Blockchain Architecture Design

Module 1
Introduction to Blockchain
What is Blockchain?
• Blockchain is a type of digital database (or ledger) where information is
stored securely in "blocks" that are linked together like a chain.
• Once a piece of information is added to the blockchain, it cannot be
changed, ensuring transparency and security.
• Think of it as a digital notebook where each page (block) is locked and
connected to the previous one.

Key Features of Blockchain

1. Decentralization:
o No single person or organization controls the blockchain.
o Instead, it’s maintained by multiple participants (nodes) in the
network.
2. Transparency:
o Everyone on the network can see the data stored in the blockchain.
o Example: In Bitcoin, all transactions are visible to everyone.
3. Immutability:
o Once a block is added to the chain, it cannot be altered.
o This ensures that the data is permanent and trustworthy.
4. Security:
o Blockchain uses advanced mathematics (cryptography) to secure data
and prevent unauthorized access.
History of Blockchain
1. 1991:
o Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta proposed a system using
cryptography to timestamp digital documents.
2. 2008:
o Satoshi Nakamoto introduced the first blockchain through Bitcoin to
create a decentralized digital currency.
3. Post-2008:
o Blockchain began to expand beyond cryptocurrency, finding use in
healthcare, finance, and supply chains.

Blockchain Architecture
1. Structure of a Block:
Each block in the blockchain consists of two main parts:
o Block Header:
▪ Hash: A digital fingerprint unique to the block.
▪ Previous Block Hash: Links the current block to the previous
one.
▪ Timestamp: Records the date and time the block was created.
▪ Nonce: A random number used for mining.
o Block Body:
▪ Contains a list of verified transactions.
2. How Blockchain Works:
o A transaction is created (e.g., Alice sends money to Bob).
o The transaction is broadcasted to the network for verification.
 o Verified transactions are grouped into a block.
o The block is added to the blockchain using a consensus mechanism.

Cryptography and Blockchain

What is Cryptography?
• Cryptography is the study of secure communication.
• It ensures that only authorized people can access information, protecting it
from hackers.
• Example: Think of it as sending a locked box with a key that only the
receiver has.
Why Cryptography is Important in Blockchain:
1. Protects Data: Ensures that the information stored in the blockchain is safe.
2. Prevents Fraud: No one can alter a block once it’s added to the chain.
3. Verifies Transactions: Ensures that transactions are genuine and
authorized.

How Blockchain Works

Core Mechanisms:
1. Consensus Protocols:
o These are rules that help all the nodes (computers) in the network
agree on which transactions are valid.
o Examples:
▪ Proof of Work (PoW): Used in Bitcoin, where nodes solve
complex math problems.
 ▪ Proof of Stake (PoS): Used in Ethereum, where nodes are
chosen based on their stake (how much cryptocurrency they
hold).
2. Smart Contracts:
o These are self-executing digital contracts.
o The contract is automatically carried out when certain conditions are
met.
o Example: If Alice pays Bob, the system will automatically deliver a
product to Alice.

Origins and Objectives of Blockchain

1. Origins:
o Created to solve the issue of trust in online transactions.
o Example: Instead of trusting a bank, blockchain allows people to trust
the system itself.
2. Objectives:
o Provide a secure, transparent, and decentralized way to store and
transfer data.
o Eliminate the need for intermediaries like banks.
Challenges:
1. Scalability:
o It’s hard for blockchains to handle a large number of transactions
quickly.
o Example: Bitcoin can only process 7 transactions per second.
2. Energy Consumption:
o Mining (used in Proof of Work) uses a lot of electricity.
 3. Regulations:
o Governments are still figuring out how to regulate blockchain.

Transactions and Blocks

1. Transaction:
o A record of an operation, like transferring money or property.
o Example: Alice sends 1 Bitcoin to Bob.
2. Block:
o A collection of verified transactions.
o Each block is connected to the previous block through a hash.

Key Blockchain Components

P2P Systems (Peer-to-Peer Systems)
• In a blockchain, all the nodes communicate directly with each other without
a central server.
• Example: It’s like sharing a file directly with a friend using Bluetooth instead
of uploading it to Google Drive.
Keys as Identity
1. Public Key:
o Like an email address that others can use to send you information.
2. Private Key:
o Like your email password, it lets you access and control your
information.
• Both keys are used together to secure and verify transactions.
Digital Signatures
 • A digital method to prove the authenticity of a transaction.
• Example: Signing a transaction with your private key ensures it’s really from
you.
Hashing
• Hashing converts data into a fixed-length string of numbers and letters (a
“hash”).
• Properties:
o Secure: The hash doesn’t reveal the original data.
o Unique: No two pieces of data can have the same hash.
• Example: If you input “Blockchain,” the hash might look like 4f6c2....

Types of Blockchain
Public Blockchain
• Open to everyone. Anyone can join and participate.
• Example: Bitcoin, Ethereum.
Private Blockchain
• Access is restricted to certain participants.
• Used within organizations for internal purposes.
• Example: Supply chain tracking in a company.

Feature Public Blockchain Private Blockchain

Access Open to everyone Limited participants

Transparency Fully transparent Restricted visibility

Control Decentralized Centralized

Speed Slower Faster

 Feature Public Blockchain Private Blockchain

Examples Bitcoin, Ethereum Hyperledger, Corda

Module 2
Bitcoin Basics
What is Bitcoin?
• Bitcoin is the first and most popular cryptocurrency, introduced by Satoshi
Nakamoto in 2008.
• It uses blockchain technology to enable decentralized, secure, and
transparent digital transactions.
How Bitcoin Works:
1. Blockchain as the Foundation: Bitcoin operates on a public blockchain
where all transactions are recorded.
2. Peer-to-Peer Network: Users directly send and receive Bitcoin without
intermediaries like banks.
3. Digital Wallets: Users store Bitcoin in digital wallets, secured by private and
public keys.
4. Mining: Specialized computers (miners) solve complex mathematical
problems to validate transactions and add them to the blockchain.
Key Features:
• Decentralized: No central authority like a bank or government.
• Finite Supply: Only 21 million Bitcoins will ever be mined.
• Secure: Cryptographic techniques ensure data integrity and transaction
authenticity.
Distributed Consensus
What is Distributed Consensus?
• A process where all nodes in a blockchain network agree on the validity of
transactions and the state of the blockchain.
• This prevents fraudulent or duplicate transactions.
Why is it Important?
• Ensures that all copies of the blockchain across the network remain
consistent.
• Eliminates the need for a central authority to validate transactions.

Consensus in Bitcoin
Basics:
• Bitcoin uses a consensus mechanism called Proof of Work (PoW).
• PoW ensures that miners compete to solve a complex mathematical
problem, and the first to solve it adds the next block to the blockchain.
Proof of Work (PoW):
1. Goal: Miners solve a cryptographic puzzle to validate transactions.
2. How it Works:
o Miners compete to find a number (nonce) that, when combined with
the block data, produces a hash that meets the network’s difficulty
target.
3. Benefits:
o Secure and decentralized.
4. Drawbacks:
o Energy-intensive.
 o Slow transaction speeds.
Beyond PoW:
• Proof of Stake (PoS): Validators are chosen based on the amount of
cryptocurrency they hold.
• Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS): Users vote for delegates to validate
transactions.
The Miners:
• Role: Validate transactions, solve PoW puzzles, and secure the network.
• Rewards: Miners earn Bitcoin as a reward for adding a new block to the
chain.

Permissioned Blockchain
Basics:
• A permissioned blockchain restricts access to specific participants.
• Used for private or enterprise applications where only authorized members
can validate transactions.
Consensus in Permissioned Blockchains:
1. Efficiency: Faster and more scalable than public blockchains.
2. Examples:
o Hyperledger Fabric: A permissioned blockchain for enterprise use.
o Corda: Focused on financial institutions.
RAFT Consensus:
• A lightweight consensus mechanism used in permissioned blockchains.
• Works by electing a "leader" node to coordinate decisions among the
nodes.
Byzantine Generals Problem:
 • A classic problem in distributed computing where participants must agree
on a strategy, even if some are unreliable or malicious.
• Blockchain solves this problem through mechanisms like PoW or Practical
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT).
Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT):
• Designed to handle up to 1/3 of malicious nodes.
• Nodes exchange messages to reach consensus on the state of the
blockchain.

Blockchain for Enterprise – Overview

• Why Enterprises Use Blockchain:
o Improves transparency and traceability.
o Reduces operational costs by eliminating intermediaries.
o Enhances security through cryptography.
• Enterprise Applications:
1. Supply Chain: Tracks goods from origin to consumer.
2. Finance: Speeds up cross-border payments.
3. Healthcare: Secures patient records and ensures data privacy.
4. Government: Enables secure voting systems.
• Popular Enterprise Blockchains:
o Hyperledger: A set of tools and frameworks for building private
blockchains.
o Quorum: An enterprise-focused blockchain developed by JPMorgan.

Blockchain Components and Concepts

Key Components:
 1. Ledger: A digital record of all transactions.
2. Nodes: Participants in the network.
3. Smart Contracts: Self-executing code for automated agreements.
4. Consensus Mechanism: Protocol to validate transactions.
Core Concepts:
1. Immutability: Data once written cannot be changed.
2. Transparency: All participants have access to the same data.
3. Cryptographic Security: Uses hashing and digital signatures to secure data.
4. Decentralization: Eliminates reliance on central authorities.

Module 3
Introduction to Ethereum
What is Ethereum?
• Ethereum is a decentralized platform that allows developers to build and
deploy applications (called DApps) on its blockchain.
• Unlike Bitcoin, which focuses solely on digital currency, Ethereum is more
flexible, supporting Smart Contracts—self-executing agreements with
predefined rules.
• It was created by Vitalik Buterin in 2015 to expand blockchain technology
beyond financial transactions.
Key Features of Ethereum:
1. Smart Contracts: Self-executing agreements coded into the blockchain.
2. Decentralized Applications (DApps): Applications that run on a blockchain
instead of a central server.
 3. Ether (ETH): The native cryptocurrency of Ethereum, used for transactions
and computational costs (gas fees).

Consensus Mechanisms in Ethereum

What is a Consensus Mechanism?
• A system used to validate and agree upon the state of the blockchain
among participants.
Ethereum’s Transition:
1. Proof of Work (PoW) (Pre-2022):
o Similar to Bitcoin, miners solved cryptographic puzzles to add blocks.
o Drawbacks: High energy consumption and scalability issues.
2. Proof of Stake (PoS) (Post-2022, Ethereum 2.0):
o Validators are chosen based on the amount of ETH they stake.
o Advantages:
▪ Energy-efficient.
▪ More secure and scalable.

How Smart Contracts Work

What are Smart Contracts?
• Programs stored on the Ethereum blockchain that execute automatically
when certain conditions are met.
• Example: If Alice sends Bob 1 ETH, the smart contract can automatically
deliver a digital product to Alice.
How They Work:
1. Code Deployment:
 o Developers write smart contracts using Solidity, Ethereum’s
programming language.
2. Triggering Execution:
o Smart contracts are triggered when transactions meet the predefined
conditions.
3. Immutability:
o Once deployed, the smart contract cannot be changed.
Benefits:
• Automation: Eliminates manual intervention.
• Trust: Ensures transparency as rules are pre-defined and visible.
• Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for intermediaries.

Setting Up Metamask
What is Metamask?
• A browser extension and mobile app that acts as a crypto wallet for
Ethereum.
• It allows users to store Ether (ETH), interact with Ethereum-based DApps,
and manage private keys.
Steps to Set Up Metamask:
1. Download:
o Go to the official Metamask website or app store and download the
extension/app.
2. Create a Wallet:
o Follow the prompts to create a new wallet.
o Set a strong password.
3. Backup the Seed Phrase:
 o Save the 12-word seed phrase securely. It’s your only way to recover
the wallet if lost.
4. Access Wallet:
o Once setup is complete, you can send, receive, and store Ether and
tokens.

Ethereum Accounts
Types of Accounts:
1. Externally Owned Accounts (EOA):
o Controlled by private keys.
o Used by individuals to hold ETH and initiate transactions.
o Example: A personal wallet on Metamask.
2. Contract Accounts:
o Linked to smart contracts, not controlled by private keys.
o Executes code when certain conditions are met.

Receiving Ether
Steps to Receive Ether (ETH):
1. Get Your Wallet Address:
o Copy your Ethereum address from your wallet (e.g., Metamask).
2. Share Your Address:
o Share the address with the sender.
3. Transaction Confirmation:
o Once the sender transfers ETH, the transaction will be confirmed on
the Ethereum blockchain.
What’s a Transaction?
Definition:
• A transaction is an operation that interacts with the Ethereum blockchain.
• Example: Sending ETH, deploying a smart contract, or calling a smart
contract function.
Transaction Components:
1. Sender Address: The account initiating the transaction.
2. Recipient Address: The account receiving the transaction.
3. Gas Fees: The cost of processing the transaction.
4. Data: Optional information or function calls (e.g., smart contract execution).
Gas Fees Explained:
• Transactions on Ethereum require gas fees, paid in ETH, to compensate
miners/validators for computational work.
• Gas Limit: The maximum gas a user is willing to spend.
• Gas Price: The cost per unit of gas, determined by the network demand.

Smart Contracts
Benefits:
• Trustless: Operate without requiring a trusted third party.
• Transparent: Rules and transactions are visible to all participants.
• Immutable: Code cannot be altered after deployment.
Limitations:
1. Bugs in Code: A poorly written smart contract can lead to vulnerabilities.
 2. High Gas Costs: Complex contracts require more computational power and
higher fees.

Module 4
Introduction to Hyperledger
What is Hyperledger?
• Hyperledger is an open-source collaborative project initiated by The Linux
Foundation in 2015.
• It is not a single blockchain but a collection of blockchain frameworks,
tools, and libraries aimed at building enterprise-grade blockchain systems.
• Unlike public blockchains like Bitcoin and Ethereum, Hyperledger is
primarily focused on permissioned blockchains for business applications.
Purpose of Hyperledger:
• To help organizations create secure, private, and scalable blockchains
tailored to their specific needs.
• It provides a modular design that allows businesses to customize
components like consensus mechanisms, identity management, and privacy
settings.
Key Projects Under Hyperledger:
1. Hyperledger Fabric: A framework for building permissioned blockchains.
2. Hyperledger Composer: A toolset for developing blockchain applications.
3. Hyperledger Sawtooth: Focused on flexibility and scalability.
 4. Hyperledger Indy: Designed for decentralized identity management.

Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) & Its Challenges

What is Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT)?
• DLT refers to a decentralized database where data is shared and
synchronized across multiple nodes in a network.
• It eliminates the need for a central authority, ensuring transparency and
security.
Key Features of DLT:
1. Decentralization: Data is maintained by all nodes, not by a single authority.
2. Immutability: Data cannot be altered once written to the ledger.
3. Transparency: Every participant can view and verify transactions.
Challenges in DLT:
1. Scalability: Public DLT systems like Bitcoin struggle with high transaction
volumes.
2. Interoperability: Different DLTs often cannot interact with one another.
3. Privacy Concerns: Public blockchains expose transaction details to all
participants, unsuitable for sensitive data.
4. Complexity: Building and maintaining DLT systems require advanced
expertise.

Hyperledger & Distributed Ledger Technology

Hyperledger’s Role in Solving DLT Challenges:
1. Permissioned Access: Unlike public DLTs, Hyperledger allows only trusted
participants, enhancing security and privacy.
 2. Modular Architecture: Businesses can customize blockchain components,
like consensus algorithms and data privacy settings.
3. Scalability: Frameworks like Hyperledger Fabric handle high transaction
volumes efficiently.
4. Interoperability: Hyperledger focuses on integrating with existing
enterprise systems and other DLTs.
Advantages of Hyperledger:
• Privacy: Transactions are visible only to authorized participants.
• Efficiency: Faster transaction processing due to reduced computational
overhead.
• Flexibility: Supports a variety of use cases, from supply chain management
to healthcare.

Hyperledger Fabric – Transaction Flow

What is Hyperledger Fabric?
• A widely used framework within Hyperledger designed for creating
permissioned blockchains.
• It features a modular architecture, allowing businesses to tailor the
blockchain to their requirements.
Key Components in Fabric:
1. Peers: Nodes in the network that execute and validate transactions.
2. Orderer: Responsible for maintaining the order of transactions and
delivering them as blocks.
3. Ledger: A record of all transactions, consisting of two parts:
o Blockchain: Immutable transaction history.
o State Database: Current state of the blockchain (key-value pairs).
 4. Smart Contracts (Chaincode): Programs defining business logic, written in
languages like Go or JavaScript.
5. Membership Service Provider (MSP): Handles identity management and
permissions for participants.
Transaction Flow in Fabric:
1. Proposal Submission:
o A client sends a transaction proposal to endorsing peers.
2. Endorsement:
o Endorsing peers simulate the transaction without updating the ledger
and sign it if valid.
3. Ordering:
o The Orderer collects endorsed transactions, orders them, and creates
a block.
4. Validation and Commit:
o Peers validate transactions in the block and update the ledger.

Hyperledger Composer – Application Development and Network Administration

What is Hyperledger Composer?
• A development toolset designed to simplify the creation of blockchain
applications on Hyperledger Fabric.
• Helps developers quickly model business networks, write smart contracts,
and manage blockchain applications.
Features of Hyperledger Composer:
1. Business Network Modeling:
o Define participants, assets, and transactions using a .cto (Composer
Model) file.
 2. Smart Contracts:
o Define business logic in JavaScript, making it accessible to a wider
range of developers.
3. REST APIs:
o Automatically generates APIs for interacting with the blockchain
network.
4. Testing and Simulation:
o Tools to simulate transactions and debug smart contracts.
Steps to Develop Applications with Composer:
1. Define the Model:
o Use a .cto file to specify the structure of participants, assets, and
transactions.
2. Write Smart Contracts:
o Implement business logic in JavaScript files.
3. Deploy Network:
o Deploy the business network on Hyperledger Fabric.
4. Test and Integrate:
o Use the Composer Playground to test the application and integrate
with external systems.
Network Administration in Composer:
1. Identity Management:
o Manage user identities and permissions using cryptographic
certificates.
2. Monitoring Tools:
o Monitor network performance and track transactions in real-time.
3. Version Control:
 o Update business models and smart contracts without disrupting the
network.

Conclusion
Hyperledger provides a robust platform for enterprises to build secure, private,
and efficient blockchain systems. Fabric’s modular architecture ensures scalability
and privacy, while Composer simplifies application development. Together, they
empower organizations to overcome traditional challenges of Distributed Ledger
Technology and implement blockchain solutions tailored to their unique needs.

Module 5

Solidity Programming
What is Solidity?
• Solidity is a high-level programming language designed specifically for
writing smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain.
• Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the
agreement directly written into code.
• Solidity is statistically typed, meaning the type of data must be defined at
the time of creation.
• The language is influenced by JavaScript, Python, and C++, making it
familiar to many developers.

Installing Solidity & Ethereum Wallet

1. Install Solidity Compiler:
 o Remix IDE: A browser-based IDE to write, test, and deploy Solidity
contracts without installing anything.
o Truffle Suite: A popular framework for building decentralized
applications (dApps) that includes a development environment for
Solidity contracts.
o Solidity Compiler (solc): Can be installed via Node.js for local
development.
2. Ethereum Wallet:
o MetaMask: A widely-used Ethereum wallet for managing accounts
and interacting with decentralized applications (dApps).
o MyEtherWallet (MEW): A client-side wallet that allows users to
create and manage Ethereum wallets.
o Ether: The native cryptocurrency of the Ethereum blockchain, which
is needed to execute smart contracts.

Basics of Solidity
1. Smart Contracts: Solidity allows the creation of smart contracts that can be
deployed on the Ethereum blockchain. These contracts are immutable once
deployed, meaning they cannot be changed.
2. Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM): Solidity runs on the Ethereum Virtual
Machine, which is responsible for executing smart contracts. The EVM
ensures that all nodes in the network can execute the contract's logic
identically.
3. Gas: Gas is a fee required to execute operations on the Ethereum network.
Solidity developers need to optimize their code to reduce gas usage.

Layout of a Solidity Source File

A typical Solidity file includes the following sections:
 1. Pragmas:
o Specifies the version of Solidity you are using. Example:
solidity
Code
pragma solidity ^0.8.0;
2. Imports:
o Solidity allows importing other contract files or libraries for modular
code.
solidity
Code
import "someLibrary.sol";
3. Contract Declaration:
o A smart contract is defined using the contract keyword.
solidity
Code
contract MyContract {
// Contract code here
}
4. Functions:
o Functions define the actions or logic within a contract.
solidity
Code
function set(uint _value) public {
value = _value;
}
Structure of Smart Contracts
A smart contract generally contains the following components:
1. State Variables:
o Used to store data that will be saved on the blockchain.
solidity
Code
uint public value;
2. Functions:
o Functions can modify state variables and perform operations. They
can be either public, private, or internal.
solidity
Code
function set(uint _value) public {
value = _value;
}
3. Modifiers:
o Used to change the behavior of functions, often for access control or
validation.
solidity
Code
modifier onlyOwner {
require(msg.sender == owner);
_;
}
 4. Events:
o Events are used to log information to the Ethereum blockchain for
external consumers.
solidity
Code
event ValueChanged(uint newValue);

General Value Types in Solidity

Solidity supports various data types that can be used to represent different kinds
of values.
1. Int (Integer):
o int is a signed integer (can be positive or negative).
solidity
Code
int256 public balance;
2. Real (Floating Point):
o Solidity does not support floating-point types. Instead, you use
integers and represent decimals by scaling (e.g., multiplying by
10^18).
3. String:
o Represents a sequence of characters. Strings are dynamic in size.
solidity
Code
string public name;
4. Bytes:
o Fixed-size byte arrays used to store binary data.
solidity
Code
bytes32 public data;
5. Arrays:
o Arrays can be fixed or dynamic in size.
solidity
code

uint[] public values; // Dynamic array

uint[5] public fixedValues; // Fixed-size array
6. Mapping:
o A key-value store. Mappings can only be used with reference types
(i.e., arrays or structs).
solidity
Code
mapping(address => uint) public balances;
7. Enum:
o Used to define user-defined types with a finite set of values.
solidity
Code
enum State { Created, Locked, Inactive }
8. Address:
o Represents an Ethereum address (can be used to send and receive
Ether).
solidity
Code
address public owner;

Blockchain Use Cases

Blockchain technology has a broad range of applications across various industries.
Here are some key use cases:
Blockchain Applications
1. Internet of Things (IoT):
o Blockchain enables secure communication between IoT devices,
ensuring the integrity of data and automating transactions without
the need for a centralized authority.
o Example: Using blockchain for tracking devices in a smart home
system.
2. Medical Record Management System:
o Blockchain can securely store patient medical records, ensuring that
only authorized individuals can access sensitive data.
o Example: Hospitals using blockchain to share patient data securely
and privately.
3. Domain Name System (DNS):
o Blockchain can decentralize DNS, making it more resistant to cyber
attacks and censorship.
o Example: Using blockchain for creating a decentralized and secure
DNS.
4. Future of Blockchain:
o As blockchain technology evolves, it is expected to play a major role
in decentralized finance (DeFi), supply chain management, and even
government functions.
5. Altcoins:
 o Altcoins are any cryptocurrencies other than Bitcoin. Examples
include Ethereum, Ripple (XRP), and Litecoin. Each offers unique
features or improvements over Bitcoin.

Blockchain in Financial Services

1. Payments and Secure Trading:
o Blockchain makes transactions faster, cheaper, and more secure. It
eliminates intermediaries, reducing the cost of payments and
improving transaction speeds.
o Example: Ripple (XRP) is used for international money transfers.
2. Compliance and Mortgage:
o Blockchain can streamline compliance processes, making it easier to
manage regulatory reporting and documentation for mortgage and
loan applications.
o Example: Using blockchain to automate mortgage approval
workflows.
3. Financial Trade:
o Blockchain can track securities, stocks, and bonds, ensuring
transparency and reducing fraud in financial markets.
o Example: Using blockchain for real-time trade settlement.

Blockchain in Supply Chain

• Blockchain provides transparency and traceability in supply chains. It
ensures that all parties in the chain can verify the source, authenticity, and
condition of goods.
• Example: Walmart uses blockchain to track the journey of food products
from farm to store.
Blockchain in Government
1. Advantages:
o Blockchain can help governments enhance transparency, reduce
fraud, and improve service delivery by making processes like voting
and tax collection more efficient.
o Example: Using blockchain for secure and transparent voting systems.
2. Use Cases:
o Digital Identity: Blockchain can provide individuals with secure,
tamper-proof identities that are easily verifiable.
o Example: Estonia has implemented blockchain technology for
securing government services like healthcare and voting.