CLASS-12

Electronic Tube
The given problem is dedicated to a device known as an electronic lamp. Electronic
lamps vary in shape and construction, but their principle of operation is the same: inside a
vacuum-sealed bulb, there are two electrodes—cathode and anode. The cathode is heated
due to an electric current passing through it (or a nearby heating element), which leads
to thermoelectric emission—electron emission from its surface. A potential di!erence
between the cathode and anode causes the electrons to move in a vacuum.
Apart from the cathode and anode, other elements (such as grids) inside the lamp
influence electron movement.
In all your answers for this problem, you may use the following constants:

• Magnetic constant: µ0 = 4ω → 10→7 H/A2 ;

• Electric constant: ε0 = 8.85 → 10→12 F/m;

• Boltzmann constant: k = 1.38 → 10→23 J/K;

• Electron mass: m = 9.1 → 10→31 kg;

• Absolute charge of an electron: e = 1.6 → 10→19 C.

Note. The problem requires solving an equation of the form:

ϑ ↑↑ (z) = f (ϑ(z)),
which, after multiplying both sides by ϑ ↑ (z) and integrating, transforms into:
! !
ϑ (z)ϑ (z)dz = f (ϑ(z))ϑ ↑ (z)dz.
↑ ↑↑

Integration gives:
!
(ϑ ↑ (z))2
= f (ϑ(z))dϑ + C,
2
where C is a constant determined from the initial conditions. After computing the
integral on the right-hand side for a given function f , the variables in the equation
separate.

Part A. Motion of an Electron in an Electromagnetic

Field
Consider a vacuum diode—a lamp containing a cathode and anode.
Let the cathode and anode ↓ be thin, parallel plates with area S. The distance between
the plates is h, where h ↑ S. The cathode is heated due to a tightly attached long
wire with radius r0 , carrying a uniformly distributed current I.
We direct the x-axis to the right, parallel to the plates, the y-axis upwards, perpen-
dicular to the plates. We choose the coordinate origin at point C, located above the wire.
The z-axis is directed out of the plane of the diagram, towards the viewer.
 Figure 1: Diagram of the setup.

For a start, consider the motion of the first emitted electron after the current is
switched on, meaning there is no space charge between the electrodes yet. In this case,
the electron moves in the electric field of the cathode and anode, as well as in the magnetic
field created by the heater current. The potential di!erence between the cathode and
anode is constant and equal to U = ϖA ↔ ϖK > 0.
A1
Let the electron start moving with zero initial velocity from point C. Show that in this
case, x(t) = 0.
A2
For the described case, write down Newton’s second law in projections onto the x, y, z
axes and obtain expressions for ÿ, z̈. The expressions may include ẏ, ż, y, z, U, I, as well
as geometric characteristics of the system.
A3
Obtain the di!erential equation for y in the form
" #
ln 1 + yy0
ÿ = ϱ ↔ ς ,
1 + yy0
where ϱ, ς are constants. Find ϱ, ς. The answer may include all introduced quantities
and constants.
A4
Find the maximum value of the heater current Ispr at which the considered electron
reaches the anode.
Consider another commonly used configuration of the cathode and anode. Let the
cathode be a metallic wire of radius r0 , length L, carrying a uniformly distributed current
I. The current heats the cathode, leading to electron emission. The anode is the surface
of a cylinder with radius R0 and length L (L ↗ R0 ). As before, the potential di!erence
between the anode and cathode is U = ϖA ↔ ϖK > 0.

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A5
Let the electron start moving with zero initial velocity from point C ↑ in the cylindrical
configuration of the lamp. Find in this case the maximum value of the heater current
Ispr , at which the electron reaches the anode.

Part B. VAC of the Vacuum Diode

In the steady-state mode, electrons move from the cathode to the anode, creating a
current that depends on the voltage U applied to the lamp. The presence of electrons in
the interelectrode space leads to an equilibrium charge density distribution and potential.
This part is dedicated to finding the VAC of the diode, spatial distributions of poten-
tial, and charge.
In reality, in lamps, I ↑ Ispr , so we will consider motion only in the electric field.
Also, we will neglect the initial velocity of electrons. This assumption works well when
kT ↑ eU , where T is the cathode temperature.

Consider the Planar Configuration

We assume that each electron moves in the average potential created by all other electrons.
Let φ(y), ϖ(y) be the dependencies of charge density and potential on the coordinate y.
For definiteness, we assume the cathode potential to be zero ϖ(0) = 0.
B1
Obtain the di!erential equation relating ϖ(y) and φ(y).
B2
Assume U > 0. Find the velocity of an electron v(y) emitted from the cathode at a
distance y from the cathode. Express the answer in terms of ϖ(y).
B3
Express the total current I flowing through the plane y = const. Express the answer in
terms of φ(y), v(y), and geometric characteristics of the system. Assume positive current
flows from the anode to the cathode.
B4
Obtain a di!erential equation for ϖ(y) containing the function ϖ(y) and its derivatives,
as well as I and geometric characteristics of the system.

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 B5
Obtain the dependence φ(y). Express the answer in terms of I and geometric character-
istics of the system.
B6
The VAC (Voltage-Ampere Characteristic) of the lamp for U > 0 can be expressed by
the function:

I(U ) = GU ω .
Determine the exponent ↼. Express the answer in terms of geometric characteristics
of the system. The quantity G is called the first conductivity of the lamp.
B7
Obtain the dependence φ(y). Express the answer in terms of I and geometric character-
istics of the system.
B8
Obtain the VAC I(U ) for U < 0.

Consider the Cylindrical Configuration

Let r be the distance from the wire to the electron. The potential distribution in this
system is a function of r only.
B9
Obtain the di!erential equation for ϖ(r) containing the function ϖ(r) and its derivatives,
as well as the total current in the lamp I and geometric characteristics of the system.
The obtained equation is not solved analytically, but it can be shown that for the
cylindrical configuration, the VAC has the same form with the same exponent ↼.
The power-law form of the VAC suggests an unlimited increase in I with increasing
U . In reality, this does not happen because I is limited by the emission rate of electrons
from the cathode. For large U , the current approaches the saturation current Isat . The
characteristic empirical dependence of the lamp current on voltage is shown in the graph.

Part C. Triode and Van der Pol Generator

Now, a conducting grid is introduced into the space between the plates, parallel to them,
with potential ϖC . The voltage UC = ϖC ↔ϖK is called the grid voltage, and UA = ϖA ↔ϖK
is the anode voltage. This system is called a triode. We assume the grid is su”ciently

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large so that all electrons moving in the lamp space pass through it, i.e., no current flows
into the grid.
The presence of the grid changes the potential distribution in space, allowing control
over the electron current. The current flowing between the anode and cathode IA depends
on both UC and UA .

Figure 2: Diagram of the triode system.

The dependence of IA on UC for UA = const for di!erent values of UA is shown in the

figure below.

Figure 3: Dependence of IA (UC ) for di!erent fixed UA .

Now, consider an electrical circuit with a triode called the Van der Pol generator.
This generator enables periodic oscillations using only a DC power source.
We will examine the mechanism of oscillation excitation in more detail.
Necessary designations of elements, currents, and voltages are given in the figure.

Van der Pol Generator Circuit

In the absence of voltage on the capacitor, which, as seen in the circuit, matches the
grid voltage UC , the anode voltage UA can be chosen so that the dependence IA (UC ) at
UA = const for UC ↘ 0 is given by:

IA (UC ) ↘ I0 + ↽UC ↔ µUC3

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 where ↽, µ are positive constants. We make the following approximations:
1. For the values of UC considered below, equation (1) is exact. 2. The EMF induced
by coil L in coil LA is negligibly small compared to the anode voltage, so the anode
voltage UA remains constant, coinciding with the anode voltage. 3. The coil LA creates
an induction EMF:
dIA
E =M ,
dt
where M is the mutual inductance coe”cient. The sign of M depends on the relative
orientation of the coils and the chosen direction of the RLC circuit loop. Since the signs
of E and M are not important, they can be chosen arbitrarily.

Figure 4: Van der Pol generator circuit diagram.

C1
Kirchho!’s law for the RLC circuit leads to the di!erential equation:

ÜC + (⇀ + ⇁UC2 )U̇C + χUC = 0.

Express ⇀, ⇁, χ in terms of R, L, C, M, ↽, µ.

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C2
Suppose that at the initial moment UC = 0. It turns out that under certain parameter
conditions, automatic oscillation excitation (increase in amplitude over time) occurs, fol-
lowed by transition to a periodic regime when the deviation of UC from zero is su”ciently
small.
If UC deviates slightly from zero, find the conditions for ⇀, ⇁, χ that lead to oscillation
excitation. Also, express the condition in terms of R, L, C, M, ↽, µ.

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Class-11

Roche Limit and Gravitational E!ects

Gravitational Forces and Roche Limit

Gravitational forces increase as the distance between bodies decreases. Therefore, it can
be observed that when objects come very close to each other, for example, liquid satellites
and planets with strong gravitational fields, the shape of the satellite begins to change
and, ultimately, it gets destroyed.
The Roche limit is defined as the minimum possible radius of a circular orbit Rroche ,
where a satellite orbiting a planet does not yet break apart due to tidal forces caused by
the planet’s gravitational field.
In this problem, we need to find the Roche limits for a double planetary system and
for a liquid satellite.

Part A: Roche Limit for a Double Planetary System

(1.5 points)
Consider two identical spherical objects, each with masses m and radii r, respectively.
These objects move as a single body in the gravitational field of a star with mass M → m
in circular orbits. The distance from the center of the objects to the star is given as R.
It is assumed that when R → r, the centers of the objects always lie on the plane
passing through the center of mass (i.e., the objects always orbit on opposite sides of the
star). The gravitational constant is G.

Problem A1
Find the radius of the circular orbit Rdps at which the mechanical stress in the contact
region of the objects is zero.
The value Rdps is the Roche limit Rroche for a double planetary system.

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Liquid Satellite
All remaining parts of the problem involve determining the Roche limit for a liquid
satellite, which rotates around its own axis synchronously with its orbital motion (in
other words, the satellite always faces the planet with one side).
Let the radius of the circular orbit of the satellite be denoted as R. The gravitational
constant G, the radius of the planet R0 , the density of the planet ω1 , and the density of
the liquid satellite ωm are all considered known.
The problem is solved in a reference frame rotating around the planet’s center with
the orbital angular velocity of the satellite. The following assumptions are made:

1. The planet is immovable;

2. The influence of all forces except centrifugal force, planetary gravitation, and the
satellite’s self-gravitation can be neglected;

3. The satellite is incompressible;

4. The satellite’s motion inside the system is incompressible;

5. The linear dimensions of the satellite are much smaller than the circular orbit radius
R.

A convenient coordinate system is also used, in which the planet is located at the
origin, the radial coordinate of the satellite is directed from the planet to the satellite,
and the axis z aligns with the angular velocity vector of rotation, while the other two
basis vectors ex and ey lie in the plane of motion.

Part B: Potential of External Fields (1.5 points)

The potential is defined as the potential energy per unit mass, i.e.,
Wp
ε= (1)
m
In this part of the problem, we need to approximately describe the total potential
εext due to the combined e!ect of the centrifugal force and the gravitational field of the
planet near the equilibrium position of the satellite. Assume that at the origin of the
coordinate system, the potential εext = 0.

Problem B1
Obtain an exact expression for the total potential εext in the field of the centrifugal force
and the gravitational field of the planet. Express your answer in terms of x, y, z, G, ωm , R0 ,
and R.

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 Figure 1: Diagram of the system with planet and satellite coordinates

Problem B2
In the approximation where x, y, z ↑ R, the expression for the potential ε can be repre-
sented as:
εext = A1 x2 + B1 y 2 + C1 z 2 (2)
Find the coe”cients A1 , B1 , and C1 . Express your answer in terms of R, G, R0 , and
ωm .
From now on, assume that the coe”cients B1 and C1 are zero. As shown by exact
calculations, including them gives a very small improvement in accuracy compared to the
increased complexity of calculations.
Thus, in all further cases:
εext = A1 x2 (3)
From the form of the potential, it becomes clear that the considered shape is a sur-
face of revolution, and the quadratic dependence of the potential allows us to infer the
geometric shape.

Part C: Gravitational Field of a Rotating Ellipsoid

(5.5 points)
In this part of the problem, you will study the gravitational field inside a stretched
ellipsoid of rotation, filled with a uniformly distributed mass density ω.
In a Cartesian coordinate system, the equation of the rotating ellipsoid is given by:

x2 y 2 z 2
+ + ↓ 1, a>b (4)
a2 a2 b 2
where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipsoid, respectively,
with the center at the origin. ↔
Recall that the foci of the ellipse are located at a distance 2c = 2 a2 ↗ b2 from each
other, and the eccentricity of the ellipse is given by:
c
e= (5)
a
Let us now consider an auxiliary problem.

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 Consider an ellipsoid with a cavity, given by the equation:

x2 y2 z2
+ + ↓ 1, k < 1. (6)
k 2 a2 k 2 b 2 k 2 b 2

Figure 2: Ellipsoid with an internal cavity

Problem C1
Prove that the gravitational field inside the cavity is zero.
Hint: Return to the solid ellipsoid.

Problem C2
Let the potential at the center of the ellipsoid be ε0 .
Consider a point inside the ellipsoid with a radius vector r relative to the center. The
potential at this point is ε1 . What is the potential ε2 at another point inside the ellipsoid
with a radius vector ϑr?
Express your answer in terms of ε0 , ε1 , and ϑ.

Problem C3
Show that at any point inside the ellipsoid with coordinates (x, y, z), the potential can
be written as:
ε = ε0 + A2 x2 + B2 (y 2 + z 2 ). (7)
Note: This expression is valid for ellipsoids of arbitrarily small size.

Problem C4
Express B2 in terms of A2 , G, and ω.
Note: Use Gauss’s theorem in di!erential form for the gravitational field:

ϖ 2ε ϖ 2ε ϖ 2ε
+ 2 + 2 = 4ϱωG. (8)
ϖx2 ϖy ϖz

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Problem C5
The potential ε on the surface of the ellipsoid can be expressed as a function of only the
coordinate x in the form:
ε = C 2 + x 2 D2 . (9)
Express C2 and D2 in terms of ε0 , A2 , G, ω, a, and the eccentricity e.
As seen, a rotating ellipsoid can generate a field satisfying the equipotential surface
condition of a liquid. To achieve this, we need to find the dependence of the coe”cient
A2 on the eccentricity e of the ellipsoid.

Problem C6
Solve the supplementary problem: a disk of radius R has a uniformly distributed mass
with surface density ς. Find the potential εa of the disk on the axis at a distance x from
its center.
Express the answer in terms of ς, G, R, and x.

Problem C7
Find the potential ε0 at the center of the ellipsoid. Express the answer in terms of G, ω, a,
and e.
Note: You may need the following integral:
! ↔ ↔ " ↔ #
x 1 + x 2 + ln x + 1 + x 2
1 + x2 dx = + const. (10)
2

Problem C8
Find the potential of the ellipsoid εa at the point (x, y, z) = (a, 0, 0). Express the answer
in terms of G, ω, a, and e.
Note: You may need the following integral:
! ↔ ↔ " ↔ #
2
x x2 ↗ 1 ↗ ln x + x2 ↗ 1
x ↗ 1 dx = + const. (11)
2

Problem C9
Find the coe”cient A2 . Express the answer in terms of G, ω, and e.

Part D: Determining the Roche Limit (1.5 points)

For equilibrium of a liquid satellite, its surface must be equipotential. In the previous part
of the problem, we showed that the potential on the surface of a homogeneous rotating
ellipsoid can be written as a function of only the coordinate x.

Problem D1
Plot the graph of the dependence of the coe”cient D2 on the eccentricity e of the ellipsoid
formed by the satellite. Use graph paper for this task.

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Problem D2
At what value of eccentricity e is the Roche limit reached?

Problem D3
Find the Roche limit RRoche . Express the answer in terms of R0 , ωM , and ωm .