FOUNDATIONS &

BASEMENTS

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH)

Ar. Suman Dhakal

COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING
 A building consists of two basic parts: (i) Sub-structure
or foundations (ii) Super-structure
 (i) Sub-structure/ Foundation : Lower portion of the
structure or building located below ground level.
 (ii) Super- structure : Portion of the structure which is
above the ground level
COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
 Foundation can be defined as the sub-structure portion
that transmits load of super-structure to the underlying
soil.
 Foundations can be broadly classified under two
headings
1. Shallow foundations
2. Deep foundations
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
 According to Terzaghi (Austrian engineer, father of soil mechanics), a
foundation is shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its
width.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

 From the point of view of design, shallow foundations may

be of following types:

1. Spread/ Isolated footing

2. Combined footing
3. Raft/ Mat foundation
1. SPREAD/ ISOLATED FOOTING

 Spread footing are those footing which spread the

super-imposed load from wall, column, slab, roof
etc. over a larger area.
 Spread footing normally support a column or wall.

Spread footing may be of following types:

1.1. Single Footing for a column
1.2. Stepped Footing for a column
1.3. Single Footing for wall
1.4. Stepped Footing for a wall
1.5. Sloped Footing for a column
1.6. Grillage Foundation
2. COMBINED FOOTINGS
 A footing that supports two or more columns is termed as
combined footing.

 This footing is provided

(i) When columns are very near to each other and their individual
footings overlap.
2. COMBINED FOOTINGS
(ii) When corner column is located at or near property line and
so the footing cannot be extended beyond property line.

(iii) When the bearing capacity of soil is less, requiring more

area under individual footing.

• The combined footing may be of following kinds

 2.1. Rectangular Combined Footing

• The design of rectangular

combined footing should
be done in such a way that
C.G. of the column loads
coincide with the centroid
of the footing area.
 2.2. Trapezoidal Combined Footing

• In cases where property boundaries or property

lines restrict the placement of columns and
footings, a trapezoidal footing may be designed
to fit within the available space.
• When the columns are carrying unequal loads,
trapezoidal footing can be used.
• The CG of column loads should coincide with
CG of footing area.
 2.3. Strap-beam Combined Footing
• If the independent footings of
two columns are connected by a
beam, it is called strap footing.
• The connecting beam is called
strap beam.
• The strap beam doesn’t remain
in contact with the soil, so it
doesn’t transfer any load to the
soil by itself.
 2.3. Strap-beam Combined Footing

• This type of footing is used when

distance between the columns is
great and combined trapezoidal
footing becomes too narrow.
• Thus, each column is provided
with its independent footing, & a
beam is used to connect the
footings.
2. COMBINED FOOTINGS
 3. MAT/ RAFT FOUNDATION

• A mat/raft foundation is a type of

combined footing that covers the entire
area beneath the structure.
• This foundation may only have RCC
slab covering the entire area, or may
have a system of slab and beams with
slab at bottom and beams above it.
 3. MAT/ RAFT FOUNDATION
• Raft foundations are used
(i) When the use of spread footings would cover more than half of
built area, it may prove economical to use mat/ raft footing.
(ii) When the allowable soil pressure is low and raft foundation is
used, the overall settlement of structure is reduced and total load
is distributed over a larger area. Thus the intensity of pressure on
foundation soil is reduced to minimum.

Raft foundation may be divided into three types

 3.1. Solid Slab Raft Foundation
• For small column spacing and column loads
 3.2. Beam- Slab Raft Foundation
• For larger column spacing and heavy unequally distributed
column loads.
 3.2. Cellular Raft Foundation
• For extremely heavy loads in
loose soil Section

• These rafts are used on sites

subject to severe mining
activity or in areas of poor
Plan
ground where large bending
moments are to be resisted.
 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
 Deep foundations are those in which depth of the
foundation is very large in comparison to its width.
 They transfer superimposed load to the soil at a level that
is at a greater distance from the lowest floor level.
 Types of deep foundation
(i) Pile foundation
(ii) Pier foundation
(iii) Well or caisson foundation
1. PILE FOUNDATION
 1. PILE FOUNDATION
 Piles are made of wood, steel, concrete or RCC, embedded into the
ground to transmit the load of the structure to hard stratum or
compressed soil.
 Loads are first transmitted to the piles which transmit them into the
soil. The heads of piles are connected by a member known as pile cap
and over the pile cap the structure is constructed.
 Selection of Pile Foundation
 Soils of expansive nature
 loads on building is
heavy & unequal.
 When water table is high
 When structure is
situated near river bed
 Timbering of trenches is
not possible.
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 Types of Pile Foundation
Based on
Based on Strata
Materials
• End bearing piles • Timber Piles
• Friction Piles • Concrete Piles
• Compaction Piles  Pre Cast
• Sheet piles  Cast in situ

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 End bearing piles Friction piles
 These piles penetrate  Load transferred by friction
through the soft soil and resistance between the pile &
their bottom ends are rest on earth
the hard stratum  Load carried by friction
 Piles, acts as a medium to developed between the sides
transmit the load of the pile and the
 Piles may be of timber, surrounding ground
concrete, steel etc.  Used in granular soils and
 Multistoried buildings mostly deep beds of clay and silt
apply end bearing piles so where deep hard strata is at
that settlements are great distance. 33
End bearing piles Friction piles

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 Combined End Bearing & Friction Piles

 It is used to transfer super imposed loads

through both side friction as well as end
bearing system.
 Such piles are more common specially when
end bearing piles pass through granular type
soil.
 Compaction Piles Sheet piles
 Used to compact loose  Used to retain the
granular soil to hydraulic uplift and
increase bearing horizontal pressure.
capacity.  Never used to provide
 They don’t carry any vertical support but
load, and can be of mostly used to act as
weaker material like retaining walls.
sand, timber, bamboo. ◎
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Compaction Piles Sheet piles

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 3. PIER FOUNDATION
 A pier foundation is a combination of large diameter piers
constructed to support the structure to transfer its loads to the
ground.
 Pier foundation is types of foundations that are constructed
from small scale to larger in scale when compared to the other
types of foundations.
 Pier foundation is normally shallow in depth than pile
foundation
 Types:
(i) Masonry piers
(ii) Concrete piers
(iii) Drilled caissons
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 3.1. MASONRY PIERS
 Masonry piers are constructed when there
are hard soil layers at the shallower
depths.
 The depth of the masonry pier could be
continued up to 4-5m.
 When the depth to the hard soil layer
increases, it is very difficult to construct
the foundation of this nature.

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 3.2. CONCRETE PIERS
 The size or the diameter of the
concrete pier is comparatively
smaller when compared to the
masonry pier due to its high load-
bearing capacity.
 The depth can be similar as in
masonry piers, i.e. upto 5m.
 Mostly the concrete piers are in
circular, square, or rectangular
shapes due to the difficulties in
constructing other shapes.
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 3.3. DRILLED CAISSONS
 Drilled caisson are cylindrical shape foundations that are
constructed from concrete & drilled by mechanical means.
 Drilled caissons are constructed up to the deeper depth when
compared to the masonry/concrete pier foundations.
 Types:

(i) Drilled caissons with enlarged bottom constructed from

concrete
(ii) Concrete caissons are constructed by filling concrete into the
steel pipe
(iii) Concrete caissons with concrete and steel core in the steel
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pipe
3.3. DRILLED CAISSONS

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 4. WELL/CAISSON FOUNDATION
 Used for a construction of bridge piers in very deep waters,
abutment in rivers/lakes etc.
 It’s a monolithic & massive rigid structure
 Caisson/box may be made of steel, wood or RCC and is
made water tight.
 Well foundations are not used for buildings
 Open Caisson
 Box Caisson
 Pneumatic Caisson

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 Open Caisson/Well Foundation

 Exposed at the head and bottom and made of

wood, steel, reinforced concrete or masonry.
 Such caissons are used as foundations of
bridges and buildings.
 Open caissons come in different shapes with
cutting edge at the bottom for easy sinking of the
well.

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Open Caisson/Well Foundation

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 Box Caisson Foundation
 Box like structure with an open top
 Constructed of RCC having a square or circular
cross section.
 Where the bed is rocky and no further excavation
is either possible or desired
 The box caisson is fabricated on the bank and
floated to the site where it is to be sunk.

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Box Caisson Foundation

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 Pneumatic Caisson Foundation
 Open at the bottom and close at the top
 Used at places where it is not possible to
construct a well
 Used for depth of water more than 12m
 Compressed air used to remove water from the
chamber and foundation work carried out in dry
condition.

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Pneumatic Caisson Foundation

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SOME COMMON PROBLEMS
WITH FOUNDATIONS
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil
 1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil
• Unequal settlement of subsoil may lead to cracks in structural
components due to movement in foundation and in the structure.

• Unequal settlement of subsoil can occur due to

(i) Unequal load distribution on foundation
(ii) Non-uniform nature of subsoil throughout the foundation
(iii) Eccentric loading on foundation
 1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil
• Unequal settlement of subsoil can be checked by:
(i) Resting foundation on rigid strata
(ii) Proper design of footing so that it can resist cracking
(iii) Avoid eccentric loading
(iv) Limiting pressure on soil
2. Unequal settlement of masonry (sub-structure)
2. Unequal settlement of masonry (sub-structure)

• The portion of masonry between Ground level and

concrete footing (base) has mortar joints, which may
shrink or compress, leading to unequal settlement of
masonry.

• Due to this, superstructure can also have cracks induced.

2. Unequal settlement of masonry (sub-structure)

• This can be checked by

(i) Using mortar of proper strength
(ii) Using thin rich layer of mortar
(iii) Properly watering the masonry
(iv) Restricting the height of masonry : 1m in case of lime mortar;
1.5m in case of cement mortar
3. Subsoil moisture movement

• When water table drops down, shrinkage of subsoil takes place.

• Due to this, there is lack of sub soil support to the footings and
they crack, resulting in cracks in the building

• To prevent this, sand backfilling can be done along with gravel

compaction to make the foundation resist swelling of sub soil.
4. Lateral pressure on walls (super-structure)
4. Lateral pressure on walls (super-structure)

• Walls transmitting loads to the foundation may be subjected to

lateral pressure or thrust from pitched roof, wind etc.
• Due to this, foundation may be subjected to a moment (or
resultant eccentric load).
• If foundation isn’t designed for such situations, overturning of he
foundation can occur by the generation of tensile and
compressive stresses.
5. Lateral movement of sub-soil

• Soft soil have tendency to move out or squeeze out laterally

under vertical loads, especially at sloping locations.
• Other type of soils can also show lateral movement if a pit is
excavated nearby the vicinity of foundation.
• Such lateral movements can cause excessive settlements, or even
the structure can collapse.
• Sheet piles can be used to prevent lateral escape of soil.
5. Lateral movement of sub-soil
6. Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs

• The roots of trees, shrubs absorb moisture from the foundation

soil resulting in voids and weathering.
• Due to this, the ground soil near the wall may depress down.
• If the roots penetrate below the level of foundation, settlement
may increase resulting in foundation cracks.
7. Atmospheric action

• Atmospheric agents like sun, wind, rain etc. may adversely effect
foundation.
• If depth is shallow, moisture movement due to rain or draught
may cause settlements.
• If water remains stagnant near foundation, dampness can weaken
the foundation.
7. Atmospheric action

• Some preventive measures can be:

(i) Filling the foundation with sand or good soil
(ii) Providing gentle slope away from the foundation wall
(iii) Providing lime or cement concrete layer along exterior walls.
EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
ON FOUNDATION
 Earthquake effects on foundation
1. Development of shear stress in case of weak earthquake and
shear failure in case of strong earthquake in foundation and also
at columns between sub-structure and super-structure (near plinth
level)
Earthquake effects on foundation

Fig. Development of Shear stress based upon

the direction of two opposite forces
 Earthquake effects on foundation
2. Formation of voids and cracks, change in ground water table
and change in soil conditions in case of strong shaking reduces
bearing capacity of soil.
• This can effect overall strength and stability of foundation.
• This can also cause overturning and sliding effects in
foundation.
Earthquake effects on foundation
 Earthquake effects on foundation
3. In extremely strong earthquake, the foundation may be
punched or sunked into the ground resulting in the failure of
overall building structure.
 Earthquake effects on foundation
4. Formation of cracks in building sections like in Beams (Plinth
beam, Floor beams, Strap beam), Slab, Column, Wall, Roof etc.
due to movement of foundation
FOUNDATION IN BLACK
COTTON SOIL
 Foundation in black cotton soil
• Black cotton soil is the type of soil which
consists of high percentage of clay. This soil
undergoes considerable change in volume due to
change in its moisture content.
• It swells excessively when wet and shrinks
excessively during dry period. The variation in
volume of this soil is as much as 20-30% of its
original volume.
 Foundation in black cotton soil
• This soil develops very wide and deep cracks due to excessive
shrinkage when it is made to dry from the wet condition.
• It becomes too soft to carry any load and swells enormously when
dry soil is saturated with water.
• The cracks developed in drying black cotton soil may be as wide as
20 cm and may extend to 2 to 4 m depth.
Foundation in black cotton soil
• If depth of black cotton soil is upto 1.5m

Fig. Ordinary foundation in black cotton soil when depth is very less
 Foundation in black cotton soil
• If depth of black cotton soil is upto 1.5m
(i) Excavate the soil 30 cm in excess for avoiding possible cracks
(ii) Trench width is determined by the load-bearing capacity of the soil
to ensure that the foundation can adequately distribute the building's
loads without excessive settlement or failure.
(Safe bearing capacity of black cotton soil= 130-160 KN/mm2)

(iii) The trench of the foundation is rammed well and gravel layer is
spread in the trench and is also rammed.
 Foundation in black cotton soil
• If depth of black cotton soil is upto 1.5m
(iv) A layer of concrete 300-500 mm deep is spread on the rammed
gravel base.
(v) Now foundation masonry work is started above concrete layer and
carried upto plinth level.
(vi) Open space left in the trench is filled with sand.
 Foundation in black cotton soil
• If depth of black cotton soil is large
• If Depth of soil is very large, Water table is likely to rise and
Loading is very large, foundation may be constructed on piles.
(i) First piles are driven deep to rest on the hard bed.
(ii) All piles are then grouped together in a single bearing known as
pile cap.
(iii) Normal foundation can be constructed over pile cap and space
around the foundation is filled with sand.
FOUNDATIONS IN BLACK COTTON SOIL

Fig. Under-reamed pile foundation for black cotton soil

 Foundation in black cotton soil
• Under-reamed piles are the best for black
cotton soil.
• It has bulbs that keep the foundation and the
structure anchored to the soil.
• Bulbs prevent movement in vertical direction
due to alternate swelling and shrinkage of soil in
expansive soil.
• The minimum depth for using under-reamed
piles is 3.5m
FOUNDATIONS IN BLACK COTTON SOIL
FOUNDATION IN SANDY
SOIL
 Foundation in sandy soil
• Sandy soil is the type of soil with very high percentage of sand and
relatively less concentration of clay and other particles.
• Sand becomes firm when wet (opposite of clay) and loose when
dry.
• For loose and dry fine sand, the safe soil bearing capacity is 100-
150 KN/m2. The safe bearing capacity of sandy soil increases as
the amount of gravel present in the sand becomes high and may
reach till 440-460 KN/m2.
Foundation in sandy soil

Fig. Hellical pile foundation for sandy soil

 Foundation in sandy soil
• Hellical piles/ Screw piles are the best foundation for sandy soil.
• Hellical pile foundation is a type of pile foundation with a helix
near the pile toe so that piles can be screwed to the ground.
• The pile shaft transfers structure’s load.
• The helices can be press-formed to a specified pitch or simply may
consist of flat plates welded at specified points in the pile shaft.
• Generally, more helices are specified if a higher load or softer
ground is encountered.
DAMP PROOF COURSES
Dampness

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 Dampness
 The presence of gravitational or hygroscopic moisture is known as
dampness. A building or a structure should be free of dampness. It
should not allow moisture to enter the building through the wall, roofs,
or floors.
 The moisture entering through the cracks of walls, roofs, and floors
gives rise to unhygienic conditions such as deterioration of the
structure and its components as well.
 Damp proofing refers to keeping soil moisture (dampness) out
of a structure.

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 Sources of Dampness
 Rising of moisture from the ground due to capillary action.
 Action of rain water i.e. rain beating against external wall.
 Rain penetration from the top of wall and exposed surface wall.
 Poor drainage of site.
 Orientation of building
 Defective construction and design.
 Poor workmanship and poor quality of material used.
 Condensation due to atmospheric moisture. Whenever the warm air in
the atmosphere is cooled it gives rise to the process of condensation.

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 Effect of Dampness
 It causes unhealthy conditions for the occupants of the building.
 Travel of moisture through walls and ceiling may cause patches and
plaster becomes soft and crumbed, disintegration of brick, tile etc.
 It causes warping and decay of timber.
 It may result in corrosion of metal.
 The material used in floor such as carpet, parquet is damaged.
 Dampness permits and accelerates growth of termites, insects.
 Electrical installations may get damaged and electricity may be short
circuited.
 It cause disintegration of brick and growth of white fungus.
 It decreases the life span of structural member
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 Properties of Materials used in Damp Proofing
 Flexible enough to entertain settlement if any
 Damp proofing material should be impervious for resisting the
moisture movement through even a thin layer of it.
 It should be stable and durable.
 It should safely carry the loads coming over it.
 The material should not change its properties.

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 Materials used in Damp Proofing
 Bitumen : Flexible material placed concrete bed (minimum 3mm )
 Asphalt Sheet: this semi rigid material provides an impervious layer to be
used as DPC. It is also used in road construction
 Cement Mortar : Rich cement mortar (1:3) in a layer of 2 to 3 cm thickness
is used for preparing damp proof bedding layer.
 Cement Concrete : 5 to 15 cm thick cement concrete (1:2:4) or (1:1.5:3) is
generally provide at the plinth level of building to serve D.P.C
 Plastic Sheet : One or two layer of polythene sheet minimum 50 micron
provided as a polymer layer.
 Metal Sheet : Copper, Aluminum sheet are used as DPC. They are very
effective in preventing dampness

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 Membrane damp proofing
 In this method of damp proofing, a water repellent membrane or damp
proof course(D.P.C.) is introduced in between the source of dampness
and the part of building adjacent to it.
 Damp proofing course may consist of flexible materials such as bitumen,
mastic asphalt, bituminous felts, plastic or polythene sheets, metal
sheets, cement concrete.
 Damp proofing course may be provided either horizontally or vertically in
floors, walls etc.
 Horizontal DPC Ex- in; plinth, basement floor, roofs etc.
 Vertical DPC Ex- in; walls in Basement, super structure etc.

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Membrane damp proofing

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Membrane damp proofing

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Membrane damp proofing

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 Considerations
 The damp proofing course should cover the full thickness of walls,
 The mortar bed supporting damp proof course should be leveled and
even, and should be free from projections,
 At junctions and corners of walls, the horizontal damp proof course
should be laid continuous.
 When a horizontal damp proof course (i.e. that of a floor) is continued to a
vertical face, a cement concrete fillet of 7.5 cm radius should be provided
at the junction.
 Each damp proof course should be placed in correct relation to other
damp proof course to ensure a complete and continuous barrier.
 Damp proof course should not be kept exposed on the wall surface
otherwise it may get damaged during finishing work.

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 Waterproofing
 Waterproofing is the formation of an impervious barrier over surfaces of
foundations, roofs, walls, and other structural members. The function of
the impermeable barrier is to prevent water penetrations. The building
surfaces are made water-resistant and sometimes waterproof.

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 Water Proofing Basements
◎ MonolithicConcrete Structures
◎ Tanking Techniques
◎ Drained Cavity Systems

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 Constructing Monolithic Concrete Structures
 Forming a watertight basement using dense high quality RCC Structure
 Great care must be taken with the design of the mix, the actual mixing and
placing, together with careful selection and construction of the formwork
 Sound Watertight structure can be produced but structure may not be water
vapor proof

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 Asphalt Tanking
 Asphalt is a natural or manufactured mixture of bitumen with a substantial
aggregates and other materials
 provide a continuous waterproof membrane to the base and walls of the
basement.
 Mastic asphalt applied in layers over small areas; in successive coats
should be staggered by at least 150 mm in horizontal work and at least 75
mm in vertical work.
 impervious to both water and water vapor.
 It is non-toxic, vermin and rot proof, odorless and unaffected by sulphates
in the soil, which, if placed externally improve the durability of a concrete
structure.

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Asphalt Tanking

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Asphalt Tanking

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 Drained Cavity Systems
 An excellent barrier to moisture
penetration of basements by allowing
any moisture that has passed through
the structural wall to drain down within
a cavity formed between the inner
face of the structural wall and an inner
non-loadbearing wall.
 The inner walls should be relatively
vapor tight or alternatively the cavity
should be ventilated.

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THANK YOU!