Research Process

(1) formulating the research problem

(2) extensive literature survey

(3) developing the hypothesis
(4) preparing the research design
(5) determining sample design
(6) collecting the data
(7) execution of the project
(8) analysis of data
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
1. Formulating the research problem:
 There are two types of research problems, those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables.
 The researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general
area of interest.
 Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation
of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research
problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
 Two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
 The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and
validity of the background facts concerning the problem.
Factors to be considered when choosing a research problem.
1. Relevance: The research problem should be relevant to the field of study and should address
an important issue or question.
2. Feasibility: The research problem should be feasible to study within the available resources
and time frame.
3. Originality: The research problem should be original, in the sense that it adds to the existing
body of knowledge in some way.
4. Access to data: The research problem should be one that can be studied using the data that is
available or that can be collected.
5. Alignment with research goals: The research problem should align with the researcher's
goals and interests.
 6. Ethical considerations: The research problem and the proposed methods for studying it
should be ethically sound.
7. Review of the literature: The research problem should be informed by a review of the
existing literature in the field, in order to avoid duplicating previous work and to identify gaps
in the existing research.
2. Extensive literature survey:
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
 The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
 Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 The manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis.
 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to
be tested.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.
 How does one go about developing working hypotheses?
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution.
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues.
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems.
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design:
 This is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
 the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to conduct a
study
 This facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. The function of
research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.
 Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
 The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
 (i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organised and the reasoning leading to the selection
(iv) the time available for research
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which model to
implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly classified into
quantitative and qualitative.

 Qualitative research

It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical

calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory
exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.

 Quantitative research

It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide
a better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary
for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to
be highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

i. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing

the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created
by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide
insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better
understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct
exploratory research.

ii. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and
effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence
of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer
satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a
problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.
Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around
them react to understand social psychology better.
iii. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental
research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two
other variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.
This type of research requires two different groups.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose values
range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive
relationship between the variables, and -1 means a negative relationship between the two
variables.

iv. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the
underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more
about the factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

v. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a

subject to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a
subject and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.

5. Determining sample design:

 All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known
as a census inquiry.
 The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly
known as the sample design.
 A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With
probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the
sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine
this probability.
 Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability
samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling techniques.
 Important sample designs
(i) Deliberate or purposive or non-probability sampling.
 involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.
 When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the
ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling.
 judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which
he considers as representative of the population.
 It is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to
develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling.
 Also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and
every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
 . For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of
15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items
on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
(iii) Systematic sampling.
 An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling
by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list.
 Eg. select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street
and so on
 The selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and
then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling.
 If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample.
 The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations
or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
(v) Quota sampling.
 In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be
filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left
to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling
 The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size
of that stratum in the population. Quota samples generally happen to be
judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling.
 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample.
 The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to
ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.
 Thismake the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.
 Area sampling involves first dividing the total area into a number of smaller
non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number
of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small
areas are included in the sample.
 It is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population
concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since
interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling.

 This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire country.
 The first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states,
then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
 If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling.
 This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
 This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context
of statistical quality control.