. The Guardian's Temperament Guardians
must embody a combination of courage, 14. The Allegory of the Cave The allegory
gentleness, and a philosophical spirit. They depicts the philosopher's journey from
should possess strength for defense while ignorance to knowledge. Prisoners in a cave
remaining rational and wise to ensure just see only shadows, mistaking them for
decision-making for the state. reality. The philosopher escapes,
comprehending the true nature of reality
6. Primary Education of the Guardians:
and struggling to enlighten others still in the
Censorship of Literature Plato argues for
cave.
censorship in the education of guardians,
suggesting that literature should promote 15. Democracy and the Democratic Man
virtuous behavior. By excluding immoral Plato critiques democracy as an extreme
narratives, education can shape the moral form of freedom that leads to disorder and
character necessary for future rulers. tyranny. The democratic man is driven by
unchecked desires, mirroring societal
7. Selection of Rulers: The Guardians’
chaos, where every voice holds equal
Manner of Living Rulers should be chosen
weight, diminishing true leadership.
for their loyalty, wisdom, and commitment to
the common good. Guardians live
communally, without private property or
Aristotle's Politics
families, to prevent personal interests from
corrupting their governance. 1. Nature and Origin of the State Aristotle
asserts that the state (polis) is a natural
8. The Virtues in the State Plato identifies
entity that emerges from smaller
four cardinal virtues: wisdom in rulers,
communities. As humans are inherently
courage in auxiliaries, moderation among all
social beings, the state is necessary for
classes, and justice in each fulfilling its role.
achieving a good life.
Together, these virtues foster a just and
harmonious society. 2. Slavery Aristotle views slavery as a natural
institution, suggesting that some individuals
 are naturally suited to be slaves due to their robust middle class is essential for political
lack of rational capacity. He differentiates stability, as they promote moderation and
between natural and legal slavery. support the rule of law.
3. Critique of Plato's Republic Aristotle 14. Causes of Revolution Aristotle identifies
criticizes Plato's ideas of communal inequality and perceived injustice as
property and family abolition, arguing these revolution triggers, with extreme poverty
disrupt natural affections and state stability. and political exclusion as critical factors.
He considers Plato’s philosopher-kings
15. How to Prevent Revolution To prevent
impractical, overlooking the need for diverse
revolution, Aristotle suggests maintaining a
roles within the state.
balanced constitution, avoiding extreme
4. Property: Equality or Inequality Aristotle inequalities, and ensuring just governance.
defends private property as natural and
beneficial, arguing for its communal use. He
contends that while some inequality is Cicero's The Republic and The Laws
essential, excessive disparity can lead to
unrest. 1. Civic Responsibility: Its Duties and
Rewards Cicero emphasizes the moral duty
5. Citizenship Citizenship involves of citizens to contribute to their community,
participation in state governance. Aristotle highlighting the virtues of justice, courage,
notes that not all individuals are fit for and wisdom. Civic engagement leads to
citizenship, as it requires virtue and practical personal fulfillment and a stable society,
wisdom. making public service a noble pursuit.
6. Political System Aristotle classifies 2. The Main Types of State Cicero identifies
governments based on who rules and three government types: monarchy,
whether they rule for the common good. aristocracy, and democracy, each with
Just forms include kingship, aristocracy, and strengths and vulnerabilities. He warns
polity; corrupt forms are tyranny, oligarchy, against the corruption inherent in each
and democracy. system.
7. Democracy and Oligarchy Aristotle 3. The Best Constitution Advocating for a
critiques both democracy and oligarchy as mixed constitution, Cicero believes this
flawed systems that prioritize self-interest balance prevents excessive power
over the common good. Democracy concentration, promoting stability and
represents the poor majority, while oligarchy protecting liberty.
serves the wealthy few.
4. Natural Law and the Unity of Mankind
8. Monarchy Aristotle views monarchy as the Cicero champions natural law, a universal
best government form if the ruler is virtuous moral system discoverable through reason,
and prioritizes the common good, yet which transcends man-made laws. He sees
acknowledges the risks of tyranny. this law as a unifying force among humanity,
emphasizing justice and morality rooted in
9. Liberty and Equality Aristotle emphasizes
this higher principle.
that both liberty and equality are crucial for
stability, advocating for proportional equality
based on contributions.
Saint Augustine's “City of God”
10. The Rule of Law Aristotle champions the
rule of law as a safeguard against arbitrary 1. Two Cities: Augustine contrasts the City of
rule, asserting that laws should govern all, God, symbolizing divine order and spiritual
ensuring justice and stability. fulfillment, with the City of Man, which
embodies human imperfection and sin. The
11. Constitutional Government A mixed City of God is eternal, while the City of Man
constitution, or polity, is Aristotle’s ideal is temporary and flawed.
government, combining elements of
democracy and oligarchy to ensure 2. Human Nature and Sin: Augustine posits
representation of both rich and poor. that all humans inherit sin from Adam and
Eve, affecting their nature. This original sin
12. The Best State Aristotle envisions a state leads to flawed behavior and governance.
that promotes virtue and the good life,
advocating for a balanced constitution 3. Purpose of Government: The
reflecting natural inequalities. government's primary role is to maintain
peace and order. Although necessary,
13. Political Moderation and Stability: The human governments are imperfect due to
Middle Classes Aristotle argues that a humanity’s sinful nature.
 4. Justice and Peace: True justice is only 2. Rule by One or by Many?: Aquinas
found in the City of God. Earthly justice is advocates for a mixed government that
vital but incomplete; while governments can incorporates both monarchy (rule by one)
create order, they cannot achieve perfect and aristocracy (rule by a few) to balance
justice. power and prevent tyranny.
5. Role of the Church: Augustine views the 3. Resistance to Tyrants: Citizens have the
church as a moral guide, advocating that it right to resist oppressive rulers who violate
should influence political leaders without justice and the common good, though such
directly controlling the government. resistance must be carefully considered.
6. Just War Theory: Augustine argues that 4. Kings are Subject to Priests: Aquinas
wars can be morally justified if fought for the asserts that even kings must adhere to
right reasons (e.g., self-defense) and should moral and divine law, positioning the Church
aim to restore peace. as an authority over rulers in moral matters.
7. Justice as the Foundation of the State: 5. Law as Pertaining to Reason: He defines
Justice, rooted in God’s will, must inform law as a rational principle guiding human
human laws, although these laws often fall actions toward the common good, stressing
short of divine justice. that laws should be logical and ethical.
8. True Happiness of the Ruler: A good ruler Summa Theologica
achieves happiness by serving God and
1. Law as Pertaining to Reason: Laws
seeking justice for the people, rather than
should be based on reason, guiding people
pursuing power for its own sake.
toward virtuous behavior and the common
9. Earthly and Heavenly Cities: The two good.
cities represent distinct lifestyles: one
2. Law Directed to the Common Good:
centered on divine love and the other on
Laws must benefit all members of society,
human desires and pride.
promoting community welfare rather than
10. Conflict and Peace in the Earthly City: individual interests.
Conflict in the City of Man arises from
3. Competence to Make Laws: Only those in
selfish desires, while true peace, stemming
legitimate authority (e.g., rulers) can create
from God, is ultimately unattainable in this
binding laws that reflect the community's
world.
needs.
11. Lust for Power in the Earthly City: Human
4. Promulgation of Laws: Effective laws must
governments can become corrupt due to the
be communicated to the public, as citizens
pursuit of power, leading to injustice and
cannot be expected to obey laws they do
oppression.
not know.
12. Limitation of Social Life: While social
5. Universality of Natural Law: Natural law,
institutions are necessary, they cannot
derived from human nature, applies
entirely overcome the selfishness inherent
universally, providing a moral framework for
in human nature.
behavior.
13. Shortcomings of Human Justice:
6. Human Law Derived from Natural Law:
Augustine expresses skepticism about
Human laws should mirror natural law
human justice, viewing it as always
principles, adapting them to specific societal
imperfect compared to God’s eternal and
contexts.
perfect justice.
7. Conscience and Human Law: Individuals
14. The Misery of War: War is seen as a tragic
are bound by human laws only if they align
outcome of human sin, driven by pride and
with natural law and promote justice.
greed, resulting in suffering and destruction.
8. Changing Human Laws: Aquinas cautions
15. Tranquility of Order in the Universe: True
against frequent changes to laws;
peace is defined as the order established by
modifications should occur only when
God, where all creation exists in harmony
necessary for societal improvement.
according to divine will.
St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy
Dante’s “De Monarchia”
1. Definition of Kingship: A king’s role is to
govern for the common good, prioritizing the 1. The End of Political Organization:
welfare of subjects over personal interests. Universal Peace: Dante argues that the
ultimate goal of political organization is to
 achieve universal peace, envisioning a establish law and order makes them ideal
society that strives for harmony beyond candidates for leading a world empire.
individual state interests. He emphasizes
9. The Source of Temporal Power: Dante
that peace is essential for human
argues that temporal power derives from
flourishing, and political structures should
divine authority, asserting that rulers receive
prioritize it over personal or regional
legitimacy through God, obligating them to
ambitions.
govern justly and uphold the common good.
2. World Peace through World Empire: This notion intertwines political authority
Dante asserts that true peace can only be with spiritual responsibility.
attained through the establishment of a
10. The Foundations of the Church
single world empire. He views this empire
Authority: In De Monarchia, Dante outlines
as necessary to maintain order, prevent
the Church's role as a spiritual authority that
conflicts, and unify diverse peoples under a
complements temporal power. He believes
common authority, thereby mitigating
the Church’s legitimacy also comes from
discord among nations.
divine sources, enabling it to guide moral
3. Monarchy as the Form of World and ethical standards within society.
Government: In De Monarchia, Dante
11. Church and Empire: Dante explores the
advocates for a universal monarchy as the
relationship between the Church and the
ideal governance form. He believes a
Empire, asserting that both institutions are
strong, singular ruler can unite diverse
necessary for a well-ordered society. He
groups and enforce laws, leading to peace
advocates for a balance between
and justice, highlighting the necessity of
ecclesiastical and secular authority to
centralized power for political stability.
achieve true harmony, promoting
4. The Oneness of Mankind and the cooperation between the two.
Oneness of God: Dante emphasizes the
12. The True Relations Between Temporal
interconnectedness of humanity and the
and Ecclesiastical Authority: Dante
divine. Just as God is one, humanity should
concludes that while temporal and
be unified under a single political authority,
ecclesiastical authorities have distinct roles,
reflecting his belief in a divine order
they must work together. The Empire
mirrored in human governance, promoting a
provides governance and law, while the
holistic view of society.
Church offers spiritual guidance, indicating
5. The Need for Authoritative Settlement of the interdependence of politics and
Disputes between States: Dante spirituality.
underscores the importance of a supreme
authority to resolve conflicts between states.
Without such authority, disputes are likely to Machiavelli’s “The Prince”
escalate into war, disrupting the quest for
peace. This reinforces his vision of a 1. Constant Readiness for War: Machiavelli
universal monarchy as the arbiter of emphasizes the necessity for a prince to
international relations. always be prepared for war, arguing that
military prowess is essential for maintaining
6. Freedom Under Monarch: While power and security. A strong military deters
advocating for monarchy, Dante asserts that external threats and ensures state stability,
true freedom is achieved under a just ruler. reflecting a pragmatic approach to
He argues that a virtuous monarch can governance.
foster conditions for liberty and the common
good, challenging the notion that monarchy 2. Why Princes are Praised or Blamed:
inherently restricts freedom. According to Machiavelli, a prince's
reputation is shaped by his actions and the
7. The Pax Romana: Dante draws inspiration outcomes of his rule. Successful princes
from the Pax Romana, viewing this maintain order and achieve favorable
historical period of relative peace across the results, while failures are blamed for
Roman Empire as a model for how a unified instability. Public perception is crucial for a
empire can provide security and promote prince's authority and longevity in power.
prosperity, suggesting a similar structure is
essential for contemporary society. 3. Liberality and Niggardliness: Machiavelli
discusses the balance between being
8. The Vocation of the Romans for World generous (liberal) and miserly (niggardly).
Rule: Dante posits that the Romans are While liberality can win popularity, excessive
uniquely suited for world governance due to generosity can deplete resources and foster
their historical role in unifying diverse resentment. A prince should be prudent,
cultures. He believes their ability to
 cultivating an image of generosity without
exhausting state wealth.
4. Cruelty and Clemency: Is it Better to be
Loved or Feared? Machiavelli asserts that
while being loved is ideal, it is more
effective for a prince to be feared. Fear
maintains control and order, but he warns
against being hated, which can lead to
rebellion. The best approach is a balance—
being feared enough to secure loyalty but
not so cruel that it breeds contempt.
5. In What Way Princes Must Keep Faith:
Machiavelli contends that princes must be
pragmatic about keeping their word. While it
is essential to appear trustworthy, a prince
may need to break promises if it serves the
greater good of the state. This flexibility is
critical for navigating the complexities of
political power.
6. The Usefulness of Fortresses: Machiavelli
sees fortresses as useful tools for
maintaining power, protecting against
internal unrest and external threats.
However, he warns that over-reliance on
fortresses can lead to complacency and
create a false sense of security.
7. How Princes Gain Reputation: A prince's
reputation is vital for his power. He must
cultivate an image that inspires respect and
fear through decisive and effective actions.
A well-crafted reputation enhances
authority, making the prince more
formidable against adversaries and
appealing to allies.