UNIT-4 (DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES )

Failure Classification:
In a database management system (DBMS), failures can be classified into different categories
based on their nature and impact on the system. Here are some common failure classifications
in DBMS:

1. Transaction failure: A transaction is a sequence of operations that must be executed as

a single, indivisible unit. If any part of a transaction fails, the entire transaction must be
rolled back to its previous state. Transaction failures can occur due to various reasons,
such as database constraints, locking conflicts, or system crashes.
2. System failure: A system failure is a catastrophic event that causes the entire DBMS to
stop functioning. Examples of system failures include hardware failures, power outages,
and network failures. System failures can result in data loss or corruption and require
specialized recovery procedures to restore the system to a functional state.
3. Media failure: A media failure occurs when the physical storage medium (such as a hard
disk or tape drive) fails or becomes corrupted. Media failures can cause data loss or
corruption and require specialized recovery procedures to restore the affected data.
4. Application failure: An application failure occurs when an application program accessing
the DBMS fails due to a programming error or invalid input. Application failures can
cause data corruption or other unexpected behavior in the DBMS.
5. Network failure: A network failure occurs when communication between the client and
server fails. Network failures can cause transactions to be lost or incomplete and require
special recovery procedures to ensure data consistency.
6. User error: User errors occur when users make mistakes while using the DBMS, such as
entering invalid data or deleting important records. User errors can cause data
corruption or loss and require specialized recovery procedures to restore the affected
data.
7. Security failure: Security failures occur when unauthorized users gain access to the
system or when authorized users misuse their privileges. Security failures can result in
data loss, corruption, or theft and require specialized recovery procedures to restore
the affected data and prevent future security breaches.

CENTRALISED AND CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURES:

Centralized and client-server architectures are two common architectures used in database
management systems (DBMS).

Centralized architecture refers to a system in which all data is stored in a single location and all
processing is done on a central server. In this architecture, all clients connect to the central
server to access the data and perform operations. This architecture is simple and easy to
manage, but it may suffer from performance issues due to the high load on the server and the
potential for single points of failure.

On the other hand, client-server architecture involves the use of multiple servers and clients,
where each client connects to a server to access the data and perform operations. The servers
may be dedicated to specific functions, such as storing data or processing transactions, and
clients may access multiple servers depending on their needs. This architecture is more
complex than centralized architecture, but it offers better scalability, performance, and fault
tolerance.

In terms of DBMS, centralized architecture is often used in small-scale systems where the data
is relatively simple and the workload is not too heavy. Client-server architecture, on the other
hand, is often used in larger-scale systems where the data is more complex and the workload is
heavier.

Overall, the choice between centralized and client-server architecture depends on the specific
needs and requirements of the system. Both architectures have their advantages and
disadvantages, and the decision should be based on factors such as performance, scalability,
fault tolerance, and management complexity.

Introduction

A database management system (DBMS) is a software system that is designed to manage and
organize data in a structured manner. In order to accomplish this, DBMS uses a specific
architecture that dictates how data is stored, retrieved, and updated. Two of the most commonly
used architectures in DBMS are centralized and client-server architectures.

Centralized Architecture

A centralized architecture for DBMS is one in which all data is stored on a single server, and all
clients connect to that server in order to access and manipulate the data. This type of
architecture is also known as a monolithic architecture. One of the main advantages of a
centralized architecture is its simplicity - there is only one server to manage, and all clients use
the same data.
However, there are also some drawbacks to this type of architecture. One of the main downsides
is that, because all data is stored on a single server, that server can become a bottleneck as the
number of clients and/or the amount of data increases. Additionally, if the server goes down for
any reason, all clients lose access to the data.
An example of a DBMS that uses a centralized architecture is SQLite, an open-source, self-
contained, high-reliability, embedded, full-featured, public-domain SQL database engine.
SQLite's architecture is based on the client-server model, but the entire database is contained
within a single file, making it a perfect fit for small to medium-sized applications.

Example

import sqlite3

#connect to the database

conn = sqlite3.connect('example.db')

#create a cursor object

cursor = conn.cursor()

#create a table
cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE employees (id INT PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL, name TEXT NOT
NULL, salary REAL);''')

#commit the changes

conn.commit()

#close the connection

conn.close()

Explanation

In the above example, we import the sqlite3 module, connect to a database named
"example.db", create a cursor object, and then use that cursor to create a table named
"employees" with three columns: "id", "name", and "salary". The table is defined with the INT
data type for the "id" column, which is also set as the primary key and NOT NULL, TEXT data type
for the "name" column and REAL data type for the "salary" column. After creating the table, we
use the "commit" method to save the changes and the "close" method to close the connection.

Client-Server Architecture
A client-server architecture for DBMS is one in which data is stored on a central server, but clients
connect to that server in order to access and manipulate the data. This type of architecture is
more complex than a centralized architecture, but it offers several advantages over the latter.
One of the main benefits of a client-server architecture is that it is more scalable than a
centralized architecture. As the number of clients and/or the amount of data increases, the
server can be upgraded or additional servers can be added to handle the load. This allows the
system to continue functioning smoothly even as it grows in size.
Another advantage of a client-server architecture is that it is more fault-tolerant than a
centralized architecture. If a single server goes down, other servers can take over its
responsibilities, and clients can still access the data. This makes the system less likely to
experience downtime, which is a crucial factor in many business environments.
An example of a DBMS that uses a client-server architecture is MySQL, an open-source relational
database management system. MySQL uses a multi-threaded architecture, where multiple
clients can connect to the server and make requests simultaneously. The server processes these
requests and returns the results to the appropriate client.

Example

import mysql.connector

#connect to the database

cnx = mysql.connector.connect(user='username', password='password', host='hostname',
database='database_name')

#create a cursor object

cursor = cnx.cursor()

#create a table
cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE employees (id INT PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL, name
VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL, salary DECIMAL(10,2));''')

#commit the changes

cnx.commit()

#close the connection

cnx.close()

Explanation

In the above example, we import the mysql.connector module, connect to a database using the
"connect" method, passing in the necessary parameters such as the username, password,
hostname, and database name. We create a cursor object and use that cursor to create a table
named "employees" with three columns: "id", "name", and "salary".
The table is defined with the INT data type for the "id" column, which is also set as the primary
key and NOT NULL, VARCHAR data type for the "name" column and DECIMAL data type for the
"salary" column. After creating the table, we use the "commit" method to save the changes and
the "close" method to close the connection.

Sharding

Sharding is a method of distributing a large database across multiple servers. This approach is
commonly used in client-server architectures to improve performance and scalability. The data
is split into smaller chunks called shards, which are then distributed across multiple servers.
Each shard is a self-contained subset of the data, and clients can connect to any server to access
the data they need. This approach allows for horizontal scaling, which means that as the amount
of data or the number of clients increases, more servers can be added to the system to handle
the load.

Replication

Replication is a method of maintaining multiple copies of a database on different servers. This

approach is commonly used in client-server architectures to improve fault-tolerance and
performance. There are several types of replication, including master-slave replication, where
one server acts as the master and other servers act as slaves, and all changes made on the master
are replicated to the slaves.
Another type of replication is called master-master replication, where multiple servers can act
as both a master and a slave, allowing data to be written to any server, and changes are
replicated to all other servers.

Caching

Caching is a method of storing frequently accessed data in memory for faster access. This
approach is commonly used in both centralized and client-server architectures to improve
performance. When a client requests data from the server, the server first checks if the data is
already in the cache.
If it is, the server returns the data from the cache, which is faster than retrieving it from the main
data store. Caching can also be used to temporarily store data that is about to be written to the
main data store, which can help to reduce the load on the server and improve write
performance.

Load balancing

Load balancing is a method of distributing the load across multiple servers. This approach is
commonly used in client-server architectures to improve performance and scalability. Load
balancers are typically placed in front of a group of servers and are responsible for distributing
incoming requests to the different servers.
This can be done in a number of ways, such as round-robin or least connections, and the goal is
to ensure that all servers are used as efficiently as possible. Load balancing also helps to improve
fault-tolerance, as if one server goes down, the load balancer can redirect traffic to other servers,
keeping the system running smoothly.
These are just a few examples of how different techniques and methods can be used to improve
the performance, scalability and availability of database systems. It's important to keep in mind
that the architecture of a database system is crucial in ensuring its ability to meet the
performance and scalability requirements of the system. Identifying the right architecture and
implementing it with the best practices will be crucial to the success of a DBMS.

Conclusion

Both centralized and client-server architectures for DBMS have their own advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of architecture will depend on the specific needs of the
application. Centralized architectures are simpler and easier to manage, but they can become a
bottleneck as the system grows in size. Client-server architectures are more complex, but they
are more scalable and fault-tolerant, making them a better choice for larger and more critical
systems.
When it comes to code examples, specific DBMS also has their own syntax, structure, which is
not exactly the same, but it gives you a rough idea on how to connect and create table in DBMS.
It's important to consult the documentation of the specific DBMS you are using and test your
code before deploying it to a production environment.

server system architecture in dbms

SERVER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

In database management systems (DBMS), server system architecture refers to the way the
system is organized and structured to manage data and serve clients. A server is a computer
system that manages and shares resources with other computers or clients over a network.

In a server system architecture, the database server is responsible for storing and managing the
database, while clients interact with the server to access the data and perform operations. The
database server provides services such as query processing, transaction management, security,
and backup and recovery.

There are several types of server system architectures used in DBMS, including:

1. Single-tier architecture: In this architecture, the database server and the client
application are both installed on the same computer or device. This architecture is
simple and easy to manage, but it may not be suitable for large-scale systems or
systems with heavy workloads.
2. Two-tier architecture: In this architecture, the database server and the client application
are installed on separate computers, and they communicate directly over a network.
This architecture is more scalable than single-tier architecture and can handle larger
workloads.
3. Three-tier architecture: In this architecture, the system is divided into three layers: the
presentation layer, the application layer, and the data layer. The presentation layer is
responsible for the user interface, the application layer processes business logic and
transactions, and the data layer manages the database. This architecture is more
scalable, flexible, and secure than two-tier architecture, but it can be more complex to
manage.
4. N-tier architecture: In this architecture, the system is divided into multiple layers, each
with a specific function and responsibility. This architecture is highly scalable and can
handle very large workloads, but it can also be complex and difficult to manage.

Overall, the choice of server system architecture depends on the specific needs and
requirements of the system, such as performance, scalability, security, and management
complexity.

PARALLEL SYSTEM IN DBMS:

Parallel systems in database management systems (DBMS) refer to systems that use multiple
processors or nodes to perform database operations simultaneously. Parallel processing allows
for faster and more efficient data processing, especially for large and complex databases.

There are two main types of parallel systems used in DBMS:

1. Shared-memory systems: In shared-memory systems, all processors or nodes have

access to the same memory space, and they can communicate and synchronize through
this shared memory. Shared-memory systems are relatively easy to program and
manage, but they can suffer from scalability limitations due to the limited bandwidth of
the shared memory.
2. Distributed-memory systems: In distributed-memory systems, each processor or node
has its own local memory, and they communicate and coordinate through a network.
 Distributed-memory systems are highly scalable and can handle very large workloads,
but they can be more difficult to program and manage.

Parallel systems can be used in various parts of the DBMS, such as query processing,
transaction management, and backup and recovery. Parallel query processing involves dividing
a query into multiple sub-queries and processing them simultaneously on different processors
or nodes, which can greatly reduce the response time for complex queries. Parallel transaction
management involves dividing transactions into smaller sub-transactions and processing them
in parallel, which can improve the concurrency and throughput of the system. Parallel backup
and recovery involves copying and restoring data in parallel, which can reduce the time
required for backup and recovery operations.

Parallel systems can also be used in different architectures, such as centralized or client-server
architecture, depending on the specific needs and requirements of the system. The use of
parallel systems can improve the performance, scalability, and availability of the DBMS, but it
also requires careful design and management to ensure proper synchronization, load balancing,
and fault tolerance.

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS IN DBMS :

Distributed systems in database management systems (DBMS) refer to systems that use
multiple computers or nodes to store and manage data across a network. In a distributed
system, data is partitioned and replicated across multiple nodes, and clients can access the data
and perform operations from any node.

Distributed systems can provide several benefits for DBMS, such as:

1. Scalability: Distributed systems can scale horizontally by adding more nodes to the
network, which can increase the storage capacity and processing power of the system.
2. Availability: Distributed systems can provide high availability by replicating data across
multiple nodes, which can ensure that the system can continue to operate even if some
nodes fail.
3. Fault tolerance: Distributed systems can provide fault tolerance by replicating data and
processing across multiple nodes, which can reduce the impact of node failures and
ensure that the system can continue to operate with minimal disruption.

There are several types of distributed systems used in DBMS, including:

1. Replicated systems: In replicated systems, data is replicated across multiple nodes, and
clients can access any replica to read or write data. Replicated systems can provide high
 availability and fault tolerance, but they can also suffer from consistency issues if the
replicas are not synchronized properly.
2. Partitioned systems: In partitioned systems, data is partitioned across multiple nodes,
and each node is responsible for a subset of the data. Partitioned systems can provide
better scalability and performance than replicated systems, but they can also suffer
from availability issues if a node fails.
3. Federated systems: In federated systems, multiple independent databases are
connected and managed as a single database, and clients can access the data across the
federated system. Federated systems can provide better data integration and flexibility,
but they can also suffer from complexity and performance issues.

Distributed systems can be used in various parts of the DBMS, such as query processing,
transaction management, and backup and recovery. Distributed query processing involves
distributing a query across multiple nodes and combining the results, which can improve the
response time for complex queries. Distributed transaction management involves coordinating
transactions across multiple nodes, which can improve the concurrency and throughput of the
system. Distributed backup and recovery involves replicating and restoring data across multiple
nodes, which can ensure that the system can recover from failures with minimal data loss.

Overall, distributed systems can provide significant benefits for DBMS, but they also require
careful design and management to ensure proper synchronization, consistency, and fault
tolerance.

Network Types IN DBMS:

In database management systems (DBMS), there are several network types that can be used to
connect and communicate between different components of the system. Some of the common
network types used in DBMS include:

1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that connects computers and other
devices within a small geographic area, such as a single building or campus. LANs are
typically used to connect client computers to a centralized DBMS server.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that connects computers and other
devices over a larger geographic area, such as multiple cities or countries. WANs are
typically used to connect remote client computers to a centralized DBMS server, or to
connect multiple DBMS servers in a distributed system.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a network that connects computers and
other devices within a metropolitan area, such as a city or region. MANs are typically
used to connect multiple sites or campuses within a single organization.
4. Wireless Network: A wireless network is a LAN or WAN that uses wireless
communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi or cellular networks, to connect devices
 without the need for physical cables. Wireless networks are commonly used to connect
mobile devices to a centralized DBMS server.
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN): A VPN is a secure network that uses encryption and other
security measures to connect remote devices to a LAN or WAN over the internet. VPNs
are commonly used to connect remote client computers to a centralized DBMS server.

The choice of network type in a DBMS depends on the specific needs and requirements of the
system, such as the size and complexity of the database, the number and location of clients, the
level of security required, and the availability and reliability of the network. It is important to
design and configure the network properly to ensure optimal performance, security, and
scalability of the DBMS.

Parallel Databases in DBMS :

Parallel databases are a type of database management system (DBMS) that can process and
store data across multiple processors or nodes simultaneously. In a parallel database, data is
partitioned into smaller pieces and distributed across multiple nodes, which can process
queries and transactions in parallel, thereby improving the performance and scalability of the
system.

There are several key components of a parallel database system, including:

1. Parallel processing engine: The parallel processing engine is responsible for processing
queries and transactions across multiple nodes in parallel. It can use various parallel
processing techniques, such as shared-nothing, shared-disk, or shared-memory
architectures, to distribute the workload across the nodes.
2. Data partitioning: Data partitioning involves dividing the database into smaller subsets
or partitions, which can be stored and processed across multiple nodes in parallel. There
are various partitioning techniques, such as range partitioning, hash partitioning, and list
partitioning, that can be used to partition the data.
3. Interconnect network: The interconnect network is used to connect the nodes in a
parallel database system and enable communication and data transfer between them.
The interconnect network can use various technologies, such as high-speed buses,
switches, or routers, to ensure fast and reliable data transfer.
4. Parallel query optimizer: The parallel query optimizer is responsible for generating
efficient execution plans for queries that can be processed in parallel across multiple
nodes. The parallel query optimizer takes into account various factors, such as data
partitioning, node performance, and interconnect network bandwidth, to generate
optimal execution plans.
Parallel databases can provide several benefits over traditional single-node databases,
including:

1. Improved performance: Parallel databases can process queries and transactions in

parallel across multiple nodes, which can result in faster query response times and
higher transaction throughput.
2. Scalability: Parallel databases can scale horizontally by adding more nodes to the
system, which can increase the processing power and storage capacity of the system.
3. Fault tolerance: Parallel databases can provide fault tolerance by replicating data and
processing across multiple nodes, which can reduce the impact of node failures and
ensure that the system can continue to operate with minimal disruption.

However, parallel databases also have some challenges, such as increased complexity, higher
hardware and software costs, and the need for specialized skills and expertise to design and
manage the system. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the requirements and trade-
offs before adopting a parallel database system.

I/O Parallelism in DBMS :

I/O parallelism in DBMS refers to the ability to perform input/output operations in parallel,
using multiple input/output devices or channels. In a DBMS, input/output operations involve
reading and writing data to and from storage devices, such as hard disk drives or solid-state
drives.

I/O parallelism can provide significant performance benefits in DBMS, especially for data-
intensive workloads, by allowing multiple input/output operations to be processed
simultaneously. There are several techniques that can be used to achieve I/O parallelism in
DBMS, including:

1. Striping: Striping involves dividing a database or data file into smaller units or stripes,
which are then distributed across multiple input/output devices or channels. Each stripe
can be read or written in parallel, allowing multiple input/output operations to be
processed simultaneously.
2. RAID: RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a storage technology that uses
multiple hard disk drives or solid-state drives to store and retrieve data. RAID can
provide various levels of data redundancy and can use techniques such as striping and
mirroring to achieve I/O parallelism.
3. Parallel file systems: Parallel file systems are file systems that are designed to provide
high levels of performance and scalability in parallel computing environments. Parallel
file systems can use techniques such as striping and caching to achieve I/O parallelism.
4. Network-attached storage (NAS): NAS is a storage technology that uses a dedicated
storage device connected to a network to store and retrieve data. NAS can provide I/O
parallelism by allowing multiple clients to access the storage device simultaneously.
I/O parallelism can have a significant impact on the performance and scalability of a DBMS,
especially for data-intensive workloads. However, achieving I/O parallelism can also be complex
and requires careful planning and configuration to ensure optimal performance and reliability.
It is important to consider factors such as the size and complexity of the database, the number
and location of clients, the performance and scalability of the storage devices and input/output
channels, and the availability and reliability of the network when designing and configuring a
DBMS with I/O parallelism.

Inter query Parallelism in DBMS :

Inter-query parallelism in DBMS refers to the ability to execute multiple queries simultaneously,
using multiple processing resources or threads, to improve the performance and efficiency of
the system. In other words, inter-query parallelism allows multiple queries to be executed
concurrently, instead of one query being executed at a time.

Inter-query parallelism can be achieved in several ways in a DBMS, including:

1. Multi-threading: Multi-threading is a technique that allows multiple threads or

processes to run concurrently within a single application or process. In a DBMS, multi-
threading can be used to execute multiple queries simultaneously on different
processors or cores.
2. Query pipelining: Query pipelining involves breaking down a complex query into smaller
sub-queries or stages, which can be executed in parallel. Each stage of the pipeline can
be executed independently and can pass its results to the next stage, allowing multiple
stages to be executed concurrently.
3. Query optimization: Query optimization involves rewriting queries to improve their
performance and efficiency. Query optimization techniques such as join reordering,
predicate pushdown, and index selection can be used to reduce the number of
operations needed to execute a query, allowing multiple queries to be executed
concurrently.

Inter-query parallelism can provide significant performance benefits in DBMS, especially for
workloads that involve multiple concurrent users or complex queries. However, achieving inter-
query parallelism can also be challenging and requires careful planning and configuration to
ensure optimal performance and scalability. It is important to consider factors such as the
complexity and size of the queries, the number and performance of the processing resources,
and the availability and reliability of the network when designing and configuring a DBMS with
inter-query parallelism.
Intra query Parallelism in DBMS :

Intra-query parallelism in DBMS refers to the ability to execute a single query simultaneously
using multiple processing resources or threads. In other words, intra-query parallelism allows a
single query to be divided into smaller parts and executed in parallel on different processors or
cores.

Intra-query parallelism can be achieved in several ways in a DBMS, including:

1. Parallel scanning: Parallel scanning involves dividing a table into smaller partitions,
which can be scanned in parallel. Each processor or core can scan a different partition of
the table, allowing multiple parts of the query to be executed in parallel.
2. Parallel join processing: Join processing involves combining data from two or more
tables. Parallel join processing involves dividing the join operation into smaller parts,
which can be executed in parallel on different processors or cores.
3. Parallel aggregation: Aggregation involves computing summary statistics on a large
dataset. Parallel aggregation involves dividing the data into smaller groups, which can
be aggregated in parallel on different processors or cores.

Intra-query parallelism can provide significant performance benefits in DBMS, especially for
queries that involve large datasets or complex operations. However, achieving intra-query
parallelism can also be challenging and requires careful planning and configuration to ensure
optimal performance and scalability. It is important to consider factors such as the size and
complexity of the query, the number and performance of the processing resources, and the
availability and reliability of the network when designing and configuring a DBMS with intra-
query parallelism.

Intra operation Parallelism in DBMS :

Intra-operation parallelism in DBMS refers to the ability to execute a single operation or task
within a query simultaneously using multiple processing resources or threads. In other words,
intra-operation parallelism allows a single operation, such as a sort or a hash join, to be divided
into smaller parts and executed in parallel on different processors or cores.

Intra-operation parallelism can be achieved in several ways in a DBMS, including:

1. Parallel sort: Parallel sort involves dividing the data to be sorted into smaller partitions,
which can be sorted in parallel on different processors or cores.
2. Parallel hash join: Parallel hash join involves dividing the join operation into smaller
parts, which can be executed in parallel on different processors or cores.
 3. Parallel group-by: Parallel group-by involves dividing the data into smaller groups, which
can be processed in parallel on different processors or cores.

Intra-operation parallelism can provide significant performance benefits in DBMS, especially for
queries that involve large datasets or complex operations. However, achieving intra-operation
parallelism can also be challenging and requires careful planning and configuration to ensure
optimal performance and scalability. It is important to consider factors such as the size and
complexity of the operation, the number and performance of the processing resources, and the
availability and reliability of the network when designing and configuring a DBMS with intra-
operation parallelism.

Interoperation Parallelism in DBMS :

Inter-operation parallelism in DBMS refers to the ability to execute multiple operations within a
query simultaneously using multiple processing resources or threads. In other words, inter-
operation parallelism allows different operations within a query, such as sorts, joins, and
aggregations, to be executed in parallel on different processors or cores.

Inter-operation parallelism can be achieved in several ways in a DBMS, including:

1. Parallel query execution: Parallel query execution involves dividing a query into smaller
parts, which can be executed in parallel on different processors or cores. Each part of
the query can involve different operations, such as sorts, joins, and aggregations, which
can be executed in parallel.
2. Pipeline parallelism: Pipeline parallelism involves breaking down a query into smaller
stages, each of which can be executed in parallel on different processors or cores. Each
stage of the pipeline can involve different operations, such as sorts, joins, and
aggregations, which can be executed in parallel.
3. Task parallelism: Task parallelism involves dividing a query into smaller tasks, which can
be executed in parallel on different processors or cores. Each task can involve different
operations, such as sorts, joins, and aggregations, which can be executed in parallel.

Inter-operation parallelism can provide significant performance benefits in DBMS, especially for
queries that involve multiple operations or complex computations. However, achieving inter-
operation parallelism can also be challenging and requires careful planning and configuration to
ensure optimal performance and scalability. It is important to consider factors such as the size
and complexity of the query, the number and performance of the processing resources, and the
availability and reliability of the network when designing and configuring a DBMS with inter-
operation parallelism

Design of Parallel Systems in DBMS :

Designing a parallel system in a DBMS involves several important considerations to ensure
optimal performance and scalability. Some of the key design considerations include:

1. Partitioning: Partitioning involves dividing the data into smaller subsets, which can be
processed in parallel. A key consideration in partitioning is determining the best
partitioning strategy for the specific use case. There are several partitioning strategies,
including range partitioning, hash partitioning, and list partitioning.
2. Data distribution: Data distribution involves determining how the partitioned data is
distributed across the different nodes in the parallel system. A key consideration in data
distribution is ensuring that the data is evenly distributed to ensure balanced workload
across the different nodes.
3. Processing model: The processing model determines how the parallel system processes
the data. There are several processing models, including shared-memory processing,
shared-disk processing, and shared-nothing processing.
4. Communication model: The communication model determines how the different nodes
in the parallel system communicate with each other. There are several communication
models, including message-passing communication and shared-memory
communication.
5. Load balancing: Load balancing involves ensuring that the workload is evenly distributed
across the different nodes in the parallel system. A key consideration in load balancing is
ensuring that the workload is balanced both in terms of processing and communication.
6. Fault tolerance: Fault tolerance involves ensuring that the parallel system can continue
to operate even in the event of hardware or software failures. A key consideration in
fault tolerance is implementing redundancy and failover mechanisms to ensure that the
system can continue to operate in the event of failures.

Designing a parallel system in a DBMS can be complex and requires careful consideration of the
specific use case and performance requirements. It is important to work with experienced
DBMS professionals to ensure optimal performance and scalability.