Chapter 3 Semiconductor Science and

Light-Emitting Diodes

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 Energy Bands in Metals

(a) Energy levels in a Li atom are discrete. (b) The energy levels corresponding to outer shells of
isolated Li atoms form an energy band inside the crystal, for example the 2s level forms a 2s band.
Energy levels form a quasi continuum of energy within the energy band. Various energy bands
overlap to give a single band of energies that is only partially full of electrons. There are states with
energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free. (c) A simplified energy band diagram
and the photoelectric effect.
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 Energy Bands in Metals

(a) Above 0 K, due to thermal excitation, some of the electrons are at energies above EF.
(b) The density of states, g(E) vs. E in the band. (c) The probability of occupancy of a
state at an energy E is f(E). The product g(E)f(E) is the number of electrons per unit
energy per unit volume or electron concentration per unit energy. The area under the
curve with the energy axis is the concentration of electrons in the band, n.
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 Energy Bands in Metals
Density of states Fermi-Dirac function

g ( E ) = 4 (2me )3 / 2 h −3 E1/ 2 = AE1/ 2 1

f (E) =
 E − EF 
1 + exp 
 k BT 

EF + 
n= g ( E ) f ( E )dE
0

 h  3n  2 2/3

EFO =   
 8me   
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 Energy Bands in Semiconductors

(a) A simplified two dimensional view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent
bonds. (b) The energy band diagram of electrons in the Si crystal at absolute zero of
temperature. The bottom of the VB has been assigned a zero of energy.
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 Energy Bands in Semiconductors

(a) A photon with an energy h greater than Eg can excite an electron from the VB to the
CB. (b) Each line between Si-Si atoms is a valence electron in a bond. When a photon
breaks a Si-Si bond, a free electron and a hole in the Si-Si bond is created. The result is
the photogeneration of an electron and a hole pair (EHP)
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 Hole Motion in a Semiconductor

A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band (VB) wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of
electrons from neighboring bonds; and its eventual recombination with a wandering electron in the conduction
band. A missing electron in a bond represents a hole as in (a). An electron in a neighboring bond can tunnel into
this empty state and thereby cause the hole to be displaced as in (a) to (d). The hole is able to wander around in
the crystal as if it were free but with a different effective mass than the electron. A wandering electron in the CB
meets a hole in the VB in (e), which results in the recombination and the filling of the empty VB state as in (f)
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 Semiconductor Statistics

(a) Energy band diagram.

(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of electrons per unit energy
per unit volume). The area under nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration.
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 Electron and Hole Drift Velocities

vde = eEx vdh = hEx

vde = Drift velocity of the electrons, e = Electron drift mobility, Ex = Applied
electric field, vdh = Drift velocity of the holes, h = Hole drift mobility

Conductivity of a Semiconductor
 = ene + eph
 = Conductivity, e = Electronic charge, n = Electron concentration in the CB, e =
Electron drift mobility, p = Hole concentration in the VB, h = Hole drift mobility

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 Electron Concentration in CB

Ec + 
n= gCB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

gCB ( E ) = 4 ( 2me )3 / 2 h −3 ( E − Ec )1 / 2  E − EF 
f ( E )  exp − 
= A( E − Ec )1 / 2  k BT 
Fermi-Dirac function 
Density of states in the CB
Boltzmann function

 ( Ec − E F ) 
n = N c exp − 
 k BT 

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 Electron Concentration in CB
 ( Ec − E F ) 
n = N c exp − 
 k B T 
n = Electron concentration in the CB
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Ec = Conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature (K)

Effective Density of States at CB Edge

3/ 2
 2m k T  *
N c = 2  e B
2
 h 
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = Effective mass of the electron
in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
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 Hole Concentration in VB
 ( E F − Ev ) 
p = N v exp − 
 k BT 
p = Hole concentration in the VB
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge
Ev = Valence band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, , T = Temperature (K)

Effective Density of States at VB Edge

3/ 2
 2m k T  *
N v = 2  h B
2
 h 
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = Effective mass of a hole in
the VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
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 Mass Action Law
 Eg 
np = n = N c N v exp − 2
i 
 k BT 
ni = intrinsic concentration
The np product is a “constant”, ni2, that depends on the material properties Nc, Nv,
Eg, and the temperature. If somehow n is increased (e.g. by doping), p must
decrease to keep np constant.

Mass action law applies

in thermal equilibrium
and
in the dark (no illumination)
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 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors
1 1  Nc 
EFi = Ev + E g − k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
EFi = Fermi energy in the intrinsic semiconductor
Ev = Valence band edge, Eg = Ec − Ev = Bandgap energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge

1 3  me* 
EFi = Ev + E g − k BT ln  * 
2 4  mh 
me* = Electron effective mass (CB), mh* = Hole effective mass (VB)

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 Average Electron Energy in CB
Average is found from



3
= Ec + k B T
Eg CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
ECB =
 g
Ec

CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
E CB
Ec
2
E CB = Average energy of electrons in the CB, Ec = Conduction band
edge, kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature
(3/2)kBT is also the average kinetic energy per atom in a monatomic
gas (kinetic molecular theory) in which the gas atoms move around
freely and randomly inside a container.
The electron in the CB behaves as if it were “free” with a mean
kinetic energy that is (3/2)kBT and an effective mass me*.
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 Fermi Energy
Fermi energy is a convenient way to represent free carrier concentrations (n in
the CB and p in the VB) on the energy band diagram.

However, the most useful property of EF is in terms of a change in EF.

Any change EF across a material system represents electrical work input or
output per electron.

EF = eV
For a semiconductor system in equilibrium, in the dark, and with no applied
voltage or no emf generated, EF = 0 and EF must be uniform across the system.

For readers familiar with thermodynamics, its rigorous definition is that EF is the
chemical potential of the electron, that is Gibbs free energy per electron. The
definition of EF anove is in terms of a change in EF.
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 Extrinsic Semiconductors: n-Type

(a) The four valence electrons of As allow it to bond just like Si but the fifth electron is
left orbiting the As site. The energy required to release to free fifth-electron into the CB
is very small. (b) Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm As. There are
donor energy levels just below Ec around As+ sites.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductors: n-Type
Nd >> ni, then at room temperature, the
electron concentration in the CB will
nearly be equal to Nd, i.e. n ≈ Nd

A small fraction of the large number of

electrons in the CB recombine with holes
in the VB so as to maintain np = ni2

np = ni2
n = Nd and p = ni2/Nd

 ni2 
 = eN d  e + e   h  eN d  e
 Nd 
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 Extrinsic Semiconductors: p-Type

(a) Boron doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons. When it substitutes for a
Si atom one of its bonds has an electron missing and therefore a hole. (b) Energy band
diagram for a p-type Si doped with 1 ppm B. There are acceptor energy levels just
above Ev around B− sites. These acceptor levels accept electrons from the VB and
therefore create holes in the VB.
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 Extrinsic Semiconductors: n-Type
Na >> ni, then at room temperature, the
hole concentration in the VB will nearly be
equal to Na, i.e. p ≈ Nd

A small fraction of the large number of

holes in the VB recombine with electrons
in the CB so as to maintain np = ni2

np = ni2
p = Na and n = ni2/Na

 ni2 
 = eN a h + e  e  eN a h
 Na 
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 Semiconductor energy band diagrams

Intrinsic, i-Si n-type p-type

n = p = ni n = Nd p = Na
p = ni2/Nd n = ni2/Na
np = ni2 np = ni2

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 Semiconductor energy band diagrams

Energy band diagrams for (a) intrinsic (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors. In all cases, np = ni2. Note that donor and acceptor energy
levels are not shown. CB = Conduction band, VB = Valence band, Ec = CB
edge, Ev = VB edge, EFi = Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor, EFn = Fermi
level in n-type semiconductor, EFp = Fermi level in p-type semiconductor.  is
the electron affinity. , n and p are the work functions for the intrinsic, n-
type and p-type semiconductors
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 Semiconductor Properties

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 Compensation Doping
Compensation doping describes the doping of a semiconductor with both donors and
acceptors to control the properties.
Example: A p-type semiconductor doped with Na acceptors can be converted to an n-
type semiconductor by simply adding donors until the concentration Nd exceeds Na.
The effect of donors compensates for the effect of acceptors.
The electron concentration n = Nd − Na > ni
When both acceptors and donors are present, electrons from donors recombine with the
holes from the acceptors so that the mass action law np = ni2 is obeyed.
We cannot simultaneously increase the electron and hole concentrations because that
leads to an increase in the recombination rate which returns the electron and hole
concentrations to values that satisfy np = ni2.

Nd > Na
n = Nd − Na
p = ni2/(Nd − Na)
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 Summary of Compensation Doping
More donors than acceptors N d − N a  ni
2 2
n = Nd − Na n n
p= = i i
n Nd − Na

More acceptors than donors N a − N d  ni

2 2
n n
p = Na − Nd n= = i i
p Na − Nd
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 Degenerate Semiconductors

(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors form a band that
overlaps the CB. Ec is pushed down and EFn is within the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type
semiconductor.
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 Energy bands bend
in an applied field
Energy band diagram of an n-type
semiconductor connected to a voltage
supply of V volts.

The whole energy diagram tilts because

the electron now also has an electrostatic
potential energy.

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Example: Fermi levels in semiconductors
An n-type Si wafer has been doped uniformly with 1016 phosphorus (P) atoms cm–3. Calculate the
position of the Fermi energy with respect to the Fermi energy EFi in intrinsic Si. The above n-type Si
sample is further doped with 21017 boron atoms cm–3. Calculate position of the Fermi energy with
respect to the Fermi energy EFi in intrinsic Si at room temperature (300 K), and hence with respect to
the Fermi energy in the n-type case above.

Solution
P (Group V) gives n-type doping with Nd = 1016 cm–3, and since Nd >> ni ( = 1010
cm–3 from Table 3.1), we have n = Nd = 1016 cm–3. For intrinsic Si,
ni = Ncexp[−(Ec − EFi)/kBT]
whereas for doped Si,
n = Ncexp[−(Ec − EFn)/kBT] = Nd
where EFi and EFn are the Fermi energies in the intrinsic and n-type Si. Dividing
the two expressions
Nd /ni = exp[(EFn − EFi)/kBT]
so that
EFn − EFi = kBTln(Nd/ni) = (0.0259 eV) ln(1016/1010) = 0.358 eV
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Example: Fermi levels in semiconductors
Solution (Continued)

When the wafer is further doped with boron, the acceptor concentration, Na =
21017 cm–3 > Nd = 1016 cm–3. The semiconductor is compensation doped and
compensation converts the semiconductor to a p-type Si. Thus,
p = Na − Nd = 21017−1016 = 1.91017 cm–3.
For intrinsic Si,
p = ni = Nvexp[−(EFi − Ev)/kBT],
whereas for doped Si,
p = Nvexp[−(EFp − Ev)/kBT] = Na − Nd
where EFi and EFp are the Fermi energies in the intrinsic and p–type Si
respectively Dividing the two expressions,
p/ni = exp[−(EFp − EFi)/kBT]
so that
EFp − EFi = −kBT ln(p/ni)
= −(0.0259 eV)ln(1.91017/1.01010) = −0.434 eV
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Example: Conductivity of n-Si
Consider a pure intrinsic Si crystal. What would be its intrinsic conductivity at 300K? What is the
electron and hole concentrations in an n-type Si crystal that has been doped with 1016 cm–3
phosphorus (P) donors. What is the conductivity if the drift mobility of electrons is about 1200 cm2
V-1 s-1 at this concentration of dopants.

Solution
The intrinsic concentration ni = 1×1010 cm-3, so that the intrinsic conductivity is
 = eni(e + h) = (1.6×10-19 C)( 1×1010 cm-3)(1450 + 490 cm2 V-1 s-1)
= 3.1×10-6 -1 cm-1 or 3.1×10-4 -1 m-1
Consider n-type Si. Nd = 1016 cm-3 > ni (= 1010 cm-3), the electron concentration
n = Nd = 1016 cm-3 and
p = ni2/Nd = (1010 cm-3)2/(1016 cm-3) = 104 cm-3
and negligible compared to n.
The conductivity is
 = eNd e = (1.6 10−19 C)(11016 cm−3 )(1200 cm2 V −1s −1 ) = 1.92 Ω−1cm−1

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 Electrons in Semiconductor Crystals

The electron PE, V(x), inside the crystal is periodic with the same periodicity as that of the
Crystal, a. Far away outside the crystal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
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 Electrons in Semiconductor Crystals
Periodic Potential Energy

V(x) = V(x + ma) ; m = 1, 2, 3

d  2 me
2

2
+ 2 [ E − V ( x )] = 0
dx 
Electron wave vector
Quantized

k(x) = Uk(x)exp(jkx)
Bloch electron wavefunction
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 Electrons in Semiconductor Crystals
k(x,t) Periodic Potential Energy

k(x) = Uk(x)exp(jkx) × exp(−jt)

k is quantized. Each k represents a particular k

Each k and k have an energy Ek

Electron’s crystal momentum = k
External force = d(k) / dt
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 Electrons in Semiconductor Crystals
Periodic Potential Energy in 3 D

V(r) = V(r + mT) ; m = 1, 2, 3

Crystal structure is very important

k is quantized. Each k represents a particular k

k(x) = Uk(r)exp(jkr)

Ek vs k
Crystal momentum
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 E vs. k Diagrams

The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as GaAs. The E-k curve consists of many
discrete points with each point corresponding to a possible state, wavefunction k(x), that is
allowed to exist in the crystal. The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as
a continuous curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points, i.e. no k(x) solutions
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 E vs. k Diagrams and Direct and
Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced
from the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c)
Recombination of an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .

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 pn Junction
Properties of the pn junction
(a) The p- and n- sides of the pn junction
before the contact.
(b) The pn junction after contact, in
equilibrium and in open circuit.
(c) Carrier concentrations along the whole
device, through the pn junction. At all
points, npoppo = nnopno = ni2.
(d) Net space charge density net across the
pn junction.

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 pn Junction
(e) The electric field across the pn
junction is found by integrating net
in (d).
(f) The potential V(x) across the
device. Contact potentials are not
shown at the semiconductor-metal
contacts now shown.
(g) Hole and electron potential
energy (PE) across the pn junction.
Potential energy is charge 
potential = q V

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 Ideal pn Junction
Acceptor concentration Donor concentration

Depletion Widths

N aWp = N dWn
Net space charge density
Field (E) and net space charge density

dE  net ( x )
=
dx 
Field in depletion region Permittivity of the medium

1 x


E( x) =  net ( x )dx
−W p

Electric Field
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 Ideal pn Junction
Built-in field
eN dWn
Eo = −

 = o r
Built-in voltage

kT  N a N d 
Vo = ln  2  ni is the intrinsic concentration
e  ni 
Depletion region width

 2 (N a + N d )Vo 
1/ 2

Wo =  
 eN a N d 
where Wo = Wn+ Wp is the total width of the depletion region under a zero applied
voltage
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 N1 = ppo N2 = pno Law of the Junction
E1 = PE2 = 0 E2 = PE1 = eVo
Apply Boltzmann Statistics (can only be
used with nondegenerate semiconductors)

N2  ( E2 − E1 ) 
= exp − 
N1  k B T 

pno  (eVo − 0) 
= exp − 
p po  k B T 

pno  eVo 
= exp − 
p po  k BT 
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 Law of the Junction
Apply Boltzmann Statistics

pno  eVo 
= exp − 
p po  k BT 

n po  eVo 
= exp − 
nno  k BT 

k BT  p po  k BT  N a N d 
Vo = ln   = ln  2 
e  pno  e  ni 

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 Forward Biased pn Junction

Forward biased pn junction and the injection of minority carriers (a) Carrier concentration
profiles across the device under forward bias. (b). The hole potential energy with and
without an applied bias. W is the width of the SCL with forward bias

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 Forward Bias: Apply Boltzmann Statistics
N2  ( E2 − E1 )  N1 = ppo
= exp − 
N1  k B T 
N2 = pn(0)

pn (0)  e(Vo − V )   eVo   eV 

= exp −  = exp 
 − 
 exp  
p po  k BT   k BT   k BT 

pno/ppo

 eV 
pn (0) = pno exp 
 k BT 

Note: pn(0) is the hole concentration just outside the depletion region on the n-side

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 Forward Bias
Law of the Junction: Minority Carrier Concentrations and Voltage

 eV 
pn (0) = pno exp 
 k BT 
 eV 
n p (0 ) = n po exp 
 k BT 
pn(0) is the hole concentration just outside the depletion region
on the n-side

np(0) is the electron concentration just outside the depletion

region on the p-side
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 Forward Bias: Minority Carrier Profile
Assumptions
No field in the neutral region (pure diffusion)
Neutral region is very long

1/Lh = Mean probability of recombination per

unit distance; or mean distance diffused

Change in excess hole concentration due to

recombination over a small distance x
would be

x
pn ( x' ) = − pn ( x' )
Lh

 x' 
pn ( x' ) = pn (0) exp − 
 Lh 
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current

dpn(x') dpn ( x' )

J D ,hole = −eDh = −eDh
dx' dx '

 eDh   x' 
J D ,hole =  pn (0) exp − 
 Lh   Lh 

 eDh ni2    eV  
J D ,hole =   exp  − 1
 Lh N d    k BT  
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current

dpn(x') dpn ( x' )

J D ,hole = −eDh = −eDh
dx' dx '

 eDh   x' 
J D ,hole =   pn (0) exp − 
 Lh   Lh 

 eDh ni2    eV  
J D ,hole =   exp  − 1
 Lh N d    k BT  
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 Forward Bias: Total Current

The total current anywhere in the device is constant. Just outside the depletion region it is
due to the diffusion of minority carriers.
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current
Hole diffusion current in n-side in the neutral region

 eDh ni2    eV 
J D ,hole =   exp − 1
 Lh N d    k BT 

There is a similar expression for the electron

diffusion current density JD,elec in the p-region.

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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current
Ideal diode (Shockley) equation

  eV  
J = J so exp  − 1
  k BT  
Reverse saturation current

 eDh   eDe  2
J so =   +   ni
 Lh N d   Le N a 
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current
Ideal diode (Shockley) equation Jso depends strongly on the
material (e.g. bandgap) and
temperature

 eDh eDe  2   eV  
J =  + ni exp  − 1
 Lh N d Le N a    k BT  
Intrinsic concentration

 Eg 
n = N c N v exp −
2
i 
 k BT 
ni depends strongly on the material
(e.g. bandgap) and temperature
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 Ge, Si and GaAs Diodes: Typical Characteristics

I
Ge Si GaAs

1 mA
V
0.2 0.6 1.0
Schematic sketch of the I−V characteristics of Ge, Si, and GaAs pn junctions.
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current
Short Diode

ln and lp represent the lengths of the neutral n- and p-regions outside the depletion region.
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 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current
Short Diode

 eDh eD    eV  
J = + e ni exp
2
 
 − 1
l N 
 n d l p N a    k B T  

ln and lp represent the lengths of the neutral n- and p-regions outside the
depletion region.

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 Forward Bias: Recombination Current

Forward biased pn junction, the injection of carriers and their recombination in the SCL.
Recombination of electrons and holes in the depletion region involves the current
supplying the carriers.
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 Forward Bias: Recombination Current

A symmetrical pn junction for calculating the

recombination current.
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 Forward Bias: Recombination Current

eABC eBCD
J recom  +
e h

pM  e(Vo − V ) 
= exp − 
p po  2 k B T 

 eV 
pM = ni exp 
 2k B T 

eni Wp Wn   eV 
J recom    +   exp 2k T 
2  e h   B 
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 Forward Bias: Recombination and Total Current
Recombination Current

 W p Wn 
J recom = J ro [exp(eV / 2k BT ) − 1]
en
where J ro = i  + 
2  e h 
Total diode current = diffusion + recombination

 eV   eV  k BT
J = J so exp  + J ro exp  V
 k BT   2 k BT  e
The diode equation

  eV   General diode
J = J o exp  − 1
  k BT   equation
where Jo is a new constant and is an ideality factor
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 Typical I-V characteristics of Ge, Si and GaAs pn junctions

Typical I-V characteristics of Ge, Si and GaAs pn junctions as log(I) vs. V. The slope
indicates e/( kBT)

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 Reverse Bias

Reverse biased pn junction. (a) Minority carrier profiles and the origin of the reverse
current. (b) Hole PE across the junction under reverse bias
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 Reverse Bias

Total Reverse Current

Thermal generation in depletion region

 eDh eDe  2 eWni

J rev =  + ni +
 Lh N d Le N a  g
Mean thermal generation time

Diffusion current in neutral regions

the Shockley reverse current

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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 Reverse Current

Left: Reverse I-V characteristics of a pn junction (the positive and negative current axes have different
scales). Right: Reverse diode current in a Ge pn junction as a function of temperature in a ln(Irev) vs
1/T plot. Above 238 K, Irev is controlled by ni2 and below 238 K it is controlled by ni. The vertical axis
is a logarithmic scale with actual current values. (From D. Scansen and S.O. Kasap, Cnd. J. Physics.
70, 1070-1075, 1992.)

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 Depletion Capacitance: Cdep

(a) Depletion region has negative (−Q) charges in Wp and positive (+Q) charges in Wp, which are
separated as in a capacitor. Under a reverse bias Vr, the charge on the n-side is +Q. When the reverse
bias is increased by Vr, this charge increases by Q. (b) Cdep vs voltage across an abrupt pn junction
for 3 different set of dopant concentrations. (Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic.)
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 Dynamic Resistance and Capacitance

(a) The forward voltage across a pn junction increases by V, which leads to further minority carrier
injection and a larger forward current, which is increases by I. Additional minority carrier charge Q
is injected into the n-side. The increase Q in charge stored in the n-side with V appears as a though
there is a capacitance across the diode. (b) The increase V results in an increase I in the diode
current. The dynamic or incremental resistance rd = V/I. (c) A simplified equivalent circuit for a
forward biased pn junction for small signals.
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 Forward Bias Dynamic Resistance and Capacitance
pn junction current I = Ioexp(eV/kBT) I = Q/h

dV Vth
Dynamic resistance rd = = Vth = kBT/e
dI I

dQ
Diffusion capacitance Cdiff =
dV
 hI h
Diffusion capacitance Cdiff = =
Vth rd

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 Forward Bias Diffusion Capacitance

dQ
Diffusion capacitance Cdiff =
dV

Diffusion  hI h
capacitance, Cdiff = =
long diode (ac) 2Vth 2rd

tI t
Minority
Diffusion carrier transit
capacitance, short Cdiff = = time
t = ln2 / 2Dh
diode (ac) Vth rd
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 Depletion Capacitance: Cdep

Q dQ
Cdep = = Definition
V dV

1/ 2
A A  e ( N a N d ) 
Cdep = =  2( N + N ) 
W (Vo − V )1 / 2  a d 

1/ 2
 eN d 
Cdep = A 
 2(Vo − V ) 
Depletion layer capacitance for p+n
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EXAMPLE : A direct bandgap pn junction

Consider a symmetrical GaAs pn junction which has the following

properties. Na (p-side doping) = Nd (n-side doping) = 1017 cm- 3(or
1023 m- 3), direct recombination coefficient B  210-16 m3 s-1, cross
sectional area A = 1 mm2. Suppose that the forward voltage across
the diode V = 0.80 V. What is the diode current due to minority carrier
diffusion at 27 C (300 K) assuming direct recombination. If the
mean minority carrier lifetime in the depletion region were to be the
same as this lifetime, what would be the recombination component of
the diode current? What are the two contributions at V = 1.05 V ?
What is your conclusion? Note that at 300 K, GaAs has an intrinsic
concentration (ni) of 2.1  106 cm-3 and a relative permittivity (r) of
13.0 The hole drift mobility (h) in the n-side is 250 cm2 V-1 s-1 and
electron drift mobility (e) in the p-side is 5000 cm2 V-1 s-1 (these are
at the doping levels given).
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EXAMPLE : A direct bandgap pn junction

Solution
Assuming weak injection, we can calculate the recombination times e and h for
electrons and holes recombining in the neutral p and n-regions respectively. Using
S.I. units throughout, and taking kBT/e = 0.02585 V, and since this is a symmetric
device,

1 1
h =e  = = 5 .00  10 −8
s
BN a (2.0 10 −16 m 3s −1 )(110 23 m −3 )

To find the Shockley current we need the diffusion coefficients and lengths.
The Einstein relation gives the diffusion coefficients as

Dh = µhkBT/e = (250 10-4) (0.02585) = 6.46 10-4 m2 s-1,

De = µekBT/e = (5000 10-4) (0.02585) = 1.29 10-2 m2 s-1.

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Solution (continued)
where kBT /e was taken as 0.02585 V. The diffusion lengths are easily calculated as
Lh = (Dhh)1/2 = (6.46 -4 m2 s-1)(50.0 -9 s)]1/2 = 5.69 -6 m,
Le = (Dee) 1/2 = (1.29 -2 m2 s-1)(50.0 -9s)]1/2 = 2.54 -5 m.
Notice that the electrons diffuse much further in the p-side. The reverse
saturation current due to diffusion in the neutral regions is
 D D 
I so = A h + e eni2
 Lh N d Le N a 
−6 6.46  10−4 1.29  10−2 
= (10 )  −6
+ −5 23 
(1.6  10−19 )(2.1  1012 )2
 (5.69  10 )(10 ) ( 2.54  10 )(10 ) 
23

 4.4  10−21 A

Thus, the forward diffusion current at V = 0.80 V is

 eV 
I diff = I so exp 
 k BT 
 0.80 V 
= (4.4  10−21 A) exp   = 1.2  10 −7
A or 0.12 μA
 0.02585 V 
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Solution (continued)
Recombination component of the current is quite difficult to calculate because we
need to know the mean electron and hole recombination times in the SCL. Suppose
that, as a first order, we assume that these recombination times are as above.
The built-in voltage Vo is
k T N N   10231023 
Vo = B ln  a 2 d  = (0.02585) ln  12 2 
= 1.27 V
e  ni   (2.110 ) 
Depletion layer width W is
1/ 2
 2 ( N a + N d )(Vo − V ) 
W = 
 eN a N d 
1/ 2
 2(13)(8.85 10 F m )(10 + 10 m )(1.27 − 0.80 V) 
−12 −1 23 23 −3
= −19 −3 −3 
 (1.6  10 C)(10 23
m )(10 23
m ) 
= 1.16 10 −7 m, or 0.116 μm.
As this is a symmetric diode, Wp = Wn = W /2. The pre-exponential Iro is
Aeni W p Wn  Aeni  W 
I ro =  + =  
2  e h  2  e 
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Solution (continued)
(10−6 )(1.6 10−19 )(2.11012 )  1.16 10 −7 
=  −8 
 3.9 10−13 A
2  5.00 10 
so that at V = 0.8 V,
 eV 
I recom  I ro exp 
 2 k BT 
 0.8 V 
 (3.9  10−13 A) exp   = 2.0  10 −6
A or 2.1 μA
 2(0.02585 V ) 
The recombination current is more than an order of magnitude greater than
the diffusion current. If we repeat the calculation for a voltage of 1.05 V across the
device, then we would find Idiff = 1.9 mA and Irecom = 0.18 mA, where Idiff
dominates the current. Thus, as the voltage increases across a GaAs pn junction, the
ideality factor η is initially 2 but then becomes 1 as showm in Figure 3.20.
The EHP recombination that occurs in the SCL and the neutral regions in
this GaAs pn junction case would result in photon emission, with a photon energy
that is approximately Eg. This direct recombination of injected minority carriers and
the resulting emission of photons represent the principle of operation of the Light
Emitting Diode (LED).
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 LEFT: Consider p- and n-type semiconductor (same material) before the formation of the
pn junction,, separated from each and not interacting. RIGHT: After the formation of the
pn junction, there is a built-in voltage across the junction.

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 Energy band diagrams for a pn junction under
(a) open circuit and (b) forward bias

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 Energy band diagrams for a pn junction under reverse bias
LEFT: Shockley model
RIGHT: Thermal generation in the depletion region

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 Basic LED Principle

(a) The energy band diagram of a pn+ (heavily n-type doped) junction without any bias.
Built-in potential Vo prevents electrons from diffusing from n+ to p side.
(b) The applied bias reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the
p-side. Recombination around the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in
the p-side leads to photon emission.

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 Light Emitting Diodes

(a) The energy band diagram of a pn+ (heavily n-type doped) junction without any bias. Built-in
potential Vo prevents electrons from diffusing from n+ to p side. (b) The applied bias potential V
reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the p-side. Recombination around
the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in the p-side leads to spontaneous photon
emission. (c) Quasi-Fermi levels EFp and EFn for holes and electrons across a forward biased pn-
junction.
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EXAMPLE : The built-in voltage from the band diagram
Derive the expression for the built-in voltage Vo using the energy band diagram.
Solution
The extent of band bending from gives the PE barrier eVo, thus

eVo = Φp − Φn = EFn − EFp (before contact)

Before the contact, on the n-side we have

n = Ncexp[− (Ec − EFn )/kBT ] = Nd

so that
Ec − EFn = − kBT ln (Nd / Nc ) (3.9.1)

On the p-side n = Ncexp[− (Ec − EFp )/kBT ] = ni2/Na

so that Ec − EFp = − kBT ln[ni2 / (Na Nc )] (3.9.2)

Subtracting Eq. (3.9.2) from (3.9.1) gives

eVo = EFn − EFp = kBT ln[(Na Nd )/ ni2]

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 Light Emitting Diodes

UV LED
(Photos by SK) Courtesy of Chris Collins
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 LED Light Bulbs

(Photos by SK)

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 Light Emitting Diodes

(Photo by SK)

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 Light Emitting Diodes

LUXEON Rebel ES white

emitting LED (Courtesy of
Philips Lumileds)
This multichip LED from Osram is
used in microprojectors. It is based on
thin film GaN technology. (Courtesy
of Osram)

Snap LED emitting in the amber for

automotive signaling applications.
The lamp includes the driver under
the LED (Courtesy of Philips
Lumileds)
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 Microprojector using LEDs

A handheld microprojector MPro120 from 3M for projecting photos and videos

on a wall uses LEDs for its projection light. (Courtesy fo 3M)

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 Semiconductor Heterostructures
Herbert Kroemer (left), along with Zhores Alferov
(See Ch. 4), played a key role in the development of
semiconductor heterostructuctures that are widely
used in modern optoelectronics. Herbert Kroemer
was also well-recognized for his experimental work
on the fabrication of heterostructures by using an
atomic layer-by-layer crystal growth technique called
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE); the equipment
shown behind Professor Kroemer in the photo.
Since 1976, Professor Kroemer has been with the
University of California, Santa Barbara where he
continues his research. Herbert Kroemer and
Zhores Alferov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics
(2000) with Jack Kilby. Their Nobel citation is "for
developing semiconductor heterostructures used in
high-speed- and opto-electronics" (Courtesy of
Professor Herbert Kroemer, University of California,
Santa Barbara)

See H. Kroemer, Rev. Mod. Phys., 73, 783, 2001

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 Heterojunctions

Two types of heterojunction and the definitions of band offsets, Type I and Type II between two
semiconductor crystals 1 and 2. Crystal 1 has a narrower bandgap Eg1 than Eg2 for crystal 2. Note that
the semiconductors are not in contact so that the Fermi level in each is different. In this example,
crystal 1 (GaAs) is p-type and crystal 2 (AlGaAs) is N-type.
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 Np heterojunction energy band diagram. Under open circuit and equilibrium conditions, the
Fermi level EF must be uniform, i.e. continuous throughout the device. If EF is close to the
conduction band (CB) edge, Ec, it results in an n-type, and if it is close to the valence band
(VB) edge, Ev, it results in a p-type semiconductor. There is a discontinuity Ec in Ec, and
Ev in Ev, right at the junction.
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 pP heterojunction energy band diagram. (Schematic only to illustrate general features).
Under open circuit and equilibrium conditions, the Fermi level EF must be uniform, i.e.
continuous throughout the device. If EF is close to the conduction band (CB) edge, Ec, it
results in an n-type, and if it is close to the valence band (VB) edge, Ev, it results in a p-type
semiconductor. There is a discontinuity Ec in Ec, and Ev in Ev, right at the junction.
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 Light Emitting Diodes

(a) The energy band diagram of a pn+ (heavily n-type doped) junction without any bias. Built-in
potential Vo prevents electrons from diffusing from n+ to p side. (b) The applied bias potential V
reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the p-side. Recombination around
the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in the p-side leads to spontaneous photon
emission. (c) Quasi-Fermi levels EFp and EFn for holes and electrons across a forward biased pn-
junction.
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 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
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 Emission Spectrum

ho  Eg + 12 k BT
h = mk BT
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 Emission Spectrum

(a) A typical output spectrum (relative intensity vs. wavelength) from an IR (infrared) AlGaAs LED.
(b) The output spectrum of the LED in (a) at 3 temperatures: 25 C, −40 C and 85 C. Values
normalized to peak emission at 25 C. The spectral widths are FWHM.

ho  Eg + 12 k BT
h = mk BT
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 Emission Spectrum
The output spectrum at 3
temperatures: 25 C, −40 C and
85 C. Values normalized to peak
emission at 25 C. The spectral
widths are FWHM

The plot of plot 2 vs. T for an

AlGaAs infrared LED, using the
peak wavelength o and spectral
width  at three different
temperatures

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EXAMPLE: LED spectral linewidth
We know that a spread in the output wavelengths is related to a spread in the emitted photon energies.
The emitted photon energy hυ = hc / λ. Assume that the spread in the photon energies (h υ)  3kBT
between the half intensity points. Show that the corresponding linewidth Δλ between the half intensity
points in the output spectrum is
3k BT
 = o2 LED spectral linewidth (3.11.3)
hc
where λo is the peak wavelength. What is the spectral linewidth of an optical communications LED
operating at 1310 nm and at 300 K?

Solution
First consider the relationship between the photon frequency υ and λ,
c hc
= =
 h
in which h υ is the photon energy. We can differentiate this
d hc 2
=− =− (3.11.4)
d (h ) (h ) 2
hc
The negative indicates that increasing the photon energy decreases the
wavelength. We are only interested in changes, thus Δ λ / Δ(hυ)  |dλ /d(hυ)|, and
this spread should be around λ = λo , so that Eq. (3.11.4) gives,
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EXAMPLE : LED spectral linewidth
Solution (continued)
o2 3k BT
 = (h ) = o2
hc hc
where we used (hυ) = 3kBT. We can substitute λ = 1310 nm, and T = 300 K to
calculate the linewidth of the 1310 nm LED

−23
3k T 3(1.38  10 )(300)
 = 2 B −9 2
= (1310  10 )
hc (6.626  10−34 )(3  108 )
= 1.07 × 10-7 m or 107 nm

The spectral linewidth of an LED output is due to the spread in the photon
energies, which is fundamentally about 3kBT. The only option for decreasing Δ λ
at a given wavelength is to reduce the temperature. The output spectrum of a
laser, on the other hand, has a much narrower linewidth.
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EXAMPLE: LED spectral width
Consider the three experimental points in Figure 3.32 (b) as a function of temperature. By a suitable
plot find m and verify
3k BT
 = o2
hc LED spectral linewidth (3.11.3)
Solution
From Example,3.11.1, we can use the Eq. (3.11.3). with m instead of 3 as follows
  mk B 
=  T LED linewidth and temperature (3.11.5)
o  hc 
2

and plot 2 vs. T. The slope of the best line forced through zero should give
mk/hc and hence m. Using the three o and  values in the inset of Figure
3.32(b), we obtain the graph in Figure 3.34. The best line is forced through zero to
follow Eq. (3.11.5), and gives a slope of 1.95×10-7 nm-1 K-1 or 195 m-1 K-1. Thus,

m(1.38 10 −23 J K -1 )

−1
slope = 195 m K =
(6.626 10 −34 J s)(3 108 m s −1 )
so that m = 2.81
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EXAMPLE: LED spectral width
Solution (continued)
8
AlGaAs LED
7
104  6
o 5
(m-1) 4
Slope = 195 m -1 K-1
3
m = 2.8
2
1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (K)

The plot of plot 2 vs. T for an AlGaAs infrared LED, using
the peak wavelength o and spectral width  at three different
temperatures, using the data shown in the table.
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EXAMPLE: Dependence of the emission peak and
linewidth on temperature
Using the Varshni equation, Eq. (3.11.2), Eg = Ego − AT2/(B + T), find the shift in the peak
wavelength (λo) emitted from a GaAs LED when it is cooled from 25 C to -25 C. The Varshni
constants for GaAs are, Ego = 1.519 eV, A = 5.41 × 10−4 eV K−1, B = 204 K.
Solution
At T = 298 K, using the Varshni equation
Eg = Ego − AT2/(B + T)
= 1.519 eV − (5.41 × 10−4 eV K-1)(298 K)2/(204 K + 298 K) = 1.423 eV.

At 298 K, (1/2) kBT = 0.0128 eV. The peak emission is at ho  Eg + (1/2) kBT. Using
o = c/o, we get
ch (3 108 m s −1 )(6.626 10−34 J s) /1.602 10 −19 eV J -1 )
o = = = 864.2 nm
( E g + 2 k BT )
1
(1.4223eV + 0.0128eV)

At −25 C or , 248 K, (1/2) kBT = 0.0107 eV, repeating the above calculation,
Eg = 1.519 eV − (5.41 × 10−4 eV K-1)(248 K)2/(204 K + 248 K) = 1.445 eV
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EXAMPLE: Dependence on the emission peak and
linewidth on temperature
Solution (continued)
and the new peak emission wavelength 0 is
(3  108 m s−1 )(6.626  10−34 J s) /(1.602  10−19 eV J -1 )
o = = 852.4 nm
(1.445 eV + 0.01069 eV)
The change  = o − 0 = 864.2 − 852.4 = 11.8 nm over 50 C, or 0.24 nm / C.

The examination of the Figure

3.32(b) shows that the change in the
peak wavelength per unit
temperature in the range −40 C to
85 C is roughly the same. Because
of the small change, we kept four
significant figures in Eg and o
calculations.

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 Emission Spectrum

(a) Forward biased degenerately doped pn junction. Ec is lower than Ec in the bulk
and Ev is higher than Ev in the bulk and the bandgap Eg is narrower than in the bulk.
The quasi-Fermi levels EFn and EFp overlap around the junction. (b) The transitions
involved in a degenerately doped pn junction.

Emission spectral width in frequency or (h)

 (Eg + EFn + 1.5 kBT) − Eg = EFn + 1.5 kBT

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 Quantum Wells

(a) A single quantum well (SQW) of a smaller bandgap material (Eg1) of thickness d
along x surrounded by a thicker material of wider bandgap (Eg2). (b) The electron
energy levels associated with motion along x are quantized as E1, E2, E3 etc. Each
level is characterized by a quantum number n. (c) The density of states for a bulk
semiconductor and a QW.

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 Quantum Wells
A QW structure that shows the
energy levels in the wells and
how charge carriers that are
brought in by the current fall
into the lowest energy level in
the well and then recombine,
emitting a photon. The electrons
at a particular energy level also
have kinetic energies in the yz
plane, which is not quantized.
The electrons are therefore
spread in energy above En as
shown. The same notion also
applies to holes in the Ev well.

2 2
hn  k 2 2
 k 2 2
En = Ec + * 2 + +
y z
* *
8me d 2m 2m e e
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EXAMPLE: Energy levels in the quantum well
Consider a GaAs QW sandwiched between two Al0.40Ga0.60As layers. Suppose that the barrier
height Ec is 0.30 eV, the electron effective mass in the well is 0.067me and the width of the QW
(d) is 12 nm. Calculate the energy levels E1 and E2 from the bottom of the well (Ec) assuming an
infinite PE well as in Eq. (1). Compare these with the calculations for a finite PE well that give
0.022 eV, 0.088 and 0.186 for n =1, 2 and 3.

Solution
We use Eq. (1) with me* = 0.067me,, d = 12×− nm, so that for n =1,
h2n 2 (6.624 10−34 J s) 2 (1) 2 / (1.602 10 −19 J eV -1 )
En = En − Ec = * 2 = = 0.039 eV
8me d 8(0.067  9.110−31 kg )(12 10−9 m ) 2

We can repeat the above calculation for n = 2 and 3 to find E2 = 0.156 eV and
E3 = 0.351 eV. The third level will be above the well depth (Ec = 0.3 eV).
Clearly, the infinite QW predicts higher energy levels, by a factor of 1.8, and puts
the third level inside the well not outside. The finite QW calculation is not simple,
and involves a numerical solution.

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 Multiple Quantum Wells

A schematic illustration of the comparison of light

power output vs. current characteristics for a SQW
and a MQW LED
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 LED Materials

Free space wavelength coverage by different LED materials from the visible spectrum to the
infrared including wavelengths used in optical communications. Hatched region and dashed lines
are indirect Eg materials. Only material compositions of importance have been shown.
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 LED Materials

InGaAsP 1300nm LED emitters,

each pigtailed to an optical fiber
for use in ruggedized optical
communication modems and
lower speed data / analog
transmission systems.
(Courtesy of OSI Laser Diode,
Inc)

Bandgap energy Eg and lattice constant a for various III-V alloys of GaP, GaAs, InP and InAs. A line
represents a ternary alloy formed with compounds from the end points of the line. Solid lines are for direct
bandgap alloys whereas dashed lines for indirect bandgap alloys. Regions between lines represent
quaternary alloys. The line from X to InP represents quaternary alloys In1-xGaxAs1-yPy made from
In0.53Ga0.47As and InP, which are lattice matched to InP.
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 Typical LEDs

A schematic illustration of various typical LED structures. (a) A planar

surface emitting homojunction green GaP:N LED (b) AlGaInP high intensity
heterostructure LED.

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 III-Nitride LEDs
Shuji Nakamura, obtained his PhD from the University
of Tokushima in Japan, and is currently a Professor at
the University of California at Santa Barbara and the
Director of Solid State Lighting and Energy Center. He
has been credited with the pioneering work that has led
to the development of GaN and InxGa1-xN based blue
and violet light emitting diodes and laser diodes. He
discovered how III-Nitrides could doped p-type, which
opened the way to fabricating various UV, violet, blue
and green LEDs. He holds the violet laser diode in the
left side picture. He is holding a blue laser diode that is
turned on. (Courtesy of Randy Lam, University of
California, Santa Barbara)

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 III-Nitride LEDs

A schematic illustration of various typical LED structures. III-Nitride based

(GaN/InGaN) MQW LED for emission from the UV to green.
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 UV LEDS

UV emitting LEDs (Courtesy of Sensor Electronic Technology Inc.)

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 Light Extraction

(a) Some of the internally generated light suffers total internal reflection (TIR) at the
semiconductor/air interface and cannot be emitted into the outside. (b) A simple structure that
overcomes the TIR problem by placing the LED chip at the centre of a hemispherical plastic dome.
The epoxy is refractive index matched to the semiconductor and the rays reaching the dome's
surface do not suffer TIR. (b) An example of a textured surface that allows light to escape after a
couple of (or more) reflections (highly exaggerated sketch).

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 DBR LED and RCLED

(d) A distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), that is a dielectric mirror, under the
confining layer (below the active region in grey) acts as a dielectric mirror,
and increases the extraction ratio. (e) An RCLED is an LED with an optical
resonant cavity (RC) formed by two DBRs has a narrower emission
spectrum.

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EXAMPLE: Light extraction from a bare LED chip
As shown in (a), due to total internal reflection (TIR) at
the semiconductor- air surface, only a fraction of the
emitted light can escape from the chip. The critical angle
c is determined by sinc = na /n s where na and ns are the
refractive indices of the ambient (e.g. for air, na = 1) and
the semiconductor respectively. The light within the
escape cone defined by c can escape into the ambient
without TIR as indicated in (a). To find the fraction of
light within the escape cone we need to consider solid
angles, which leads to (1/2)[1−cos c].
Further, suppose that T is the average light transmittance of the ns- na interface for
those rays within the escape cone, then for a simple bare chip,

Light extraction ratio  (1/2)[1−cos c] × T (1)

Estimate the extraction ratio for a GaAs chip with ns = 3.4 and air as ambient (na =
1) and then with epoxy dome with na = 1.8.

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Solution
First note that c = arcsin (na /ns ) = arcsin (1/3.4) =
17.1. For T we will assume near- normal incidence
(somewhat justified since the angle 17.1 is not too
large) so that from Chapter 1,

T = 4ns na / (ns + na )2 = 4(3.4)(1)/(3.4 + 1)2 = 0.702

Using Eq.(1),
Light extraction ratio
 (1 / 2)[1−cos c] × T = (1 / 2)[ 1−cos (17.1)] × 0.702
 0.0155 or 1.6%

It is clear that only 1.6% of the generated light power is extracted

from a bare chip, which is disappointingly small. The technological
drive is therefore to improve light extraction as much as possible. If
we now repeat the calculation for na = 1.8, we would find, c = 32,
and 6.9% light extraction.
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 LED PARAMETERS
Internal quantum efficiency (IQE) IQE

Rate of radiative recombination

 IQE =
Total rate of recombination (radiative and nonradiati ve)

 −1
 IQE = r
 + −1
r
−1
nr

Photons emitted per second  ph Po (int) / h

 IQE = = =
Total carriers lost per second I / e I /e
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 EXTRACTION EFFICIENCY

Extraction ratio, or the extraction efficiency (EE), EE

Photons emitted externally from the device

EE =
Photons generated internally by recombinat ion

Po = EE Po(int) = hEEIQE ( I / e)

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 External Quantum Efficiency
External quantum efficiency (EQE) EQE of an LED represents
the efficiency of conversion from electrical quanta, i.e. electrons,
that flow in the LED to optical quanta, i.e.photons, that are
emitted into the outside world.

Actual optical power emitted to the ambient = Radiant flux = Po

(e is also used)

Po/h is the number of emitted photons per second

I/e is the number of electrons flowing into the LED

Po / h
EQE =
I /e
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 POWER CONVERSION EFFICIENCY

Power conversion efficiency (PCE)

Power efficiency
PCE
Efficiency of conversion from the input of
electrical power to the output of optical power

Optical output power Po  Eg 

 PCE = =   EQE  
Electrical input power IV  eV 

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 LED BRIGHTNESS
Luminous flux  is a measure of visual brightness, in
lumens (lm), and is defined by

 = Po× (683 lm W-1) × V()

V() = relative luminous efficiency or the relative
sensitivity of an average light-adapted (photopic) eye,
which depends on the wavelength

V() = luminosity function and the visibility function

V() is a Gaussian-like function with a peak of unity at 555

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 The luminous efficiency of the eye
Colors shown are indicative only, and not actual perception

The luminous efficiencyV() of the light-adapted (photopic) eye as a function of wavelength. The solid curve is the
Judd-Vos modification of the CIE 1924 photopic photosensitivity curve of the eye. The dashed line shows the
modified region of the original CIE 1924 curve to account for its deficiency in the blue-violet region. (The vertical
axis is logarithmic)
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 LED BRIGHTNESS AND
EFFICACY
Luminous efficacy

v
LE =
IV
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 Luminous Efficacy

Typical (a) external quantum efficiency and (b) luminous efficacy of various selected LEDs, and
how they stand against other light sources such as the fluorescent tube, arc and gas discharge
lamps and the incandescent lamp.
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 LED Characteristics: I vs. V

(a) Current-Voltage characteristics of a few LEDS emitting at different wavelengths from the IR to
blue. (b) Log-log plot of the emitted optical output power vs. the dc current for three commercial
devices emitting at IR (890 nm), Red and Green. The vertical scale is in arbitrary unit and the curves
have been shifted to show the dependence of Po on I. The ideal linear behavior Po  I is also shown.
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EXAMPLE: LED brightness LED brightness
Consider two LEDs, one red, with an optical output power (radiant flux) of 10 mW,
emitting at 650 nm, and the other, a weaker 5 mW green LED, emitting at 532 nm.
Find the luminous flux emitted by each LED.
Solution
For the red LED, at  = 650 nm, Figure
3.41 gives V  0.10 so that from Eq.
(3.14.8)
 = Po× (633 lm W-1) × V
= (1010-3 W)(683 lm W-1)(0.10) = 0.68 lm

For the green LED,  = 532 nm, Figure

3.41 gives V  0.87 so that from Eq.
(3.14.8)
 = Po× (633 lm W-1) × V
= (510-3 W)(683 lm W-1)(0.87) = 3.0 lm

Clearly the green LED at half the power is Figure 3.41

4 times brighter than the red LED.
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 LED TYPES

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 SLED

Coupling of light from LEDs into optical fibers. (a) Light is coupled from a
surface emitting LED into a multimode fiber using an index matching epoxy.
The fiber is bonded to the LED structure. (b) A microlens focuses diverging
light from a surface emitting LED into a multimode optical fiber.

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 ELED

Schematic illustration of the structure of a double heterojunction stripe contact

edge emitting LED. (Upper case notation for a wider bandgap semiconductor is
not used as there are several layers with different bandgaps.)
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 ELED Coupling into Fibers

Light from an edge emitting LED is coupled into a fiber typically by using a
lens or a GRIN rod lens.

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 Pigtailed LEDs

InGaAsP 1300nm LED emitters, each pigtailed

to an optical fiber for use in ruggedized optical
communication modems and lower speed data /
analog transmission systems. (Courtesy of OSI
Laser Diode, Inc)
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 White LEDS

(a) A simplified energy diagram to explain the principle of photoluminescence. The activator
is pumped from E1 to E2. It decays nonradiatively down to E2. The transition from E2
down to E1. (b) Schematic structure of a blue chip yellow phosphor white LED (c) The
spectral distribution of light emitted by a white LED. Blue luminescence is emitted by
GaInN chip and "yellow" phosphorescence is produced by phosphor. The combined
spectrum looks "white". (Note: Orange used for yellow as yellow does not show well.)
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 White LEDS
Photoluminescence is the emission of light by a
material, called a phosphor, that has been first
excited by light of higher frequency. Higher
energy photons are first absorbed, and then lower
energy photons are emitted.

Typically the emission of light occurs from

certain dopants, impurities or even defects, called
luminescent or luminescence centers,
purposefully introduced into a host matrix,
which may be a crystal or glass.
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 White LEDS
The luminescent center is also called an
activator. Many phosphors are based on
activators doped into a host matrix.

Eu3+ (europium ion) in a Y2O3 (yttrium oxide, called yttria)

matrix is a widely used modern phosphor. When excited by UV
radiation, it provides an efficient luminescence emission in the
red (around 613 nm). It is used as the red-emitting phosphor in
color TV tubes and in modern tricolor fluorescent lamps.

Another important phosphor is Ce3+ in Y3Al5O12 (YAG), written

as Y3Al5O12:Ce3+, which is used in white LEDs. YAG:Ce3+ can
absorb blue radiation, and emit yellow light.
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 White LEDS

(Photo by SK)

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 White LEDS

LUXEON Rebel ES white emitting LED (Courtesy of Philips Lumileds)

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 LED Electronics: Analog

IF  V / RF

(a) The simplest circuit to drive an LED involves connecting it to a voltage supply (V) through a resistor
R. (b) Bipolar junction transistors are well suited for supplying a constant current. Using an IC and
negative feedback, the current is linearly controlled by V. (c) There are various commercial LED driver
modules that can be easily configured to drive a number of LEDs in parallel and/or series. The example
has a module driving 4 LEDs, has a dimmer (R) and an on/off switch.

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 LED Electronics: Drive Modules

There are various commercial LED driver modules that can be easily configured to drive a
number of LEDs in parallel and/or series. The example has a module driving 4 LEDs, has a
dimmer (R) and an on/off switch.

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 LED Electronics

Po ( ) / Po (0) = 1 / [1 + ( ) ] 2

 = Net minority carrier recombination time

1/ = 1/r + 1/nr

(a) Sinusoidal modulation of an LED. (b) The frequency response where fc is the cut-off frequency
at which Po(f)/Po(0) is 0.707. (c) The electrical power output from the detector as a function of
frequency. At fc, [Iph(f)/Iph(0)]2 is 0.5. However, it is 0.707 at a lower frequency fc.

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 LED Electronics

Po ( ) / Po (0) = 1 / [1 + ( ) ] 2

3
f op=
2
Optical Bandwidth
f = fop Po(fop)/Po(0) = 1/2
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 LED Electronics: Digital

R = F = 2.2 1/ = 1/r + 1/nr

A LED in a digital circuit is turned on and off by a logic gate, assumed to have a buffered output as
shown, to avoid being loaded. A BJT can be used after the logic gate to drive the LED as well (not
shown). Definitions of rise and fall times are shown in the light output pulse.

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
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 LED Electronics: Digital

A CMOS logic circuit (or a gate) drives an LED through a BJT Q1.

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
 LED Electronics: Digital

Enable

The logic gate drives Q1, which shunts the current from the LED and switches
it off.

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
 LED Electronics: Digital

Enable

Speeding capacitors CB and C1 help turn the LED on and off more quickly. In
all three cases, the inputs to the logic circuit are the same.

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
 Updates and
Corrected Slides
Class Demonstrations
Class Problems
Check author’s website
http://optoelectronics.usask.ca

Email errors and corrections to

[email protected]

S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, © 2013 Pearson Education
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.