An Introduction to Computers

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS .................................................................................................................... 2

2. USE OF COMPUTERS ....................................................................................................................................... 3
3. SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE .......................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 COMPUTER HARDWARE ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1 Basic Components of Computer System ......................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 System Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.3 Processor......................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.4 Motherboard................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.5 Storage ............................................................................................................................................ 7
3.1.6 Hard Disk ......................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.7 RAM................................................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.8 CD and DVD drives .......................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.9 Floppy disk drive ............................................................................................................................. 7
3.1.10 Mouse ............................................................................................................................................. 8
3.1.11 Keyboard ......................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.12 Monitor ........................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.13 Printer ............................................................................................................................................. 8
3.1.14 Speakers .......................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.15 Modem ............................................................................................................................................ 8
3.2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE .......................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 System Software ................................................................................................................................. 9
3.2.1.1 DOS - The Disk Operating System ................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1.2 Difference between External and Internal Commands in DOS....................................................... 9
3.2.1.3 Internal Commands....................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1.4 External Commands ...................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1.5 Difference between DOS and WINDOWS ..................................................................................... 16
3.2.1.6 Commands in Windows ................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.2 Application Software......................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.3 Driver Software ................................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.4 Middleware ....................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.5 Programming Software ..................................................................................................................... 21

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1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
We are living in an information age dependent upon digital information. Digital information is electronic
information, the result of computer processing. Every type of job relies upon getting information, using it,
managing it, and relaying information to others. Computers enable the efficient processing and storage of
information.
Do not think of a computer merely as the machine with the keyboard and the mouse, although that might be
true for some types of computers. Embedded computers may be inside your household appliances, the VCR,
the automobile, planes, trains, power plants, water purification plants, calculators and even inside a few toys.
These embedded computers are very small. They affect our lives each day. Why, even modern traffic lights
operate with computers. They are all around us. Think of additional ways in which computers affect our lives
each day.

1.1 What are Computers?

Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of instructions, or programs. The
first fully electronic computers, introduced in the 1940s, were huge machines that required teams of people to
operate. Compared to those early machines, today's computers are amazing. Not only are they thousands of
times faster, they can fit on your desk, in your lap, or even in your pocket. Computers work through an
interaction of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch,
including the case and everything inside it. The most important piece of hardware is a tiny rectangular chip
inside your computer called the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's the "brain" of your
computer-the part that translates instructions and performs calculations. Hardware items such as your
monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other items are often called hardware devices, or devices. Every
computer supports some form of input, processing, and output. This is less obvious on a primitive device such
as the abacus where input, output and processing are simply the act of moving the pebbles into new positions,
seeing the changed positions, and counting. Regardless, this is what computing is all about, in a nutshell. We
input information; the computer processes it according to its basic logic or the program currently running, and
outputs the results.

1.2 Computer Architecture

In computer science and engineering,
computer architecture refers to
specification of the relationship between
different hardware components of a
computer system. It may also refer to the
practical art of defining the structure and
relationship of the subcomponents of a
computer. As in the architecture of
buildings, computer architecture can
comprise many levels of information. The
highest level of the definition conveys the
concepts implemented. Whereas in building
architecture this over-view is normally
visual, computer architecture is primarily
logical, positing a conceptual system that
serves a particular purpose. In both
instances (building and computer), many
levels of detail are required to completely specify a given implementation, and some of these details are often
implied as common practice. For example, at a high level, computer architecture is concerned with how the
central processing unit (CPU) acts and how it accesses computer memory. Some currently (2011) fashionable
computer architectures include cluster computing and Non-Uniform Memory Access.

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From early days, computers have been used to design the next generation. Programs written in the proposed
instruction language can be run on a current computer via emulation. At this stage, it is now commonplace for
compiler designers to collaborate, suggesting improvements in the ISA. Modern simulators normally measure
time in clock cycles, and give power consumption estimates in watts, or, especially for mobile systems, energy
consumption in joules.

1.3 Types of Computers

Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are supercomputers, very large computers with
thousands of linked microprocessors that perform extremely complex calculations. At the other end are tiny
computers embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems, calculators, and appliances. These computers are built to
perform a limited number of tasks. The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a
time. This section describes the various kinds of personal computers: desktops, laptops, handheld computers,
and Tablet PCs.

1.4 Desktop computers

Desktop computers are designed for use at a desk or table. They are typically larger and more powerful than
other types of personal computers. Desktop computers are made up of separate components. The main
component, called the system unit, is usually a rectangular case that sits on or underneath a desk. Other
components, such as the monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the system unit.

1.5 Laptop computers

Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. They are often called notebook computers
because of their small size. Laptops can operate on batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike
desktops, laptops combine the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds down onto the
keyboard when not in use.

1.6 Handheld Computers

Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are battery-powered computers small
enough to carry almost anywhere. Although not as powerful as desktops or laptops, handhelds are useful for
scheduling appointments, storing addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some have more
advanced capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the Internet. Instead of keyboards,
handhelds have touch screens that you use with your finger or a stylus (a pen-shaped pointing tool).

1.7 Tablet PCs

Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handhelds. Like laptops, they're powerful and
have a built-in screen. Like handhelds, they allow you to write notes or draw pictures on the screen, usually
with a tablet pen instead of a stylus. They can also convert your handwriting into typed text. Some Tablet PCs
are “convertibles” with a screen that swivels and unfolds to reveal a keyboard underneath.

2. USE OF COMPUTERS
What can you do with computers?
In the workplace, many people use computers to keep records, analyze data, do research, and manage
projects. At home, you can use computers to find information, store pictures and music, track finances, play
games, and communicate with others—and those are just a few of the possibilities.
You can also use your computer to connect to the Internet, a network that links computers around the world.
Internet access is available for a monthly fee in most urban areas, and increasingly, in less populated areas.
With Internet access, you can communicate with people all over the world and find a vast amount of
information.

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Here are some of the most popular things to do with computers:

The Web
The World Wide Web (usually called the Web, or www) is a gigantic storehouse of information. The web is the
most popular part of the Internet, partly because it displays most information in a visually appealing format.
Headlines, text, and pictures can be combined on a single webpage—much like a page in a magazine—along
with sounds and animation. A website is a collection of interconnected webpage’s. The web contains millions
of websites and billions of Web Pages.
Surfing the web means exploring it. You can find information on the web about almost any topic imaginable.
For example, you can read news stories and movie reviews, check airline schedules, see street maps, get the
weather forecast for your city, or research a health condition. Most companies, government agencies,
museums, and libraries have websites with information about their products, services, or collections.
Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are also widely available.
The web is also a shopper's delight. You can browse and purchase products—books, music, toys, clothing,
electronics, and much more—at the websites of major retailers. You can also buy and sell used items through
websites that use auction-style bidding.

E-mail
E-mail (short for electronic mail) is a convenient way to communicate with others. When you send an e-mail
message, it arrives almost instantly in the recipient's e-mail inbox. You can send e-mail to many people
simultaneously, and you can save, print, and forward e-mail to others. You can send almost any type of file in
an e-mail message, including documents, pictures, and music files. And with e-mail, you don't need a stamp!
See getting started with e-mail.

Instant Messaging
Instant messaging is like having a real-time conversation with another person or a group of people. When you
type and send an instant message, the message is immediately visible to all participants. Unlike e-mail, all
participants have to be online (connected to the Internet) and in front of their computers at the same time.
Communicating by means of instant messaging is called chatting.

Pictures, music, and movies

If you have a digital camera, you can move your pictures from the camera to your computer. Then you can
print them, create slide shows, or share them with others by e-mail or by posting them on a website. (To learn
more about what you can do with photos, see Working with digital pictures.) You can also listen to music on
your computer, either by importing (transferring to your computer) music from audio CDs or by purchasing
songs from a music website. Or, tune in to one of the thousands of radio stations that broadcast over the
Internet. If your computer comes with a DVD player, you can watch movies.

Gaming
Do you like to play games? Thousands of computer games in every conceivable category are available to
entertain you. Get behind the wheel of a race car, battle frightening creatures in a dungeon, or control
civilizations and empires! Many games allow you to compete with other players around the world through the
Internet. Windows includes a variety of card games, puzzle games, and strategy games.

Information
Information is the “knowledge obtained from investigation or communication”. Information is data that has
been given meaning by way of relational connection. This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be. In
computer parlance, a relational database makes information from the data stored within it.

Data
Data is raw. It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any
form, usable or not. Data is the “reliable information based on observation and record-keeping”.

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Data are the quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer, being
stored and transmitted in the form of electrical signals and recorded on magnetic, optical, or mechanical
recording media. A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control
the operation of a computer or other machine. Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and
a byte/word of data storage. Digital data can be reduced to key/value pair combinations.
Supersets of this idea, where keys are derived, and values are arranged, relatively, are called data structures.
They are also used in peripheral devices.
In an alternate usage, binary files (which are not human-readable) are sometimes called "data" as
distinguished from human-readable "text". The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281
billion gigabytes (= 281 exabytes).

Data vs Programs
Fundamentally, computers follow the instructions they are given. A set of instructions to perform a given task
(or tasks) is called a "program". In the nominal case, the program, as executed by the computer, will consist of
binary machine code. The elements of storage manipulated by the program, but not actually executed by the
CPU, contain data.

Typically, programs are stored in special file types, different from that used for data. Executable files contain
programs; all other files are data files. However, executable files may also contain data which is "built-in" to
the program. In particular, some executable files have a data segment, which nominally contains constants
and initial values (both data).

For example: a user might first instruct the operating system to load a word processor program from one file,
and then edit a document stored in another file. In this example, the document would be considered data. If
the word processor also features a spell checker, then the dictionary (word list) for the spell checker would
also be considered data. The algorithms used by the spell checker to suggest corrections would be either
machine code or a code in some interpretable programming language.

The line between program and data can become blurry. An interpreter, for example, is a program. The input
data to an interpreter is itself a program—just not one expressed in native machine language. In many cases,
the interpreted program will be a human-readable text file, which is manipulated with a text editor—more
normally associated with plain text data. Metaprogramming similarly involves programs manipulating other
programs as data. Also, for programs like compilers, linkers, debuggers, program updaters, etc. may other
programs serve as data.

3. SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE

The main difference between hardware and software are as follows:

Hardware
1. Physical parts of the computer are called hardware.
2. You can touch, see and feel hardware.
3. Hardware is constructed using physical materials or components.
4. Computer is hardware, which operates under the control of software.
5. If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with new one.
6. Hardware is not affected by computer viruses.
7. Hardware cannot be transferred from one place to another electronically through network.
8. User cannot make new duplicate copies of the hardware.

Software
1. A set of instructions given to the computer is called software.
2. You cannot touch and feel software.

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3. Software is developed by writing instructions in programming language.

4. The operations of computer are controlled through software.
5. If software is damaged or corrupted, its backup copy can be reinstalled.
6. Software is affected by computer viruses.
7. Software can be transferred from one place to another electronically through network.
8. User can make many new duplicate copies of the software.

3.1 COMPUTER HARDWARE

3.1.1 Basic Components of Computer System

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the "computer."
A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and
touch, are collectively called hardware. The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop
computer system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop
computer has similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package. Let's take a look at each
of these parts.

3.1.2 System Unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your
desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your
computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that
the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned
off. Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into
specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit
is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

3.1.3 Processor
The central processing unit, or CPU, is that part of a computer which executes software program instructions.
In older computers this circuitry was formerly on several printed circuit boards, but in PCs is a single integrated
circuit. Nearly all PCs contain a type of CPU known as a microprocessor. The microprocessor often plugs into
the motherboard using one of many different types of sockets. IBM PC compatible computers use an x86-
compatible processor, usually made by Intel, AMD, VIA Technologies or Transmeta. Apple Macintosh
computers were initially built with the Motorola 680x0 family of processors, then switched to the PowerPC
series (a RISC architecture jointly developed by Apple Computer, IBM and Motorola), but as of 2006, Apple
switched again, this time to x86-compatible processors by Intel. Modern CPUs are equipped with a fan
attached via heat sink.

3.1.4 Motherboard
The motherboard, also referred to as system board or main board, is the primary circuit board within a
personal computer. Many other components connect directly or indirectly to the motherboard. Motherboards
usually contain one or more CPUs, supporting circuitry - usually integrated circuits (ICs) - providing the
interface between the CPU memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for
initial setup of the computer immediately after power-on (often called boot firmware or, in IBM PC compatible
computers, a BIOS). In many portable and embedded personal computers, the motherboard houses nearly all
of the PC's core components. Often a motherboard will also contain one or more peripheral buses and
physical connectors for expansion purposes. Sometimes a secondary daughter board is connected to the
motherboard to provide further expandability or to satisfy space constraints.

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3.1.5 Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk
preserves the information even when your computer is turned off. Your computer's hard disk drive stores
information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can
hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage,
holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

3.1.6 Hard Disk

Hard Disk is a drive, which provides you to store your data for a long time. All your personal data like music,
images, videos and files are saved by hard disk. Its basic measuring units are Gigabytes (GB) and Terabytes
(TB). You can uninstall and save new data according to your demand. In case of more storage requirement,
you can use external hard disk drive as well. Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital are largest manufacturers of
internal hard disk while external hard disk are largely manufactured by ADATA, Freecom, LG, Samsung and
Toshiba.

3.1.7 RAM
RAM is the acronym of Random Access Memory, which is used for storage of computer data, not your
personal data. This device is used to read and write data. It temporary stores the computer memory and keep
it until system is on and will erased it after your system go shutdown. RAM has two types SRAM (static RAM)
and DRAM (dynamic RAM). It is available from 256MB to 8GB sizes. With increase in RAM size system will be
able to perform faster than before.

Difference between RAM and HARD DISK

 All data you stored on hard disk are permanently saved during usage and after shutdown. While RAM
keeps memory until system is running. All the memory will be erased automatically after your system
switched off.
 Currently, RAM is available from 256MB to 8GB (recently announced by Seagate). While hard disk size
starts where RAM size ends. 500GB to 8TB size hard disk are available in the market.
 RAM is just a chip containing some circuits. Hard disk is almost a machine having multiple parts like
platters, plastic disc, magnate, writer & reader bar.
 If you are running short of hard disk space, you can use external hard disk for your data storage. There
is no option for external removable RAM.
 Whenever we perform some task, memory first comes from RAM instead of hard disk. Hard disk is a
secondary mean for circulation of memory.
 RAM works faster than hard drive. Basic purpose of RAM is to fast the performance of system. If you
have low RAM, your system speed will be low. Main purpose of hard disk is to store information. If you
have low capacity hard disk there will be less impact on your system speed.

Additional RAM demand requires no Window but if you want to change your hard disk, it will be workable
after fresh Window.

3.1.8 CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the system
unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can also write (record) data
onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also use
a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

3.1.9 Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and
DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are

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more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to be, although
some computers still include them.

3.1.10 Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in
many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the
system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

3.1.11 Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for
letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:
 The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they are used.
 The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers quickly.
 The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a document or
webpage.

3.1.12 Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays
the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving
pictures. There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal
display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much
thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable.

3.1.13 Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but
having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other materials. Many people
also like being able to print their own photos at home. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and
laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or
in full color and can produce high quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster
and generally better able to handle heavy use.

3.1.14 Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Speakers
allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

3.1.15 Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and receives
computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes built into the system
unit, but higher speed modems are usually separate components.

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3.2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks. It is
the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer. Software is a generic term used
to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a
computer, while hardware is the invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An application is software
that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is designed to run a computer's hardware and
provides a platform for applications to run on top of.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming tools software
developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and applications; and driver software,
which operates computer devices and peripherals.

Early software was written for specific computers and sold with the hardware it ran on. In the 1980s, software
began to be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs. Today, most software is purchased and directly
downloaded over the internet. Software can be found on vendor websites or application service provider
websites.

3.2.1 System Software

These software programs are designed to run a computer's application programs and hardware. System
software coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In addition, it controls the
operations of the computer hardware and provides an environment or platform for all the other types of
software to work in. The Operating System or OS is the best example of system software; it manages all the
other computer programs. Other examples of system software include the firmware, computer language
translators and system utilities.

3.2.1.1 DOS - The Disk Operating System

When you type in MS-DOS commands, your drive letter is shown on the command line. You can log on the A:
drive (have the A: drive as your prompt) or on to any valid drive by just typing in the drive letter followed by a
colon and then pressing Enter. When you log on to a drive, all your commands will be executed on that drive -
unless you specify otherwise.
Here are the steps:
1. Put a floppy disk into your machine.
2. Open an MS-DOS window. You will be at the C:\> prompt
(you may be inside a directory structure, but you will be on the C: drive)
3. At the prompt, type in A: and press Enter.
4. Do a DIR to prove you are now on a blank drive (a drive with no files on it).

3.2.1.2 Difference between External and Internal Commands in DOS

The internal commands reside in COMMAND.COM, which loads into memory when the computer system is
started; these commands do not reside on disk. The external commands are files that do reside on disk and
have an extension of .COM, .EXE, or .BAT. Both command types are executed from the MS-DOS prompt.
The following is a list of MS-DOS internal and external commands.

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3.2.1.3 Internal Commands

COMMAND USED FOR SYNTEX
CLS To Clear the screen
CHDIR(CD) chdir.. Goes back one directory. For example, if you are within the
C:\Windows\COMMAND> directory, this would take you to C:\Windows> directory.
chdir\ Goes to the highest level, the root of the drive. chdir SCC If present, would take
you into the SCC directory. Windows can be substituted with any other name.
MKDIR(MD) The way you make directories on a disk drive is to use the MKDIR command. The MKDIR
command has a shortened form called MD and you can use either command
interchangeably.
COPY copy *.txt c:\ This copy command is used to copy all .txt files (multiple files) from the
current directory to the c:\ root directory.
copy *.* d: Copy all files in the current directory to the selected disk drive.
copy win.ini c:\windows /y Copy the win.ini file in the current directory to the Windows
directory. Because this file already exists in the Windows directory it normally would
prompt if you want to overwrite the file. However, with the /y switch you will not receive
any prompt.
copy "first document.docx" SCC Copy the file "computer hope.txt" into the hope
directory. Whenever dealing with a file or directory with a space, it must be surrounded
with quotes. Otherwise, you'll get the "The syntax of the command is incorrect." error.
DATE Displays the system date and prompts the user to enter a new date. Complements the
TIME command.
DEL (ERASE) DEL (or the alternative form ERASE) is used to delete one or more files.
DELTREE Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains. Normally,
it will ask for confirmation of the potentially dangerous action. Since the RD (RMDIR)
command cannot delete a directory if the directory is not empty (except in Windows NT &
10), the DELTREE command can be used to delete the whole directory.
DIR The DIR command displays the contents of a directory. The contents comprise the disk's
volume label and serial number; one directory or filename per line, including the filename
extension, the file size in bytes, and the date and time the file was last modified; and the
total number of files listed, their cumulative size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining
on the disk. The command is one of the few commands that exist from the first versions
of DOS. The command can display files in subdirectories. The resulting directory listing can
be sorted by various criteria and filenames can be displayed in a chosen format.
DISKCOPY A command for copying the complete contents of a diskette to another diskette.
ECHO The ECHO command prints its own arguments back out to the DOS equivalent of the
standard output stream. (Hence the name, ECHO) Usually, this means directly to the
screen, but the output of echo can be redirected, like any other command, to files or
devices. Often used in batch files to print text out to the user.
Another important use of the echo command is to toggle echoing of commands on and
off in batch files. Traditionally batch files begin with the @echo off statement. This says to
the interpreter that echoing of commands should be off during the whole execution of
the batch file, thus resulting in a "tidier" output (the @ symbol declares that this particular
command (echo off) should also be executed without echo.)
EXIT Exits the current command processor. If the exit is used at the primary command, it has
no effect unless in a DOS window under Microsoft Windows, in which case the window is
closed and the user returns to the desktop.
PATH Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
REM Remark (comment) command, normally used within a batch file, and for DR-DOS, PC/MS-
DOS 6 and above, in CONFIG.SYS. This command is processed by the command processor.
Thus, its output can be redirected to create a zero-byte file. REM is useful in logged
sessions or screen-captures. One might add comments by way of labels, usually starting
with double-colon (::). These are not processed by the command processor.

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RENAME (REN) The REN command renames a file. Unlike the move command, this command cannot be
used to rename subdirectories, or rename files across drives. Mass renames can be
accomplished by the use of the wildcards characters asterisk (*) and question mark (?)
RMDIR or RD Remove a directory (delete a directory); by default the directories must be empty of files
for the command to succeed.
TYPE Displays a file. The more command is frequently used in conjunction with this command,
e.g. type long-text-file | more. TYPE can be used to concatenate files (type file1 file2 >
file3); however this won't work for large files use copy command instead.
VER An internal DOS command that reports the DOS version presently running, and since MS-
DOS 5, whether DOS is loaded high.
VOL Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
FORMAT Deletes the FAT entries and the root directory of the drive/partition, and reformats it for
MS-DOS. In most cases, this should only be used on floppy drives or other removable
media. This command can potentially erase everything on a computer's drive.
FOR Iteration: repeats a command for each out of a specified set of files. The FOR loop can be
used to parse a file or the output of a command.
GOTO The Goto command transfers execution to a specified label. Labels are specified at the
beginning of a line, with a colon (:likethis).
XCOPY Copy entire directory trees. Xcopy is a version of the copy command that can move files
and directories from one location to another. XCOPY usage and attributes can be
obtained by typing XCOPY /? in the DOS Command line.
PAUSE Suspends processing of a batch program and displays the message Press any key
to continue. . ., if not given other text to display.

PROMPT The PROMPT command allows the user to change the prompt in the command screen.
The default prompt is $p (i.e. PROMPT $p ), which displays the drive and current path as
the prompt, but can be changed to anything. PROMPT $d , displays the current system
date as the prompt. Type PROMPT /? in the cmd screen for help on this function.
SETUP This command does a computer setup. With all computers running DOS versions 5 and
later, it runs the computer setup, such as Windows 95 setup and Windows 98 setup.
SHIFT The SHIFT command increases number of replaceable parameters to more than the
standard ten for use in batch files. This is done by changing the position of replaceable
parameters. It replaces each of the replacement parameters with the subsequent one
(e.g. %0 with %1, %1 with %2, etc.).
TIME Display the system time and waits for the user to enter a new time. Complements the
DATE command.
VERIFY Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been correctly written to disk. If
no parameter is provided, the command will display the current setting.
CHCP The command either displays or changes the active code page used to display character
glyphs in a console window. Similar functionality can be achieved with MODE CON: CP
SELECT=yyy.
CTTY Defines the terminal device (for example, COM1) to use for input and output.
BREAK Break can be used to enable or disable the BREAK
breaking capability of the computer. For example, if BREAK on|off
you wanted to cancel a batch file or another MS-
DOS processes, you can press Ctrl + C for a prompt
asking if you want to cancel the current process.
CALL START will create a new cmd.exe for the called batch and without /b it will open a
new window. As it's a new context, variables can't be shared. Addendum: Using CALL
can change the parameters (for batch and exe files), but only when they contain carets
or percent signs.
A new batch file context is created with the specified arguments and control is passed to
the statement after the label specified. You must "exit" twice by reaching the end of the
batch script file twice. The first time you read the end, control returns to just after the

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CALL statement. The second time will exit the batch script. Type GOTO /? for a description
of the GOTO :EOF extension that allows you to "return" from a batch script.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DOS_commands

3.2.1.4 External Commands

External commands are known as Disk residence commands as they can be store with DOS directory or any
disk which is used for getting these commands. Theses commands help to perform some specific task. These
are stored in a secondary storage device. Some important external commands are given below-

COMMAND USED FOR SYNTEX

APPEND.EXE APPEND enables programs to open APPEND [[drive]path[;...]] [/X[:ON|:OFF]]
data files in specified directories as [/PATH:ON|/PATH:OFF] [/E]
if the files were in the current APPEND ;
directory. APPEND [/?]
drive Drive letter e.g. C:
path Directory to append, e.g. \example
/X[:ON] Extend APPEND to searches and command execution.
/X:OFF Applies APPEND only to requests to open files. Defaults to /X:OFF
/PATH:ON Search appended directories for file requests that already include a path.
This is the default setting.
/PATH:OFF Switches off /PATH:ON.
/E Stores the appended directory list in the environment.
/E may be used only in the first invocation of APPEND. You can not include any paths on
the same command line as /E.
APPEND ; clears the list of appended directories.
APPEND without parameters displays the list of appended directories.
/? Shows the help
ASSIGN.COM Redirects disk drive requests to a ASSIGN
different drive. ASSIGN x=y [...] /sta
assign a=b
DOS sends any requests for drive A to drive B. After this form of the command is entered,
the command
dir a: will result in a display of the files on drive B instead of drive A.
You can reassign more than one drive at a time (leave a space between entries). For
example, enter assign a=b c=b
Requests for either drive A or drive C would automatically be sent to drive B. For
example, if you enter dir a:
DOS will display a directory of the files on drive B (not of drive A).
Enter
assign /sta and a report of the assigned drives will be displayed in the following format:
Original A: set to D: Original B: set to D:
ATTRIB.EXE Sets the various type of attribute C:\> ATTRIB [± r] [± a] [± h] [± s] <File name>
to a file. Like Read only, Archive, here r - for read only, a- for archive, h - for hidden,
Hidden and System attribute. s - for hidden attribute.
C:\> ATTRIB +r Gulab.txt
This command will change the attribute of file
gulab.txt to read only mode. To remove the read only
attribute we will follow this command.
C:\> ATTRIB -r Gulab.txt
BACKUP.EXE Enables users to backup their backup c:\work\*.* d: /s
data on their computer.

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The source, path, and filename of the location of the file that you
Source:\Path\Filename
want to backup.
Target: The target drive for the backup file.
Makes a backup of all files, directories, and subdirectories in the
/s
specified source location.
/m Backup all files that have changed since the last backup.
Adds a new backup file to existing backups instead of overwriting
/a
them.
Backup files that have been created or modified since the date
/d:date
specified.
/t:time Backup files that have been created or modified after this time.
Create backup files in a specific size so they can be saved to an
/f:size
external storage such as a floppy disk drive.
Create a log of the backup and specify the location of where the
/L:LogDrive:\Path\Log
log is to be saved.
CHKDSK.EXE This command is used to check the C:\> CHKDSK
status of a disk and show the report
of result status.
COMMAND.COM Start a new instance of the command interpreter.
COMP.EXE Show differences between any two files, or any two sets of files.
DEFRAG.EXE The command has the ability to analyze the file fragmentation on a disk drive or to
defragment a drive. This command is called DEFRAG in MS-DOS/PC DOS and diskopt in
DR-DOS.
DISKCOMP.COM A command for comparing the complete contents of a disk to another one.
DISKCOPY.COM DISKCOPY copies the contents of a C:\> DISKCOPY <Drive1> <Drive2>
floppy disk to another. C:\> DISKCOPY A: B:
DOSKEY.COM Once we install doskey, our dos will C:\> DOSKEY DOSKey installed
star to memorize all commands we Creating Macros:-
uses. We can recall those commands C:\>doskey t=time
using up or down arrow keys. It also
gives the facility to create macros, C:\>t
which creates a short key for long C:\>time
keyword or command. Current time is 3:39:05.97p
UP, DOWN arrows recall commands Enter new time:
Esc clears current command
To list out all macros defined just type
F7 displays command DOSKEY/MACROS at dos prompt and press enter.
history C:\>DOSKEY/MACROS
Alt+F7 clears command history $D=date T=time
F9 selects a command by
number
Alt+F10 clears macro definitions
EDIT.COM EDIT is a full-screen text editor, included with MS-DOS versions 5 and 6
EDLIN.EXE DOS line-editor. It can be used with a script file, like debug, this makes it of some use
even today. The absence of a console editor in MS-DOS/PC DOS 1–4 created an after-
market for third-party editors.
In DOS 5, an extra command "?" was added to give the user much-needed help.
EXE2BIN.EXE Converts an executable (.exe) file into a binary file with the extension .com, which is a
memory image of the program.
The size of the resident code and data sections combined in the input .exe file must be
less than 64 KB. The file must also have no stack segment.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 1 through 5. It is available separately for
version 6 on the Supplemental Disk.

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EXPAND.EXE The Microsoft File Expansion Utility is used to uncompress one or more compressed
cabinet files (.CAB). The command dates back to 1990 and was supplied on floppy disc for
MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
FASTOPEN.EXE A command that provides accelerated access to frequently-used files and directories.
FC.EXE This command is capable for comparing C:\> FC <First set of file> <Second set of file>
two set of files and display difference C:\> FC ROSE.TXT GULAB.TXT
between two files.
FDISK.EXE The FDISK command manipulates hard disk partition tables. The name derives from IBM's
habit of calling hard drives fixed disks. FDISK has the ability to display information about,
create, and delete DOS partitions or logical DOS drive. It can also install a standard
master boot record on the hard drive.
FORMAT.COM This command creates new Track & C:\> FORMAT [drive name] [/S]
Sectors in a disk. But the for the user C:\> FORMAT A:
it is deleting all information from the this command will create new track & sectors.
disk C:\> FORMAT A: /S
This command will transfer system files after
formatting the disk.
GRAFTABLE.COM The GRAFTABL command enables the display of an extended character set in graphics
mode.
GRAPHICS.COM A TSR program to enable the sending of graphical screen dump to printer by pressing
<Print Screen>.
HELP.EXE Gives help about DOS commands.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 5 thru Windows XP. Full-screen command
help is available in MS-DOS versions 6 and later. Beginning with Windows XP, the
command processor "DOS" offers builtin-help for commands by using /? (e.g. COPY /? )
JOIN.EXE The JOIN command attaches a drive letter to a specified directory on another drive.[11]
The opposite can be achieved via the SUBST command.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 through 5. It is available separately for
versions 6.2 and later on the Supplemental Disk.
KEYB.COM The KEYB command is used to select a keyboard layout.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.3 and later.
From DOS 3.0 through 3.21, there are instead per-country commands, namely KEYBFR,
KEYBGR, KEYBIT, KEYBSP and KEYBUK.
LABEL.EXE If you are not happy with the volume C:\> LABEL
label of hard disk, you can change it. C:\>LABEL
Volume in drive C is JAI
Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)?
INFOWAY
MEM.EXE This command displays free and used C:\> MEM
amount of memory in the computer.
MIRROR.COM The MIRROR command saves disk storage information that can be used to recover
accidentally erased files. The command is available in MS-DOS version 5. It is available
separately for versions 6.2 and later on Supplemental Disk.
MODE.COM Configures system devices. Changes graphics modes, adjusts keyboard settings, prepares
code pages, and sets up port redirection. The command is available in MS-DOS versions
3.2 and later and IBM PC DOS releases 1 and later.
MORE.COM Using TYPE command we can see the C:\> TYPE <File name> | MORE
content of any file. But if length of file C:\> TYPE ROSE.TXT | MORE
is greater than 25 lines then C:\> DIR | MORE
remaining lines will scroll up. To
overcome through this problem we
uses MORE command. Using this
command we can pause the display

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after each 25 lines.

NLSFUNC.EXE Loads extended Nationalization and Localization Support from COUNTRY.SYS, and
changed the code page of drivers and system modules resident in RAM.
In later versions of DR-DOS 6, NLSFUNC relocated itself into the HiMem area, thereby
freeing a portion of the nearly invaluable lower 640KiB that constituted the
”conventional” memory available to software.
PRINT.EXE The PRINT command adds or removes files in the print queue. This command was
introduced in MS-DOS version 2. Before that there was no built-in support for
background printing files. The user would usually use the copy command to copy files to
LPT1.
QBASIC.EXE An integrated development environment and BASIC interpreter. The command is
available in MS-DOS versions 5 and later.
RECOVER.EXE A primitive file system error recovery utility included in MS-DOS / IBM PC DOS.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 through 5.
REPLACE.EXE A command that is used to replace one or more existing computer files or add new files
to a target directory. The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3.2 and later.
RESTORE.EXE These are commands to backup and restore files from an external disk. These appeared
(BACKUP.EXE) in version 2, and continued to PC DOS 5 and MS-DOS 6. In DOS 6, these were replaced by
commercial programs (CPBACKUP, MSBACKUP), which allowed files to be restored to
different locations.
SETVER.EXE SetVer is a TSR program designed to return a different value to the version of DOS that is
running. This allows programs that look for a specific version of DOS to run under a
different DOS.
SHARE.EXE Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 3 and later.
SORT.EXE This command is useful when we C:\> SORT /R < Input file name> <output file
want to sort a file. When we run this name>
command the result can be get to Suppose we have a file Player.txt which having
display device or file. the list of a cricket player team and we want to
sort the list of players, then we uses this
command
C:\> SORT Player.txt
/R- switch is used for sorting the file in
descending order like from Z to A or from 9 to 0.
SUBST.EXE
SYS.COM This command is used for copy C:\> SYS [Drive name]
system files to any disk. The disk C:\> SYS A:
having system files are known as System files transferred
Bootable Disk, which are used for This command will transfer the three main
booting the computer. system files COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS,
MSDOS.SYS to the floppy disk.
TREE.COM It is an external command, graphically displays the path of each directory and sub-
directories on the specified drive.
UNDELETE.EXE Restores file previously deleted with del. By default all recoverable files in the working
directory are restored; options are used to change this behavior. If the MS-DOS mirror
TSR program is used, then deletion tracking files are created and can be used by
undelete.
UNFORMAT.COM The UNFORMAT command is used to undo the effects of formatting a disk.
XCOPY.EXE When we need to copy a directory C:\> XCOPY < Source dirname > <Target
instant of a file from one location to dirname>
another then we uses xcopy C:\> XCOPY TC TURBOC
command. This command is much
faster than copy command.
MOVE Move command is used for moving C:\> MOVE <file name> <path name>

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one file or multiple files from one C:\SONGS> MOVE *.MP3 C:\ SONGS\OLD
location to another location or from SONGS\
one disk to another disk.
FIND The FIND command is used to search C:\> FIND "String to search" <File name>
a file for a text string. C:\TEST>find "office" gulab.txt
---------- gulab.txt
A clock in a office can never get stolen

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3.2.1.5 Difference between DOS and WINDOWS

DOS Windows

Single user Multi User

Single tasking Multi tasking
Not time Sharing Time sharing
Input device keyboard Standard Input devices are keyboard and mouse
Character User Interface (CUI) Graphical User Interface (GUI)

3.2.1.6 Commands in Windows

The command prompt that has been in previous versions of Windows is still with us and is not much changed
from Windows Vista. The command line remains a powerful and much used feature by system administrators
everywhere. Thus, the old command interpreter cmd.exe has been continued although in a slightly newer
version. Several commands are now in the standard list that was formerly available only on servers. New
commands are indicated with an asterisk in the list below. Note that some commands may require
administrator privileges. A number of commands involving specialized system or network administration have
been omitted.
Microsoft has slowly but surely pushed the command line aside in the Windows interface. This is not without
reason, as it’s an antiquated and mostly unnecessary tool from an era of text-based input that has long
passed.
But there still are some commands that remain useful. Here are the commands every Windows user needs to
know.

ATTRIB Displays or changes file attributes.

ASSOC Displays or modifies file extension associations.
BREAK Sets or clears extended CTRL+C checking.
BCDBOOT* Used to copy critical files to the system partition and to create a new system BCD store.
BCDEDIT Sets properties in boot database to control boot loading.
CACLS CALL Calls one batch program from another.
CD Displays the name of or changes the current directory.
CHCP Displays or sets the active code page number.
CHDIR Displays the name of or changes the current directory.
CHKDSK Checks a disk and displays a status report.
CHKNTFS Displays or modifies the checking of disk at boot time.
CHOICE Batch file command that allows users to select from a set of options.

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CIPHER Displays or alters the encryption of directories [files] on NTFS partitions.

CLIP Redirects output of another command to the Windows clipboard.
CLS Clears the screen.
CMD Starts a new instance of the Windows command interpreter.
CMDKEY Creates, lists and deletes stored user names and passwords or credentials.
COLOR Sets the default console foreground and background colors.
COMP Compares the contents of two files or sets of files byte-by-byte
COMPACT Displays or alters the compression of files on NTFS partitions.
CONVERT Converts FAT volumes to NTFS. You cannot convert the current drive.
COPY Copies one or more files to another location.
DATE Displays or sets the date.
DEFRAG Disk defragmenter accessory
DEL Deletes one or more files.
DIR Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory.
DISKCOMP Compares the contents of two floppy disks.
DISKCOPY Copies the contents of one floppy disk to another.
DISKPART Displays or configures Disk Partition properties. A separate command interpreter with a
sub-set of commands.
DOSKEY Edits command lines, recalls Windows commands, and creates macros.
DRIVERQUERY Displays current device driver status and properties.
ECHO Displays messages, or turns command echoing on or off.
ENDLOCAL Ends localization of environment changes in a batch file.
ERASE Deletes one or more files.
EXIT Quits and closes the command shell.
EXPAND Expands one or more compressed files.
FC Compares two files or sets of files, and displays the differences between them.
FIND Searches for a text string in a file or files.
FINDSTR Searches for strings in files.
FOR Runs a specified command for each item in a set.
FORFILES Selects files in a folder for batch processing.
FORMAT Formats a disk for use with Windows.
FSUTIL Displays or configures the file system properties.
FTYPE Displays or modifies file types used in file extension associations.
GOTO Directs the Windows command interpreter to a labeled line in a batch program.
GPRESULT Displays Group Policy information for machine or user.
GRAFTABL Enables Windows to display an extended character set in graphics mode.
HELP Provides Help information for Windows commands.
ICACLS Display, modify, backup, or restore ACLs for files and directories.
IF Performs conditional processing in batch programs.
IPCONFIG Displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values
LABEL Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk.
MD Creates a directory.
MKDIR Creates a directory.
MKLINK Creates Symbolic Links and Hard Links
MODE Configures a system device.
MORE Displays output one screen at a time.
MOVE Moves one or more files from one directory to another directory.
OPENFILES Queries, displays, or disconnects open files or files opened by network users.
PATH Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
PAUSE Suspends processing of a batch file and displays a message.
POPD Restores the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSHD.
PRINT Prints a text file.

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PROMPT Changes the Windows command prompt.

PUSHD Saves the current directory then changes it.
RD Removes a directory.
RECOVER Recovers readable information from a bad or defective disk.
REM Designates comments (remarks) in batch files
REN Renames a file or files.
RENAME Renames a file or files.
REPLACE Replaces files.
RMDIR Removes a directory.
ROBOCOPY Advanced utility to copy files and directory trees
SET Displays, sets, or removes environment variables for current session.
SETLOCAL Begins localization of environment changes in a batch file.
SETX Sets environment variables.
SC Displays or configures services (background processes).
SCHTASKS Schedules commands and programs to run on a computer.
SHIFT Shifts the position of replaceable parameters in batch files.
SHUTDOWN Allows proper local or remote shutdown of machine.
SORT Sorts input.
START Starts a separate window to run a specified program or command.
SUBST Associates a path with a drive letter.
SYSTEMINFO Displays machine specific properties and configuration.
TAKEOWN Allows an administrator to take ownership of a file.
TASKLIST Displays all currently running tasks including services.
TASKKILL Kill or stop a running process or application.
TIME Displays or sets the system time.
TIMEOUT Pauses the command processor for the specified number of seconds.
TITLE Sets the window title for a CMD.EXE session.
TREE Graphically displays the directory structure of a drive or path.
TYPE Displays the contents of a text file.
VER Displays the Windows version.
VERIFY Tells Windows whether to verify that your files are written correctly to a disk.
VOL Displays a disk volume label and serial number.
VSSADMIN Volume Shadow Copy Service administration tool
WHERE Displays the location of files that match a search pattern.
XCOPY Copies files and directory trees.
WMIC Displays WMI information inside interactive command shell.

ASSOC
Most files in Windows are associated with a specific program that is assigned to open the file by default. At
times, remembering these associations can become confusing. You can remind yourself by entering the
command “assoc” to display a full list of file extensions and the programs they’re connected with.
You can also extend the command to change file associations. For example, “assoc .txt=” will change the file
association for text files to whatever program you enter after the equal sign. The ASSOC command itself will
reveal both the extension names and program names, which will help you properly use this command. You can
probably do this more easily in the GUI, but the command line interface is a perfectly functional alternative.

Cipher
Deleting files on a mechanical hard drive doesn’t really delete them at all. Instead, it marks the files as no
longer accessible and the space they took up as free. The files remain recoverable until they’re overwritten
with new data, which can take some time.
The cipher command, however, can be used to wipe a directory by writing random data to it. To wipe your C
drive, for example, you’d use the command “cipher /w:c”, which will wipe free space on the drive. The

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command does not overwrite undeleted data, so you will not wipe out files you need by running this
command.
There’s also a host of other cipher commands, however, they are generally redundant with Bitlocker enabled
versions of Windows.

Netstat
Entering the command “netstat -an” will provide you with a list of currently open ports and related
IP addresses. You’ll also be told what state the port is in – listening, established or closed. This is a great
command if you’re trying to troubleshoot the devices your PC is connected to or you’re afraid you’re infected
with a Trojan and are trying to locate a malicious connection.

Driverquery
Drivers remain among the most important software installed on a PC. Improperly configured or missing drivers
can cause all sorts of trouble, so its good to have access to a list of what’s on your PC. That’s exactly what the
“driverquery” command does. You can extend it to “driverquery -v” to obtain more information including the
directory in which the driver is installed.

File Compare
This command can be used to identify differences in text between two files, and is particularly useful for
writers and programmers trying to find small changes between two versions of a file. Simply type “fc” and
then the directory path and file name of the two files you want to compare.
You can also extend the command in several ways. Typing “/b” compares only binary output, “/c” disregards
the case of text in the comparison, and “/l” only compares ASCII text.
So, for example, you could use the following:
fc /l "C:\Program Files (x86)\example1.doc" "C:\Program Files (x86)\example2.doc"
to compare ASCII text in two word documents.

Ipconfig
This command relays the IP address that your computer is currently using. However, if you’re behind a router
(like most computers today), you’ll instead receive the local network address of the router.
Still, ipconfig is useful because of its extensions. “ipconfig /release” followed by “ipconfig /renew” can force
your Windows PC into asking for a new IP address, which is useful if your computer claims one isn’t available.
You can also use “ipconfig /flushdns” to refresh your DNS address. These commands are great if the Windows
network troubleshooter chokes, which does happen on occasion.

Ping
Sometimes, you need to know whether or not packets are making it to a specific networked device. That’s
where ping comes in handy. Typing “ping” followed by an IP address or web domain will send a series of test
packets to the specified address. If they arrive and are returned, you know the device is capable of
communicating with your PC; if it fails, you know that there’s something blocking communication between the
device and your computer. This can help you decide if an issue is caused by improper configuration or a failure
of network hardware.

Pathping
This is a more advanced version of ping that’s useful if there are multiple routers between your PC and the
device you’re testing. Like ping, you use this command by typing “pathping” followed by the IP address, but
unlike ping, pathping also relays some information about the route the test packets take.

Tracert
The “tracert” command is similar to pathping. Once again, type “tracert” followed by the IP address or domain
you’d like to trace. You’ll receive information about each step in the route between your PC and the target.
Unlike pathping, however, tracert also tracks how much time (in milliseconds) each hop between servers or
devices takes.

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Powercfg
Powercfg is a very powerful command for managing and tracking how your computer uses energy. You can use
the command “powercfg /hibernate on” and “powercfg /hibernate off” to manage hibernation, and you can
also use the command “powercfg /a” to view the power-saving states currently available on your PC.
Another useful command is “powercfg /devicequery s1_supported” which displays a list of devices on your
computer that support connected standby. When enabled, these devices can be used to bring your computer
out of standby – even remotely. You can enable this by selecting the device in Device Manager, opening its
properties, going to the Power Management tab and then checking the “Allow this device to wake the
computer” box.
“Powercfg /lastwake” will show you what device last woke your PC from a sleep state. You can use this
command to troubleshoot your PC if it seems to wake from sleep at random.
The “powercfg /energy” command can be used to build a detailed power consumption report for your PC,
which is output to a directory indicated after the command finishes. This report will let you know of any
system faults that might increase power consumption, like devices that are blocking certain sleep modes, or
which aren’t properly configured to respond to your power management settings.
Windows 8 added “powercfg /batteryreport”, which provides a detailed analysis of battery use, if applicable.
Normally output to your Windows user directory, the report provides details about the time and length of
charge and discharge cycles, lifetime average battery life, and estimated battery capacity.

Shutdown
As of Windows 8/8.1 there is now a shutdown command that – you guessed it! – shuts down your computer.
This is of course redundant with the already easily accessed shutdown button, but what’s not redundant is the
“shutdown /r /o” command, which restarts your PC and launches the Advanced Start Options menu, which is
where you can access Safe Mode and Windows recovery utilities. This is useful if you want to restart your
computer for troubleshooting purposes.

System File Checker

System File Checker is an automatic scan and repair tool that focuses on Windows system files. You will need
to run the command prompt with administrator privileges and enter the command “sfc /scannow”. If any
corrupt or missing files are found, they’ll be automatically replaced using cached copies kept by Windows for
just that purpose. The command can require a half-hour to run on older notebooks.

Recovery Image
Virtually all Windows 8/8.1 computers ship from the factory with a recovery image, but the image may include
bloatware you’d rather not have re-installed. Once you’ve un-installed the software you can create a new
image using the “recimg” command. Entering this command presents a very detailed explanation of how to
use it. You must have administrator privileges to use the recimg command, and you can only access the
custom recovery image you create via the Windows 8 “refresh” feature.

Tasklist
The “tasklist” command can be used to provide a current list of all tasks running on your PC. Though
somewhat redundant with Task Manager, the command may sometimes find tasks hidden from view in that
utility.
There’s also a wide range of modifiers. “Tasklist -svc” shows services related to each task, “tasklist -v” can be
used to obtain more detail on each task, and “tasklist -m” can be used to locate .dll files associated with active
tasks. These commands are useful for advanced troubleshooting.

Taskkill
Tasks that appear in the “tasklist” command will have an executable and process ID (a four-digit
number) associated with them. You can force stop a program using “taskkill -im” followed by the executable’s
name, or “taskkill -pid” followed by the process ID. Again, this is a bit redundant with Task Manager, but may
be used to kill otherwise unresponsive or hidden programs.

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 An Introduction to Computers
P a g e | 21

3.2.2 Application Software

The most common type of software, application software is a computer software package that performs a
specific function for a user, or in some cases, for another application. An application can be self-contained, or
it can be a group of programs that run the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include
office suites, graphics software, databases and database management programs, web browsers, word
processors, software development tools, image editors and communication platforms.

3.2.3 Driver Software

Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a type of system software. Device drivers
control the devices and peripherals connected to a computer, enabling them to perform their specific tasks.
Every device that is connected to a computer needs at least one device driver to function. Examples include
software that comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well as the
software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.

3.2.4 Middleware

The term middleware describes software that mediates between application and system software or between
two different kinds of application software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to
Excel and Word. It is also used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one
kind of OS, to an application in a computer with a different OS. It also enables newer applications to work with
legacy ones.
3.2.5 Programming Software

Computer programmers use programming software to write code. Programming software and programming
tools enable developers to develop, write, test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming
software include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

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