Unit 1

DC Circuits
Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric networks.
Basic Terminology
• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power

An Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one closed path in which current can
flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component for any engineering system. The performance of any electrical device or
machine is always studied by drawing its electrical equivalent circuit. By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system
can be studied for e.g., mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc. All control systems
are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The analysis, of any system can be learnt by mastering
the techniques of circuit theory. The analysis of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.

Electric Field
An electric field is the physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles and exerts force on all other charged
particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them. It also refers to the physical field for a system of charged particles.
Electric fields originate from electric charges and time-varying electric currents. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both
manifestations of the electromagnetic field, one of the four fundamental interactions (also called forces) of nature.

Electric field can be considered as an electric property associated with each point in the space where a charge is present
in any form. An electric field is also described as the electric force per unit charge.
The formula of electric field is given as;
E = F /Q
Where,
E is the electric field.
F is a force.
Q is the charge.
Electric fields are usually caused by varying magnetic fields or electric charges. Electric field strength is measured in the SI
unit volt per meter (V/m).

The direction of the field is taken as the direction of the force which is exerted on the positive charge. The electric field is
radially outwards from positive charge and radially in towards negative point charge.

Electric Charge
“Electric Charge is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric and
magnetic field.”
Electric charges are of two types: Positive and Negative, commonly carried by charge carrier’s protons and electrons.
Examples of the types of charges are subatomic particles or the particles of matter:
Protons are positively charged.
Electrons are negatively charged.
Neutrons have zero charge.

Electric charge is a scalar quantity. Coloumb is the unit of electric charge. “One coulomb is the quantity of charge
transferred in one second.”

Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage source or current source. The
elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel connection, or in any combination of series and
parallel connections.

Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage source or current
source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks" but the converse need not be true.

Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
written as
Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured in terms of
Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal, whereas, Conventional
current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal. Electron current is obtained due to the movement of
free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these
are called as electric current.

Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to flow. Mathematically, it can
be written as
Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a pipe. It is
measured in terms of Volt.

Power & Energy

The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a
Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.

2. Types of Network Elements

We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters. Following are the types of Network
elements −
• Active Elements and Passive Elements
• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
• Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
• Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements

i) Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of delivering power.
• Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit. Sometimes, they may
absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the capability of both delivering and
absorbing power. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
• Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements; however, they can absorb power. That means
these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of either magnetic field or
electric field. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

ii) Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements

We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to obey the property of linearity.
• Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and current. Examples:
Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
• Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and current. Examples: Voltage
sources and current sources.
iii) Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction of current flows through
the network elements.
• Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both
directions and offer the same impedance in either direction of current
flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors. The concept of
Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figure.

iv) Lumped and Distributed Elements

• Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions takes place.
Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
• Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes. For example, a
transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds of miles.

3. Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C)

Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing
(sharing) voltage. Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage
across it is V volts. The symbol of resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the
following figure.
According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the resistance of that
resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to the applied
voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned in Equations
3 to 5.

Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when current flows through it. So, the
amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the current, I flowing through it and they have linear
relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• Ψ is the total magnetic flux
• L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts.
The symbol of inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.
According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as
From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across inductor and
current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as P= VI
By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as
So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.

Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If positive voltage is applied across
the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores
negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it
and they have linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as
Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts.
The symbol of capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.
We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it
can be represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across capacitor and
current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as P = VI. By integrating the
above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as So, the capacitor stores the energy
in the form of electric field.

4. Voltage and Current Sources

Types of Sources
Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an electric circuit. So, active
elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type.

a. Voltage Sources

• An independent voltage source produces a constant

voltage across its two terminals. This voltage is
independent of the amount of current that is flowing
through the two terminals of voltage source. The V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage
 source is a constant line, which is always equal to the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So,
the internal resistance of an independent ideal voltage source is zero Ohms. Hence, the independent ideal voltage
sources do not exist practically, because there will be some
internal resistance
• There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an
independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is
due to the voltage drop across the internal resistance (RS) of
an independent practical voltage source.
• A Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source,
provides a voltage supply whose magnitude depends on either the
voltage across or current flowing through some other circuit
element. A dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond
shape and are used as equivalent electrical sources for many
electronic devices, such as transistors and operational amplifiers.

b. Current Sources
• An independent current source produces a constant current. This
current is independent of the voltage across its two terminals. The V-
I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant
line, which is always equal to the source current (IS) irrespective of
the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal current source is infinite ohms. Hence, the independent ideal
current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some
internal resistance.

• There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent

practical current source from the V-I characteristics of an
independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of
current flows through the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an
independent practical current source.

• A controlled or dependent current source on the other hand

changes its available current depending upon the voltage across, or
the current through, some other element connected to the circuit.
In other words, the output of a dependent current source is
controlled by another voltage or current.

5. Series and parallel circuit & Network Reduction

The definition of a series circuit is a circuit where the components are connected end-to-end. a parallel circuit is a circuit
where all components are connected across each other’s leads.

Network reduction is used to transform part of a system or an external system into an equivalent system that is easier to
solve and often smaller but has the same overall parameters of the original system. The reduced system may not contain
all the elements and modelling of the parent system but it has the same electrical characteristics. By reducing the system
size, we can make reduce simulation times which is important for large power systems.
 6. Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We can transform (convert)
one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network problems. The technique of transforming one
source into the other is called as source transformation technique. Following are the two possible source transformations
• Practical voltage source into a practical current source
• Practical current source into a practical voltage source

Practical voltage source into a practical current source

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in
series with a resistor (RS). This can be converted into a
practical current source. It consists of a current source (IS) in
parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS.
Mathematically, it can be represented as

Practical current source into a practical voltage source

Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in
parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be converted into a
practical voltage source. It consists of a voltage source (VS) in
series with a resistor (RS). The value of VS will be equal to the
product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented
as Vs = IsRs

7. Star Delta Transformation

8. Division Principles
Let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.
• Current Division Principle
• Voltage Division Principle

Current Division Principle

When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows through each element
gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the node.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present across each element gets
divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across that entire combination.

9. Network Theorems
Electric circuit theorems are always beneficial to help find voltage and currents in multi-loop circuits. These theorems use
fundamental rules or formulas and basic equations of mathematics to analyse basic components of electrical or
electronics parameters such as voltages, currents, resistance, and so on. These fundamental theorems include the basic
theorems like Superposition theorem, Tellegen’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem, and
Thevenin’s theorems. Another group of network theorems that are mostly used in the circuit analysis process includes
the Compensation theorem, Substitution theorem, Reciprocity theorem, Millman’s theorem, and Miller’s theorem.
 I. Kirchoff’s Law
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network contains one of these two
types of network elements or a combination of both. Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are
popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

a. Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or mesh is equal to zero. A Loop is a
path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that doesn’t contain any other
loops inside it.
Mathematically, KVL can be represented as
Where,
• Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
• N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage
sources is equal to the algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop."

b. Kirchoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node is equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a node, then it is said to be
Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
• Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.
• M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.
The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal to the
algebraic sum of currents leaving a node".
c. Super Mesh and Super node analysis

II. Thevenin and Norton’s Theorem

Any complicated network i.e., several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element response is
desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as network reduction techniques.

Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving Network problems having many
active and passive elements. Using these theorems, the networks can be reduced to simple equivalent circuits with one
active source and one element. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.

a. Thevenin’s theorem
Any linear, bilateral two terminal
network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source in series with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking
into the terminals(with concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all sources are
replaced by their internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and current source is open circuit.

b. Norton’s theorem
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the
short circuited current across the load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network
looking through the open circuited load
terminals.
 III. Superposition Theorem
The principle of superposition helps us to analyse a linear circuit with more than one current or voltage sources
sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the circuit by considering the effect of one
source at a time by replacing the other sources with their ideal internal resistances.

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, the total current or voltage in any
part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages in the required branch with each source acting
individually while other sources are replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e., Voltage sources by a short circuit and
current sources by open circuit)

IV. Millman’s Theorem

Millman’s theorem is one of the most useful methods for particularly electrical circuits which contain many voltage
sources. Based on this theorem, each voltage source as well as their particular resistors generates a current & the amount
of all currents is equivalent to the whole current generated through the circuit.
In Millman’s Theorem the number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to one equivalent source.

And as we know,
I = V/R, and we can also write R = I/G as G = I/R
So, the equation can be written as

Where R is the equivalent resistance connected to the

equivalent voltage source in series.
Thus, the final equation becomes

V. Substitution Theorem
Substitution Theorem states that the voltage across any branch or the current through that branch of a network
being known, the branch can be replaced by the combination of various elements that will make the same voltage and
current through that branch. In other words, the Substitution Theorem says that for branch equivalence, the terminal
voltage and current must be the same.
 VI. Reciprocity Theorem
In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a single source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the
current through that branch in which the source was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which
the current was originally obtained. This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists of bilateral
components.
The location of the voltage source and the current source may be interchanged without a change in current.
However, the polarity of the voltage source should be identical with the direction of the branch current in each position.