NAT SCI 3- HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

OCTOBER 2024
○ Action potentials/ Nerve impulses
■ Language of neurons
OUTLINE: ■ Electrical signals carried along neurons
I. GENERAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION to the brain
a. General Structures
b. Functions of the Nervous System
■ Depolarization: Voltage-gated sodium
II. TYPES AND STRUCTURE (Na+) channel opening in the nerve cell
a. Central Nervous System membrane. Inside is more positive than
b. Peripheral Nervous System the outside of the membrane.
III. DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ■ Repolarization: Voltage-gated
a. Somatic Nervous System potassium (K+) channels open in the
b. Autonomic Nervous System membrane. Negatively charged inside,
c. Enteric Nervous System
IV. SENSES
while being positively charged outside.
a. Sensation ■ Hyperpolarization: Membrane potential
b. Sensory Receptors becomes more negative than its start.
c. General Senses
d. Pain
e. Olfaction
f. Taste
g. Vision
h. Hearing and Balance
i. Balance
V. REFERENCES

GENERAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

● Nervous System - regulates and coordinates functions of
the body to maintain homeostasis.
● It is a communication system, receiving signals from and
sending commands to different areas of the body.
● It helps to coordinate the body functions to maintain ● Nerves - send electrical signals for sensations, movement,
homeostasis. and control of body functions.
○ Fibers of sensory and motor neurons
General Structures ● Glial Cells - supports the neurons and their activities.
● Brain - receives and interprets all sensory information,
stores memory, and controls movement. Functions of the Nervous System
○ Perception and processing of sensory stimuli 1. Maintaining homeostasis
○ Execution of voluntary responses - Depends on the nervous system’s ability to detect,
○ Regulation of homeostatic mechanisms interpret, and respond to changes in internal and
● Spinal Cord - contains nerve bundles and cells that carry external conditions.
messages from your brain to the rest of your body. - Can stimulate or inhibit the activities of other
○ Initiation of reflexes systems to help maintain a constant internal
○ Pathways for sensory and motor functions environment.
between periphery and brain 2. Receiving sensory input
● Neurons - excitable cells of the nervous system - Sensory receptors monitor numerous external and
internal stimuli.
- Vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, pain, body
position, and temperature.
- Blood pH, blood gasses, and blood pressure, are
processed at a subconscious level.
3. Integrating information
- The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for
processing sensory input and initiating responses
4. Controlling muscles and glands
- Skeletal muscles contract when stimulated by the
nervous system.
- Controls the major movements of the body.
- Also participates in controlling cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and many glands.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
- Center of mental activity, including consciousness,
memory, and thinking.

○ Structure TYPES AND STRUCTURE

■ Cell body/Soma- contains the nucleus
that dictates the cell’s function ● The nervous system is divided into two major regions:
■ Dendrites- short, branching extensions ○ Central Nervous System (CNS) - consists of the
of the cell that usually receive brain and the spinal cord.
information from other neurons or from ○ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - consists of
sensory receptors and transmit the all the nervous tissue outside the CNS, including
information toward the neuron cell body. nerves and ganglia.
■ Axon-single long cell process that either
conduct action potentials towards the Central Nervous System
CNS (sensory neurons) or away from ● Spinal Cord
the CNS (motor neurons) ○ It extends from the foramen magnum at the base
○ Receive stimuli, transmit signals to other neurons of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra.
or effector organs, and conduct action potentials.

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■ Hypothalamus - a collection of nuclei
○ Spinal nerves communicate between the spinal that are largely involved in regulating
cord and the body. homeostasis. It connects the CNS to the
○ Cauda Equina - the inferior end of the spinal cord endocrine system.
and the spinal nerves exiting there that resembles ■ Epithalamus - consists of a few small
a horse’s tail. nuclei, which are involved in the
○ It consists of a superficial white matter portion and emotional and visceral response to
a deep gray matter portion. odors, and the pineal gland.
■ White Matter - tissue consists of ● Pineal Gland - an endocrine
myelinated axons. gland that may influence the
● In the spinal cord, it has three onset of puberty and may play
columns: a role in controlling some long
○ Dorsal (Posterior) term cycles that are influenced
Column by the light-dark cycle.
○ Ventral (Anterior) ○ Cerebrum - the largest part of the brain.
Column ■ It is divided into left and right
○ Lateral Column hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure.
● Consists the ascending and ■ Corpus Callosum - provides the major
descending tracts. pathway for communication between the
○ Ascending Tract - carry two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
sensory information up ■ Cerebral Cortex - thin, extensive region
to the brain of wrinkled gray matter that is
○ Descending Tract - responsible for the higher functions of
carry motor commands the nervous system such as thinking and
from the brain. other mental processes.
■ Gray Matter - tissue that is a collection ● Gyrus (plural: gyri) - numerous
of neuron cell bodies and dendrites. folds or ridges of the brain
● In the spinal cord, it is shaped ● Sulcus (plural:sulci) - the
like the letter H. groove between two gyri.
● Has three horns: ● Has four lobes:
○ Posterior Horn ○ Frontal Lobe -
○ Anterior Horn important in the control
○ Lateral Horn of voluntary motor
functions, motivation,
● Brain aggression, mood, and
○ The major regions of the brain are the brainstem, olfactory (smell)
the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the reception.
cerebrum. ○ Parietal Lobe - the
○ Brainstem - connects the brain and the spinal principal center for
cord. It consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, receiving and
and the midbrain, which works together to control consciously perceiving
and coordinate messages going in and out of the most sensory
brain. information (ex. touch)
■ Medulla Oblongata - located at the ○ Temporal Lobe - is
bottom of the brainstem. It is responsible involved in olfactory
for autonomic functions (e.g. blood (smell) and auditory
pressure, breathing). (hearing) sensations and
■ Pons - responsible for relaying signals plays an important role
from the motor cortex to the cerebellum, in memory.
medulla oblongata, and thalamus. ○ Occipital Lobe -
■ Midbrain - the smallest region of the functions in receiving
brainstem. It helps to control eye and perceiving visual
movement and coordination. input.
■ Reticular Formation - group of nuclei ● Central Sulcus - separates the
scattered throughout the brainstem that frontal and parietal lobe
regulates important functions such as ● Lateral Fissure - separates the
motor control and consciousness. temporal lobe from the rest of
● It is a major component of the the cerebrum
reticular activating system ● Protective Structures of the CNS
(RAS), which plays an ○ Meninges - these are three connective tissue
important role in arousing and membranes that surround and protect the brain
maintaining consciousness, and spinal cord.
and in regulating the ■ Dura Mater - the most superficial and
sleep-wake cycle. thickest of the meninges.
○ Cerebellum - also known as “little brain”. It is ● Its name comes from the Latin
responsible for balance, movement, and for “tough mother” to represent
coordination. its physically protective role.
○ Diencephalon - is the connection between the ● It encloses the entire CNS and
cerebrum and the rest of the nervous system the major blood vessels that
except for the system associated with olfaction or enter the cranium and vertebral
the sense of smell. cavity.
■ Thalamus - the brain’s relay center. It ■ Arachnoid Mater - the middle layer of
relays incoming sensory information the meninges.
through groups of neurons that project to ● It is named for its
the appropriate region in the cerebral spider-web-like trabeculae, a
cortex. delicate strand of connective

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tissues between the arachnoid
and the pia mater. DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
● It is a sac-like enclosure around
the CNS. Somatic Nervous System
■ Pia Mater - thin fibrous membrane that ● Controls voluntary movements
covers the outer surface of the CNS. ● transmits action potentials from CNS to skeletal muscles
● Its name comes from the Latin ● Voluntary movement occur due to stimulation of neural
for “tender mother” suggesting circuits that consist of two motor neurons: upper and lower
its gentle covering of the brain. motor neurons
○ Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - bathes the brain and ○ Upper Motor Neurons
spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around ■ Cell bodies are in the cerebral
the CNS. cortex
■ Choroid Plexus - produces the CSF. ■ Axons form descending tracts
○ Ventricles - open spaces within the brain where that connect to lower motor
CSF circulates. neurons
○ Lower Motor Neurons
Peripheral Nervous System ■ Cell bodies are in the anterior
● Ganglia (singular: ganglion) - group of neuron cell bodies. horn of spinal cord gray matter or
○ It forms connections with the different parts of the cranial nerve nuclei
brain, allowing them to send signals back and ■ Axons leave the CNS and extend
forth. through spinal or cranial nerves
○ Can be categorized as either sensory ganglia or to skeletal muscles.
autonomic ganglia. Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
● Nerves ● Primary Motor Cortex - Action potentials in this region
○ The nerves of the PNS can be divided into two control voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
groups: 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs ● Premotor Area - Motor functions are organized here
of spinal nerves. before initiated in the Primary Motor Cortex
○ Cranial Nerves - nerves attached to the brain, ● Prefrontal Area - Motivation and foresight to initiate
which are primarily responsible for the sensory movements as well as regulation of emotional behavior
and motor functions of the head and neck. and mood.
■ Each nerve is designated using Roman Descending Tracts
numerals from 1 to 12. Direct
● Lateral Corticospinal - Muscle tone and skilled
movements especially of hands
● Anterior Corticospinal - Muscle tone and movement
trunk muscles
Indirect
● Rubrospinal - Movement coordination
● Retuculospinal - Posture adjustment, especially during
movement
● Vetibulospinal - Posture and balance
● Tectospinal - Movement in response to visual reflexes
Basal Nuclei
- Group of functionally related nuclei
- Responsible for planning, organizing, and coordinating
○ Spinal Nerves motor movements and posture
■ All the spinal nerves contain axons of - Disorders here cause difficulty in rising and walking and
both sensory and somatic motor causes increased muscle tone and exaggerated
neurons and thus are called mixed uncontrolled movements at rest
nerves. Two Primary Nuclei:
■ They are categorized by the region of ● Corpus Striatum - found deep within cerebrum
the vertebral column from which they ● Substantia Nigra - dark pigmented cells in the midbrain
emerge: Feedback Loops:
● Cervical (C) - C1 through C8 ● Stimulatory - facilitates muscle activity especially at the
● Thoracic (T) - T1 through T12 beginning of a voluntary movement
● Lumbar (L) - L1 through L5 ● Inhibitory - facilitates the actions of the stimulatory
● Sacral (S) - S1 through S5 circuits by inhibiting muscle activity in antagonist
● Coccygeal (Co) muscles. Also inhibits random movements of the trunk
■ Dermatome - the area of skin supplied and limbs as well as decrease muscle tone when the
with sensory innervation by a pair of body, limbs, and head are at rest
spinal nerves. Cerebellum
■ Most of the spinal nerves are organized - Attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem
into three major plexuses, where - Consists of gray nuclei and white nerve tracts
neurons of several spinal nerves come - Involved in maintaining balance, muscle tone, and in
together and intermingle. coordinating fine motor movement
● Three Major Plexuses - Compares motor cortex and sensory information from
○ Cervical Plexus - the moving structures
originates from spinal
nerves C1 to C4. Autonomic Nervous System
○ Brachial Plexus -
● Involved in involuntary movements
originates from spinal
● Comprises of motor neurons that carry action potentials from
nerves C5 to T1
CNS to the periphery.
○ Lumbosacral Plexus -
● Innervate smooth and cardiac muscles, as well as glands
originates from spinal
nerves L1 to S4.
Two Neurons:
● Preganglionic Neuron

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 NAT SCI 3- HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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- All preganglionic neurons of both sympathetic ○ Ruffini Corpuscles: Detect continuous pressure.
and parasympathetic division secrete the ○ Pacinian Corpuscles: Detect deep pressure,
neurotransmitter acetylochine vibration, and proprioception.
● Postganglionic Neuron
- Most postganglionic neurons of the Pain
sympathetic division secrete the ● Types of Pain Sensations:
neurotransmitter norepinephrine ○ Localized pain: Sharp, pricking pain (fast
Two Divisions: transmission).
● Sympathetic Division ○ Diffuse pain: Burning, aching pain (slow
- “Fight or Flight” transmission).
- prepares the body for physical activity ○ Referred Pain: Pain perceived in a different
● Parasympathetic Division location than the stimulus, e.g., pain from a heart
- “Rest and Digest” attack felt in the left shoulder.
- Stimulates involuntary activities of the body at
rest Olfaction (Smell)
● Dual Innervation ● Olfactory Neurons: Located in the olfactory epithelium,
- Organs that receive autonomic neurons have specialized cilia that interact with odorants.
innervated by both the sympathetic and ● Pathways for Olfaction: Action potentials travel from
parasympathetic division. olfactory neurons to the olfactory cortex for perception.

Enteric Nervous System Taste

● Consists of plexuses within the wall of the digestive tract ● Taste Buds: Located on the tongue and other parts of the
● Enteric Neurons mouth, consisting of epithelial cells and taste cells.
- capable of monitoring and controlling the digestive tract ● Taste Types: Sour, salty, bitter, sweet, and umami (savory).
independently of the CNS through local reflexes ● Neuronal Pathways for Taste: Sensory information is
- The enteric interneurons stimulate enteric motor carried by the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves to
neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete. the brain.
Plexuses include:
● sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the Vision
CNS; ● Accessory Structures of the Eye
● sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that ○ Eyebrows
connect the CNS to the digestive tract; ○ Eyelids
● enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric ○ Conjunctiva
plexuses. ○ Lacrimal Apparatus
○ Extrinsic Eye Muscles.
- CNS control of parasympathetic branches of the vagus ● Structure of the Eye:
nerve and sympathetic nerves (primarily, the splanchnic ○ Fibrous Tunic: Includes the sclera and cornea.
nerves) can override the actions of enteric neurons. ○ Vascular Tunic: Includes the choroid, ciliary body,
Hence, the ENS is an independent subdivision of the and iris.
PNS that is integrated with the ANS ○ Nervous Tunic: The retina, which includes rods
and cones for light perception.
SENSES
Hearing and Balance
● Anatomy of the Ear
Sensation ○ External Ear: Auricle and external auditory canal.
● General Senses vs. Special Senses: ○ Middle Ear: Tympanic membrane, auditory
○ General senses have receptors distributed ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).
throughout the body and are divided into somatic ○ Inner Ear: Cochlea (for hearing) and vestibular
senses (providing information about the body and system (for balance).
environment) and visceral senses (providing ● Hearing Mechanism:
information about internal organs, mainly pain and ○ Sound waves travel through the auditory canal to
pressure). the tympanic membrane, causing vibrations that
○ Special senses are more localized and include are transferred to the cochlea for sound
smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance. perception.

Sensory Receptors Balance

● Types of Sensory Receptors: ● Static Equilibrium: Detected by the vestibule.
○ Mechanoreceptors: Respond to mechanical ● Dynamic Equilibrium: Detected by the semicircular canals.
stimuli like bending/stretching.
○ Chemoreceptors: Respond to chemicals, e.g.,
odor molecules for smell. REFERENCES
○ Photoreceptors: Respond to light (vision). ● Vanputte, C. L., Regan, J. L., & Russo, A. F. (2019).
○ Thermoreceptors: Respond to temperature Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (10th ed.).
changes. Mcgraw-Hill Education.
○ Nociceptors: Respond to pain stimuli. ● OpenStax | Free Textbooks Online with No Catch. (n.d.).
@Openstax/Os-webview.
General Senses https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiolo
● General Sensory Receptors gy-2e
○ Free Nerve Endings: Respond to painful stimuli, ● Central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord (for
temperature, and movement. parents). (n.d.-b).
○ Merkel Disks: Detect light touch and superficial https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/central-nervous-system
pressure. .html
○ Hair Follicle Receptors: Detect light touch ● Thau, L., Reddy, V., & Singh, P. (2022, October 10).
associated with hair movement. Anatomy, central nervous system. StatPearls - NCBI
○ Meissner Corpuscles: Provide fine, discriminative Bookshelf.
touch. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542179/#:~:text

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=The%20CNS%20includes%20the%20brain,Peripheral
%20and%20Central%20Nervous%20Systems).
● Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2016). Cognitive
psychology (7th ed.). Boston, Ma, Usa Cengage
Learning Canada.

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