1

LIGHT

Theories of Light

In the 17th century Descartes, a French scientist, formulated two opposing theories to
explain the nature of light. These two theories are the particle theory and the wave theory.

Particle Theory

Descartes’ particle theory describes light as being made up of small particles moving
linearly. He uses this theory to explain reflection and refraction. Descartes’ particle
theory was supported and further developed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1704. Newton
believed that light was made up of tiny streams of particles, traveling at very high speeds,
in straight line.

Descartes’ particle theory, however, could not be used to explain diffraction of light.

In the 18th century Newton and Huygens proposed theories. The central issue was that
the particle and wave theories predicted opposite effects on the speed of light going from
air to water. Newton proposed that the speed of light in greater in more dense medium
than less dense medium while Huygens predicted it would be less.

Foucault experiments supported Huygens’ theory. He was able to actually measure the
speed of light in air and water and found that it was less in water. The result was that
Huygens’ theory was accepted and Newton’s theory was discarded.

Wave Theory

Descartes proposed that light could be due to pressure or action transmitted from the
object seen to the eye through the matter or a surrounding space.

Huygens also supported the wave theory. He thought that light was a luminous energy
due to a vibrating source which produces longitudinally waves in all directions in the
space around the source.

As the wave touches points in its paths it causes them to vibrate longitudinally sending
out secondary waves. The sum of the wavefronts of these secondary wavelets forms an
envelope that is the new wavefront of a wave.

D. Whitehall
 2

Young’s Interference Experiment and the Wave Theory

Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates that two coherent beams of light crossing
each other’s path will produce observable interference patterns.

The diagram below shows the apparatus used to observed light interference. Each slit is
needed to cause diffraction and the diffracted beams to produce the interference.

Where the waves overlap, superposition enables constructive and destructive interference
which results in an unchanging pattern.

The diagram shown the pattern formed by the interference in a darken room.

D. Whitehall
 3

When the crests (or troughs) overlap a bright spot is obtained because there is
constructive interference. When the crest and trough overlap, darkness or destructive
interference occurs.

Diffraction of Light

Diffract of light waves occur when the wave spreads out after passing through a gap or
around an obstacle. This is observed when the dimension of the gap is comparable to the
wavelength of the light. (approximately 10-6 m)

Wave - Particle Duality of Light

Before the 20th century, scientists regarded particles and waves as two separate entities
with separate properties. Particles were thought to have mass and occupy define volumes
while waves were means of transferring energy and spread out into space.

At the beginning of the 20th century, however, the idea of light having BOTH wave and
particle properties were considered. With further conclusive evidence that light has
particle and wave properties, the dual nature of light is now accepted.

D. Whitehall
 4

Reflection of Light

Light Rays
A ray of light is a narrow beam of parallel light which can be represented by a line
diagram with an arrow to represent the direction it is traveling.

Types of Reflection

Mirrors
A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface by which regular reflection is used to
form images.

The images formed by in a mirror are virtual images, i.e., the rays appear to come from
behind the mirror. The image is also laterally inverted, left and right are reversed.

D. Whitehall
 5

Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r.

i = r

2. The incidence ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

Read and make notes (also include diagrams) on:

PFC Page 7 - 14
 images
 periscope, kaleidoscope
 instrument scales, laser, spot galvanometer
 curved mirrors

Page 2 – 5
 shadows
 eclipses

D. Whitehall
 6

Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light which occurs when it travels form one medium into
another.

Examples of Refraction

(A)

(B)

D. Whitehall
 7

The angle of incidence, i, is the angle between the normal and the incident ray. The angle
of refraction, r, is the angle between the normal and the refracted ray.

When a light ray enters an optically dense medium, it bends towards the normal (the
angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence, i > r).

Hence when in light ray enters a less optically dense medium it bends away from the
normal (the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence, i < r).

Laws of Refraction

1. The incidence ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

2. Snell’s Law
The ratio of the sine of the angle of the incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is called the refractive index, n.

refractive index (n) = sin i

sin r

D. Whitehall
 8

Examples of Refractive Indices of Some Transparent Materials

MEDIUM REFRACTIVE
INDEX
1.51714
Glass

Perspex

1.33157
Water

Ice

2.417
Diamond

Air 1.000292

Additional information on Reflection, refraction, critical angle and total internal

reflection can be viewed here:
http://interactagram.com/physics/optics/refraction/

The Reversibility of Light

The principle of the reversibility of light states that the paths of light are reversible. This
that means if a light ray is sent in the exact opposite direction, it will follow the exact
same path.

When a ray of light passes from medium 1 to medium 2, we can use the symbol, 1 n 2 to
represent this. We can calculate the refractive index by using:

1 n 2 = sin i
sin r

If this ray of light travels in the opposite direction, from medium 2 to medium 1, we can
calculate the refractive index by using:

2 n 1 = sin r
sin i

D. Whitehall
 9

From these equations, we can see that:

2 n1 = 1
1n2

The direction of the bending of light can be determined from the refractive index and is
summarized in the table below

Refractive Index Ray Direction What happens to the ray

n greater than 1
(n > 1)

n equal to 1
(n = 1)

n less than 1
(n < 1)

Refractive Index and the Speed of Light

The speed of light in a vacuum is approximately 3 * 108 m/s. Light travels more slowly in
transparent material and it is thought that the bending or refraction of light is due to this
change of speed.

D. Whitehall
 10

We can therefore calculate the refractive index passing from medium 1 to medium 2 by
using the speed of light in each medium:

1 n 2 = speed of light in medium 1 = c 1

speed of light in medium 2 c2
Real and Apparent Depth

If we look at a swimming pool it appears to be shallower than it really is and if we look at

an object in the pool it seems to be closer than it really is. This effect is caused by
refraction at the surface of the water.

Rays of light coming from the object in the pool are bent away from the normal as they
leave the water, so they appear to come from a virtual image which is above the actual
object.

D. Whitehall
 11

We can determine the refractive index of the air to water in this situation by using the
formula:

a nw = real depth
apparent depth

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

Critical Angle

The critical angle, c, is the angle of incidence, i, in the optically denser medium for which
the angle of refraction, r, is 90o. We can use the critical angle to calculate the refractive
index by using the formula:

sin c = 1
refractive index

sin c = 1
n

CASE A: Angle of incidence is less than the critical angle (i < c)

D. Whitehall
 12

The light ray meets the surface at a small angle, i, a weak internal ray is produced along
with the refracted ray, r.

CASE B: Angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle (i = c)

If the angle of incidence, i , is increased it will reach the critical angle, c. This is the value
where the angle of reaction is 90o.

Hence when the angle of incidence equals to the critical angle, then the angle of
refraction is 90o.

CASE C: Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle (i > c)

D. Whitehall
 13

If the angle of incidence, i, is greater than the critical angle, c, then no light will emerge
from the glass block. The glass block behaves like a mirror and TOTAL INTERNAL
REFRACTION occurs.

Read and make notes (also include diagrams) on:

PFC Page 20 - 23
 how thick mirrors form multiple images
 how water appears to bend a ruler
 the mirage
 prisms at work
 optical fibre or light pipe
 prism binoculars

PFC Page 24 - 25 COLOUR

 Newton’s experiment
 deviation and dispersion
 producing a pure spectrum
 recombining the spectrum
 rainbow

D. Whitehall