Motion in 1 Dimension

• Position, Velocity, and Speed of a Particle

• Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
• Analysis Model: Particle under Constant Velocity
• The Analysis Model Approach to Problem Solving
• Acceleration
• Motion Diagram
• Analysis Model: Particle under Constant Acceleration
• Freely Falling Bodies - Kinematics Equations Derived from
Calculus
 Learning Objective
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Understand the concepts of position, displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.
2. Know how to analyze the motion of moving object in one dimension.
3. Describe and represent or make models of the moving object in one
dimension
4. Apply concepts, methods and formulas to solve problems in one
dimension.
 Motion in 1 Dimension
As a first step in studying classical mechanics, we describe the
motion of an object while ignoring the interactions with external
agents that might be affecting or modifying that motion. This
portion of classical mechanics is called kinematics. In this chapter,
we consider only motion in one dimension, that is, motion of an object
along a straight line.
 From everyday experience, we recognize that motion of an
object represents a continuous change in the object’s position. In
physics, we can categorize motion into three types: translational,
rotational, and vibrational
A car traveling on a highway is an example of translational
motion, the Earth’s spin on its axis is an example of rotational
motion, and the back-and-forth movement of a pendulum is an
example of vibrational motion.
 In our study of translational motion, we use what is called the
particle model and describe the moving object as a particle
regardless of its size.
Particle - is a point-like object, that is, an object that has mass but is
of infinitesimal size
 Position
A particle’s position “x” is the
location of the particle with respect to
a chosen reference point that we can
consider to be the origin of a
coordinate system.
Consider a car moving back
and forth along the x axis. When we
begin collecting position data, the car
is 30 m to the right of the reference
position x=0.
 The displacement ∆𝑥of a particle is defined as its change in
position in some time interval. As the particle moves from an
initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 , its displacement is given
by:
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖

∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓𝑥𝑓 > 𝑥𝑖

∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓𝑥𝑓 < 𝑥𝑖
 Distance VS Displacement
Distance is the length of a path
followed by a particle.

Displacement is the change in

position in some time interval
Thinker Bell

Between distance and

displacement, which one is a
scalar and which one is a vector
quantity?
 Vector VS Scalar
Vector quantity - requires the specification of both direction and
magnitude
*positive (+) and negative (-) signs to indicate vector direction

Scalar quantity - has a numerical value and no direction

 Average Velocity
The average velocity 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 of a particle is defined as the
particle’s displacement ∆𝑥 divided by the time interval ∆𝑡 during
which that displacement occurs:
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓− 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖

Eg, Compare average velocity of between positions C and D and E

and F
 The average velocity of a particle moving in one dimension
can be positive or negative, depending on the sign of the
displacement.
* The time interval ∆t is always positive

𝑖𝑓𝑥𝑓 > 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

This case corresponds to a particle moving in the positive x
direction, that is, toward larger values of x.

𝑖𝑓𝑥𝑓 < 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

This case corresponds to a particle moving in the negative x
direction.
We can interpret average velocity
geometrically by drawing a straight
line between any two points on the
position–time graph. This line
forms the hypotenuse of a right
triangle of height ∆x and base ∆t.
The slope of this line is the ratio
∆x/ ∆ t, which is what we have
defined as average velocity
Speed VS Velocity
Consider a marathon
runner who runs a distance d of
more than 40 km and yet ends
up at her starting point.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑠 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒. 𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, ∆𝑥
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, ∆𝑡
 Sample Problem
Suppose it takes you 45.0s to travel
100 m down a long, straight
hallway toward your departure
gate at an airport. At the 100-m
mark, you realize you missed the
restroom, and you return back
25.0 m along the same hallway,
taking 10.0 s to make the return
trip. What is the average velocity
and average speed?
SEATWORK

Find the displacement, average

velocity, and average speed of the
car between positions A and F
 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND
SPEED
Often, we need to know the velocity of a particle at a
particular instant in time t rather than the average velocity over a
finite time interval ∆t. In other words, you would like to be able to
specify your velocity just as precisely as you can specify your
position by noting what is happening at a specific clock reading, that
is, at some specific instant
What is the particle’s velocity at
t=0?
We have already discussed the
average velocity for the interval
during which the car moved
from position A to position B
(given by the slope of the blue
line) and for the interval during
which it moved from A to F
(represented by the slope of the
longer blue).
The car starts out by moving to
the right, which we defined to be
the positive direction. Therefore,
being positive, the value of the
average velocity during the
interval from A to B is more
representative of the initial
velocity than is the value of the
average velocity during the
interval from A to F, which we
determined to be negative
Now let us focus on the short blue
line and slide point B to the left
along the curve, toward point A.
The line between the points
becomes steeper and steeper, and
as the two points become
extremely close together, the line
becomes a tangent line to the
curve, indicated by the green line
in Figure. The slope of this tangent
line represents the velocity of the
car at point A.
What we have done is determine the instantaneous velocity at that
moment. In other words, the instantaneous velocity 𝑣𝑥 equals the
limiting value of the ratio ∆x/∆ t as ∆ t approaches zero
∆𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = lim
𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of x with
respect to t, written
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = lim =
𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

rate of change
The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative, or zero.
Consider point B
• Before point B, the slope of the position–time graph is
positive, 𝑉𝑋 is positive and the car is moving toward larger values
of x.
• After point B, the slope of the position–time graph is
negative, 𝑉𝑋 is negative and the car is moving toward smaller
values of x.
• At point B, the slope and the instantaneous velocity are zero
and the car is momentarily at rest.
 From here on, we use the word velocity to designate
instantaneous velocity. When we are interested in average
velocity, we shall always use the adjective average.
The instantaneous speed of a particle is defined as the
magnitude of its instantaneous velocity. As with average speed,
instantaneous speed has no direction associated with it.
For example:
If one particle has an instantaneous velocity of +25 m/s along a
given line and another particle has an instantaneous velocity of -25
m/s along the same line, both have instantenous speed of 25 m/s.
Consider the following one-
dimensional motions:
(A) a ball thrown directly upward
rises to a highest point and falls
back into the thrower’s hand
(B) a race car starts from rest and
speeds up to 100 m/s; and
(C) a spacecraft drifts through
space at constant velocity.
Are there any points in the motion
of these objects at which the
instantaneous velocity has the
same value as the average velocity
over the entire motion? If so,
identify the point(s).
A particle moves along the x axis.
Its position varies with time
according to the expression
𝑥 = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 , where x is in
meters and t is in seconds.
(A) Show the position-time graph
with t={0,1,2,3,4}
(B) Determine the displacement of
the particle in the time
intervals t =0 to t=1s and t=1s
to t=3s.
(C) Calculate the average velocity
during these two time intervals
(D) Find the instantaneous velocity
of the particle at t=2.5 s.
 Seatwork
1. The position of a particle moving 2. A cheetah is crouched 20 m to the
along the x axis varies in time east of an observer. At time the
cheetah begins to run due east toward
according to the expression 𝑥 = an antelope that is 50 m to the east of
3𝑡 2 , where x is in meters and t is in the observer. During the first 2.0 s of
seconds. Evaluate its position the attack, the cheetah’s coordinate x
varies with time according𝑚 to2the
(a) at t=3.00 s equation 𝑥 = 20𝑚 + (5 2 )𝑡
𝑠
(b) at t=5.00 s (a) Find the cheetah’s displacement
between and
(c) Calculate the Instantaneous (b) Find its average velocity during
Velocity at t=3.00 s and t=5.00 s that interval
(c) Find its instantaneous velocity at
t=1 s
 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant
Velocity
An analysis model is a common situation that occurs time and
again when solving physics problems. Because it represents a
common situation, it also represents a common type of problem
that we have solved before. When you identify an analysis model in
a new problem, the solution to the new problem can be modeled
after that of the previously-solved problem. Analysis models help us
to recognize those common situations and guide us toward a
solution to the problem.
 When solving a problem, the first step is to Identify the
analysis model that is appropriate for the problem. To do so, think
carefully about what is going on in the problem and match it to a
situation you have seen before. Once the analysis model is
identified, the model tells you which equation(s) to use for the
mathematical representation.
Let’s build our first analysis model. Let us use Equation
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓− 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖
to build our first analysis model for solving problems.

We imagine a particle moving with a constant velocity. The model of

a particle under constant velocity can be applied in any situation in
which an entity that can be modeled as a particle is moving with
constant velocity. This situation occurs frequently, so this model is
important.
Thinker Bell

If we imagine a particle moving

with a constant velocity,
compare the instantaneous
velocity and average velocity at
any time interval.
If the velocity of a particle is constant, its instantaneous velocity at
any instant during a time interval is the same as the average
velocity over the interval. That is, 𝑣𝑥 =𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 . Therefore, this gives
us an equation to be used in the mathematical representation of
this situation:
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓− 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖
Since 𝑣𝑥 =𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 , then:
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓− 𝑥𝑖
① 𝑣𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 ∆t
In practice, we usually choose the time at the beginning of the
interval to be 𝑡𝑖 =0 and the time at the end of the interval to be 𝑡𝑓 =t,
so our equation becomes

𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 ∆t

② 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 t (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑥 )
A kinesiologist is studying the biomechanics
of the human body. (Kinesiology is the study
of the movement of the human body. Notice
the connection to the word kinematics.) She
determines the velocity of an experimental
subject while he runs along a straight line at
a constant rate. The kinesiologist starts the
stopwatch at the moment the runner passes
a given point and stops it after the runner
has passed another point 20 m away. The
time interval indicated on the stopwatch is
4.0 s
(A) What is the runner’s velocity?
(B) If the runner continues his motion after
the stopwatch is stopped, what is his
position after 10 s have passed?
 Particle Under Constant Velocity
Imagine a moving object that can be modeled as a particle. If it
moves at a constant speed through a displacement ∆x in a straight
line in a time interval ∆t, its constant velocity is:
∆𝑥
𝑣𝑥 =
∆𝑡
The position of the particle as a function of time is given by:

𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 ∆t
 Particle under a Constant Velocity

Examples:
• a meteoroid traveling through gravity-free space
• a car traveling at a constant speed on a straight highway
• a runner traveling at constant speed on a perfectly straight path
• an object moving at terminal speed through a viscous medium
 Particle Under Constant Speed
Imagine a moving object that can
be modeled as a particle. If it
moves at a constant speed
through a distance d along a
straight line or a curved path in
a time interval ∆t, its constant
speed is
𝑑
𝑣𝑥 =
∆𝑡
 Particle Under Constant Speed
Examples:
• a planet traveling around a perfectly circular orbit
• a car traveling at a constant speed on a curved racetrack
• a runner traveling at constant speed on a curved path
• a charged particle moving through a uniform magnetic field
 Sample Problem
A car travels along a straight line at a constant speed of 60.0 mi/h for a
distance d and then another distance d in the same direction at another
constant speed. The average velocity for the entire trip is 30.0 mi/h.
(a) What is the constant speed with which the car moved during the second
distance d?
(b) Suppose the second distance d were traveled in the opposite direction;
you forgot something and had to return home at the same constant
speed as found in part (a). What is the average velocity for this trip?
(c) What is the average speed for this new trip?
 Problem
A person takes a trip, driving with a constant speed of 89.5 km/h,
except for a 22.0-min rest stop. If the person’s average speed is 77.8
km/h,
(a) how much time is spent on the trip and
(b) how far does the person travel?
 Acceleration
When the velocity of a particle changes
with time, the particle is said to be
accelerating.
Let us see how to quantify acceleration.
Suppose an object that can be modeled as
a particle moving along the x axis has an
initial velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑖 at time 𝑡𝑖 at position A
and a final velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑓 at time 𝑡𝑓 at
position B.
The red-brown curve in the
figure shows how the velocity
varies with time. The average
acceleration 𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 of the
particle is defined as the change
in velocity ∆𝑣𝑥 divided by the
time interval ∆𝑡 during which
that change occurs.
Formula for Average Acceleration, 𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒
∆𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖
Formula for Instantaneous Acceleration, 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒
In some situations, the value of the average acceleration may be
different over different time intervals. It is therefore useful to define
the instantaneous acceleration as the limit of the average
acceleration as ∆t approaches zero
If we imagine that point A is brought closer and closer to point B
and we take the limit of ∆𝑣𝑥 /∆t as ∆t approaches zero, we obtain the
instantaneous acceleration at point B:

∆𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = lim =
𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Position-time graph
The slope between any two
points on the position–time
graph is the Average velocity
between that two points
Line goes up = +v
Line goes down = -v
Position-time Graph for a
particle under Constant Velocity
Line goes up = +v
Line goes down = -v

∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓− 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖
Velocity-time Graph &
Acceleration-time Graph

Maximum velocity appears at

acceleration=0
The acceleration is positive
when the velocity is inceasing in
the positive x direction
The acceleration is negative
when the velocity is decreasing
in the positive x direction
 The instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the
velocity with respect to time, which by definition is the slope of the
velocity–time graph.
We see that just as the velocity of a moving particle is the slope
at a point on the particle’s x–t graph, the acceleration of a particle is
the slope at a point on the particle’s 𝑣𝑥 –t graph.
Motion Diagrams

A motion diagram can be

formed by imagining a
stroboscopic photograph of a
moving object, which shows
several images of the object
taken as the strobe light flashes
at a constant rate.
 For the case of motion in a straight line, the direction of the
velocity of an object t and the direction of its acceleration are
related as follows. When the object’s velocity and acceleration are in
the same direction, the object is speeding up. On the other hand,
when the object’s velocity and acceleration are in opposite
directions, the object is slowing down
 From now on, we shall use the term acceleration to mean
instantaneous acceleration. When we mean average acceleration,
we shall always use the adjective average. Because 𝑣𝑥 = dx/dt, the
acceleration can also be written as:

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = = = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
That is, in one-dimensional motion, the acceleration equals the
second derivative of x with respect to time
The velocity of a particle moving along
the x axis varies according to the
expression 𝑣𝑥 = 40 − 5𝑡 2 , where 𝑣𝑥 is in
meters per second and t is in seconds.
(A)Find the average acceleration in the
time interval t=0 to t=2.0 s
(B)Determine the acceleration at t=2.0S
 Sample Problem
An object moves along the x axis according to the equation,
𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 3 where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Determine
(a) the average speed between t=2.00 s and t=3.00 s,
(b) the instantaneous speed at t=2.00 s and at t=3.00 s,
(c) the average acceleration between t=2.00 s and t=3.00 s, and
(d) the instantaneous acceleration at t=2.00 s and t=3.00 s.
(e) At what time is the object at rest?
 Analysis Model: Particle under Constant
Acceleration
If a particle is under a constant acceleration then,
𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑎𝑥

∆𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖

𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑎𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
take 𝑡𝑖 =0 and 𝑡𝑓 to be any later time t then,
𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑎𝑥 =
𝑡−0
𝑎𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
This powerful expression enables us to determine an object’s
velocity at any time t if we know the object’s initial velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑖 and
its (constant) acceleration 𝑎𝑥 .

𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )

 Velocity–time graph for this constant-
acceleration motion.

When the acceleration is constant, the graph of acceleration versus

time is a straight line having a slope of zero.
Because velocity at constant acceleration varies linearly in time,
we can express the average velocity in any time interval as the
arithmetic mean of the initial velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑖 and the final velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑓 :

𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2

Notice that this expression for average velocity applies only in

situations in which the acceleration is constant.
to obtain the position of an
object as a function of time. 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ; 𝑡𝑖 = 0 ; 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
=
2 𝑡
∆𝑡 = 𝑡
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
∆𝑥 2
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = This equation provides the final position of the
∆𝑡
particle at time t in terms of the initial and
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 final velocities.
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑡
 𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
2

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑡
2
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑡
2

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
2
This equation provides the final position of the particle at time t in terms
of the initial position, the initial velocity, and the constant acceleration
 𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑡=
𝑎𝑥
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )
2
1 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 ( )
2 𝑎𝑥
2 2
𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 +
2𝑎𝑥

𝑣𝑥𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 ; (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥 )

This equation provides the final velocity in terms of the initial velocity,
the constant acceleration, and the position of the particle
 For motion at zero acceleration

𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡

That is, when the acceleration of a particle is zero, its velocity

is constant and its position changes linearly with time.
Particle under Constant Acceleration
• a car accelerating at a constant
rate along a straight freeway
• a dropped object in the
absence of air resistance
• an object on which a constant
net force acts
• a charged particle in a uniform
electric field
Particle under Constant Acceleration
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓
𝑣𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
𝑣𝑥𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡
2
 Sample Problem
1. A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at a speed of 140 mi/h.
A) What is its acceleration (assumed constant) if it stops in 2.0
s due to an arresting cable that snags the jet and brings it to
a stop? ANS in 𝑚/𝑠 2
B) If the jet touches down at position xi=0, what is its final
position?
A car traveling at a constant speed of
45.0 m/s passes a trooper on a
motorcycle hidden behind a billboard.
One second after the speeding car passes
the billboard, the trooper sets out from
the billboard to catch the car,
accelerating at a constant rate of 3.00
m/𝑠 2 . How long does it take the trooper
to overtake the car?
 Freely Falling Bodies - Kinematics
Equations Derived from Calculus
When we use the expression freely falling object, we do not
necessarily refer to an object dropped from rest. A freely falling
object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity
alone, regardless of its initial motion.

Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest

are all falling freely once they are released. Any freely falling object
experiences an acceleration directed downward, regardless of its
initial motion
It is well known that, in the absence of air resistance, all objects
dropped near the Earth’s surface fall toward the Earth with the
same constant acceleration under the influence of Earth’s gravity.

We shall denote the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration, also

called the acceleration due to gravity, by the symbol g.

At the Earth’s surface, the value of g is approximately -9.81 m/s2

Thinker Bell

What happens to the value of

gravity as altitude increases?
 Analysis Model of Free Falling Objects
If we neglect air resistance and assume the free-fall acceleration
does not vary with altitude over short vertical distances, the motion
of a freely falling object moving vertically is equivalent to the motion
of a particle under constant acceleration in one dimension.
Therefore, the equations developed in for the particle under
constant acceleration model can be applied.
The only modification for freely falling
objects that we need to make in these
equations is to note that the motion is
in the vertical direction (the y
direction) rather than in the
horizontal direction (x) and that the
acceleration is downward and has a
magnitude of 9.81 m/s2. Therefore,
we choose ay
a=-g=-9.8 m/s2, where the negative
sign means that the acceleration of a
freely falling object is downward.
A stone thrown from the top of a building is
given an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s straight
upward. The stone is launched 50.0 m above the
ground, and the stone just misses the edge of
the roof on its way down as shown in Figure.
(A) Using t=0 as the time the stone leaves the
thrower’s hand at position A, determine the
time at which the stone reaches its
maximum height.
(B) Find the maximum height of the stone
(C) Determine the velocity of the stone when it
returns to the height from which it was
thrown.
(D) Find the velocity and position of the stone
at t=5.00 s
 Sample Problem
You are on the roof of the physics Two crickets, Chirpy and Milada,
building, 46.0 m above the ground. jump from the top of a vertical cliff.
Your physics professor, who is 1.80 Chirpy just drops and reaches the
m tall, is walking alongside the ground in 3.50 s, while Milada
building at a constant speed of jumps horizontally with an initial
1.15m/s. If you wish to drop an egg speed of 95cm/s. How far from the
on your professor’s head, where base of the cliff will Milada hit the
should the professor be when you ground?
release the egg? Assume that the
egg is in free fall.
 Kinematic Equations Derived from
Calculus
This section assumes the reader is familiar with the techniques of
integral calculus. If you have not yet studied integration in your
calculus course, you should skip this section or cover it after you
become familiar with integration as a function of time is known.
Mathematically, the velocity equals the derivative of the position
with respect to time. It is also possible to find the position of a
particle if its velocity is known as a function of time. In calculus,
the procedure used to perform this task is referred to either as
integration or as finding the antiderivative. Graphically, it is
equivalent to finding the area under a curve.
From the definition of average
velocity, we see that the
displacement of the particle
during any small interval, such
as the one shaded in Figure, is
given by ∆𝑥𝑛 = 𝑣𝑥𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑡𝑛 ,
where 𝑣𝑥𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average
velocity in that interval ∆𝑡𝑛
Therefore, the displacement during this small interval is simply the
area of the shaded rectangle in the figure. The total displacement for
the interval tf-ti is the sum of the areas of all the rectangles from ti
to tf:

∆𝑥 = ෍ ∆𝑣𝑥𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑡𝑛
𝑛
As the intervals are made smaller and smaller, the number of terms
in the sum increases and the sum approaches a value equal to the
area under the curve. Therefore, in the limit 𝑛 → ∞, or ∆𝑡𝑛 → 0, the
displacement is:

∆𝑥 = lim ෍ ∆𝑣𝑥𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑡𝑛

∆𝑡𝑛 →0
𝑛→∞
The limit of the sum shown is called a definite integral and is shown as:

𝑡𝑓
∆𝑥 = lim ෍ ∆𝑣𝑥𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑡𝑛 = න 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡𝑛 →0 𝑡𝑖
𝑛

where 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 denotes the velocity at any time t.

 Kinematics Equation
Acceleration For the special case in which the
𝑑𝑣𝑥 acceleration is constant, 𝑎𝑥 can
① 𝑎𝑥 = be removed from the integral to
𝑑𝑡
May be written as give:
𝑑𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝑣𝑥𝑓 𝑡𝑓
න 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = න 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡 න 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = න 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡𝑖 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡𝑖
𝑡 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 − 0)
② 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = ‫׬‬0 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡
③ 𝑣𝑥𝑓 − 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
consider the defining equation for velocity
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑥𝑓 𝑡𝑓
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥׬‬ = ‫ 𝑖𝑥𝑣( 𝑡׬‬+𝑎𝑥 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑖
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = ‫׬‬0 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + ‫׬‬0 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 ‫׬‬0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 (𝑡 − 0) + 𝑎𝑥 ( − 0)
2
1
⑤ 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
Velocity and Position by Integration
𝑡
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + න 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑡
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + න 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡
0
 Sample Problem
Sally is driving along a straight highway in her 1965 Mustang. At
t=0, when she is moving at 10 m/s in the positive x-direction, she
passes a signpost at x=50m. Her x-acceleration as a function of
time is
𝑚 0.10𝑚
𝑎𝑥 = 20 2 − 3
𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
(a) Find her x-velocity and position x as functions of time.
(b) When is her x-velocity greatest?
(c) What is that maximum x-velocity?
(d) Where is the car when it reaches that maximum x-velocity?
A rocket starts from rest and moves upward from the surface of the
earth. For the first 10.0 s of its motion, the vertical acceleration of
𝑚
the rocket is given by 𝑎𝑦 = 2.8 3 𝑡, where the +y-direction is
𝑠
upward.
(a) What is the height of the rocket above the surface of the earth at
t=10s?
(b) What is the speed of the rocket when it is 325 m above the
surface of the earth?
 1.2𝑚
The acceleration of a bus is given by 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑡 where 𝛼 =
𝑠3
(a) If the bus’s velocity at time is what is its velocity at time t=1.0s is
𝑚
5.0 2 , what is its velocity at time t=2.0s
𝑠
(b) If the bus’s position at time t=1s is 6.0 m, what is its position at
time t=2s