24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY

I Semester

Common to All Branches Except CSBS

Academic Year: 2024-2025

Department
of
Electronics and Communication Engineering
 PREFACE

“THE MORE YOU PRACTICE WHAT YOU KNOW THE MORE SHALL YOU
KNOW WHAT TO PRACTICE”

With this in mind, this manual is prepared as an introductory note for the laboratory
experiments. Sufficient details have been included to emphasis self-learning. Although the scope
of the work is broad, the level of presentation is introductory.

Engineering Practices Lab Manual covers all the basic engineering lab practices in the
Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics areas. The manual details the various tools to be
used and exercises to be practiced in the application of engineering practices in each field.

This manual is intended for the second semester engineering students to provide exposure
to the students with hands on experience on various basic engineering practices. Each
experiment is provided with introductory information and procedure to perform the experiment.
The basics of each experiment are presented in simple language.

The manual has been compiled by Ms. K. Kayalvizhi, Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering who have paid careful attention to the organization of the contents,
theory and procedure. Hope this will reach the students to our expectation.

Suggestions for the improvement of the manual are welcome.

Head of the Department Principal

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 2

 INSTITUTE VISION

To emerge as a” Centre of excellence “offering Technical Education and Research opportunities

of very high standards to students, develop the total personality of the individual and instill high
levels of discipline and strive to set global standards, making our students technologically
superior and ethically stronger, who in turn shall contribute to the advancement of society and
humankind.

INSTITUTION MISSION

We dedicate and commit ourselves to achieve, sustain and foster unmatched excellence in
Technical Education. To this end, we will pursue continuous development of infra-structure
and enhance state-of-art equipment to provide our students a technologically up-to date and
intellectually inspiring environment of learning, research, creativity, innovation and professional
activity and inculcate in them ethical and moral values.

INSTITUTE POLICY

We at Sri Sai Ram Engineering College are committed to build a better Nation through Quality
Education with team spirit. Our students are enabled to excel in all values of Life and become
Good Citizens. We continually improve the System, Infrastructure and Service to satisfy the
Students, Parents, Industry and Society.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 3

 DEPARTMENT VISION

To emerge as a “centre of excellence” in the field of Electronics and Communication Engineering

and to mould our students to become technically and ethically strong to meet the global
challenges. The Students in turn contribute to the advancement and welfare of the society.

DEPARTMENT MISSION

M1: To achieve, sustain and foster excellence in the field of Electronics and Communication
Engineering.

M2: To adopt proper pedagogical methods to maximize the knowledge transfer.

M3: To enhance the understanding of theoretical concepts through professional society

Activities

M4: To improve the infrastructure and provide conductive environment of learning and
research following ethical and moral values

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

To prepare the graduates to:

1. Acquire strong foundation in Engineering, Science and Technology for a successful career
in Electronics and Communication Engineering.

2. Apply their knowledge and skills acquired to solve the issues in real world Electronics and
Communication sectors and to develop feasible and viable systems.

3. Be receptive to new technologies and attain professional competence through professional

society activities.

4. Participate in lifelong learning, higher education efforts to emerge as expert researchers and
technologists.

5. Practice the profession with ethics, integrity, leadership and social responsibilities.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 4

 Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

Electronics and Communication Engineering graduates will be able to:

1. Design, implement and test Electronics and Communication systems using analytical
knowledge and applying modern hardware and software tools.
2. Develop their skills to solve problems and assess social, environmental issues with
ethics and manage different projects in multidisciplinary areas.

COURSE OUTCOMES

On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to:

CO1 Infer the values of resistance, peak to peak RMS values, time period, frequency. (K2)

Outline the logic gates, rectifier, timer circuits and soldering practices. (K2)
CO2
Demonstrate the measurement of electrical parameters such as voltage, current, resistance,
CO3 power and energy. [k2]

CO4 Illustrate the residential wiring, staircase wiring and fluorescent lamp wiring. [k2]

CO5 Prepare the carpentry and plumbing joints. [k2]

CO6 Perform the basic operations of welding, sheet metal work and basic machining operations in
Lathe and Drilling. [k2]

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 5

Safety Rules
1. Exercise enough care and attention in handling electrical & electronic equipment and
follow safety practices in the laboratory.
2. Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltages to prevent any
electrical shock.
3. Wear rubber-soled shoes to insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally
contact a live point, current will not flow through your body to earth and hence you will
be protected from electrical shock.
4. Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. Loose clothing may get caught on an
equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if the equipment
happens to be a rotating machine.
5. Girl students should have their hair tucked under their coat or have it in a knot.
6. Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wristwatches and neck chains. When
you move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a short circuit or may touch
a live point and thereby subject you to electrical shock.
7. Be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. Wet parts
of the body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the severity of the shock.
8. Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit. Otherwise you
will be touching the live parts in the circuit.
9. Get your circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly
as per the approved circuit diagram.
10. Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them checked up
and approved by the staff member.
11. Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.
12. Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use
13. Always study the instruction manual of oscilloscope before using.
14. Avoid operating an oscilloscope in a strong magnetic field. Such fields can causes
distortion of the display.
15. In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit (like insulation heating up,
resistor heating up etc.), switch off the power to your circuit immediately and inform the
staff member.

Trouble Shooting Hints

1. Check all ground connections are in common point
2. Check the circuit node by node with the given circuit diagram and check the identity
3. Check the supply voltages
4. Verify the Power is turned ON
5. If steps 1 to 4 are correct then you probably have used a component with the wrong value
or one that doesn’t work. It is also possible that the equipment does not work (although
this is not probable) or the bread board you are using may have someunwanted paths
between nodes. To find your problem you must trace through the voltages in your circuit
node by node and compare the signal you expect to have.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 6

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPERIMENT PAGE
TITLE
NUMBER NUMBER
Engineering Practices Laboratory – [Group – B]
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

Study of electronic components and equipment’s 8

Study of resistor value using standard color coding

1. 12
chart
Measurement of AC signal parameter using
15
DSO and multi-meter.
2. Study of basic logic gates 18

3. Generation of Clock Signal. 23

4. Soldering practice using general purpose PCB 27

Measurement of ripple factor of Half Wave Rectifiers

5. 30
and Full Wave Rectifiers

6. Simulation of HWR and FWR using Tinker CAD.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 7

 EX.NO:1.a STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM
To study the following electronic component and equipment’s
- Active and passive electronic Components
- Basic test and measurement equipment’s.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

An electronic circuit comprises of various types of components, which are classified into
two types: active components like transistors, diodes, IC’s; and passive components like
capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc. In designing of an electronic circuit following are taken
into consideration:
• Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
• Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.
• Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO),
multimeters, etc.

ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Transistor
The name transistor is a combination of the names transfer and
resistor. A transistor is a semiconductor device which can amplify
electronic signals and electrical power as they are transferred through
it from input to output. It is composed of semiconductor material
usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. It is used in many applications that turn a current on or off
when triggered by an electric signal. A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing
through another pair of terminals. Using transistors as building blocks,
it is also possible to build larger circuits that perform digital logic
operations.

Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch that opens or closes when
power is applied. Inside a relay is an electromagnet which controls
a mechanical switch.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 8

Diode

Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators,

switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and
oscillators. The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct
electric current in only one direction.

Integrated Circuits

An integrated circuit is a special component that contains an entire

electronic circuit, complete with transistors, diodes, and other
elements, all photographically etched onto a tiny piece of silicon.
Integrated circuits are the building blocks of modern electronic
devices such as computers and cell phones. An IC can function as an
amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or
microprocessor. Each IC performs a specific logic function.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Capacitor
Capacitors store electricity and then discharge it back into the circuit
when there is a drop in voltage. A capacitor is like a rechargeable battery
and can be charged and then discharged. The value is measured in F
(Farad), nano Farad (nF) or Pico Farad (pF) range.

Resistor
Resistors are used to resist the flow of current or to control the
voltage in a circuit. The amount of resistance that a resistor offers is
measured in Ohms. It’s one of the most basic components used in
electronic circuits.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 9

Inductor

An inductor is also referred as AC resistor which stores electrical

energy in the form of magnetic energy. It resists the changes in the
current and the standard unit of inductance is Henry. Capability of
producing magnetic lines is referred as inductance.

BASIC TEST AND MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

In designing electronic circuits, testing and measuring various parameters like current,
voltage, frequency, resistance, capacitance, etc. is very important. Test and Measurement
Equipment like Oscilloscopes, Multimeters, Logic Analyzers, Function Generators (or Signal
Generators) are often used regularly in identifying and rectifying faults in electronic test
equipment.

Voltmeter

A basic electronics device or instrument used to measure

voltage or electrical potential difference between two points in
electrical circuits is known as voltmeter.
Ammeter

A measuring instrument which is used to measure the electric

current in a circuit is known as an ammeter. The units of
measurement for electric current are amperes (A) Earlier
ammeters were laboratory instruments which depend on the
earth’s magnetic field for operation.

Multimeter

A multimeter is a combination of Voltmeter, Ammeter and

Ohmmeter. They provide an easy way to measure different
parameters of an electronic circuit like current, voltage etc.
Multimeters can measure values in both AC and DC. Earlies
Multimeters are Analog and consists of a pointing needle.
Modern Multimeters are Digital and are often called as

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 10

Digital Multimeters or DMMs.

Oscilloscope

The most reliable Test Equipment for observing continuously

varying signals is an Oscilloscope. With the help of an
Oscilloscope, we can observe the changes in an electrical
signal like voltage, over time. Originally, Oscilloscopes are
made up of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays but nowadays,
almost all Oscilloscopes are Digital Oscilloscopes with
advanced features like storage and memory.

Function Generator or Signal Generator

A Signal Generator, as the name suggests, generates a variety

of signals for testing and troubleshooting electronic circuits.
The most common types of signals are Triangular Wave, Sine
Wave, Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave.

Result

Thus, the above study of electronic components and equipment’s was studied clearly.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 11

EX.NO:1.b STUDY OF RESISTOR VALUE USING STANDARD COLOR
CODING CHART

AIM
To study the resistor value using standard resistor color code chart.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Resistors
2. Multimeter

THEORY
A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance in the circuit. Resistance is
basic property of conducting material and is given by
R = ρL/ A
Where,
ρ - Specified resistivity.
L - Length of the material.
A - Area of cross section of material.

There are number of types of resistors such as carbon composition, metal film, carbon
film wire wound and variable resistors. In our laboratory carbon resistors are used. For resistance
of the order of mega ohms, we use powdered carbon mixed with a suitable building material in
the proper proportion. Carbon resistors are quite cheap, but the value of resistance may be easily
affected by atmospheric changes and is also susceptible to high tolerance.

Universally recognized approaches have been established to identify the electrical

values. Two such markings are

(i) Color code.

(ii) Alpha numeric code.

Normally in our laboratories low wattage general purpose resistors are used. In this color-coding
method is used to identify the value of the resistance. In our color-coding method, the value of
the resistance is coded on the resistor using three or four color bands. The first two color band
gives the first two significant digital values. The third band gives the value of multiplier. Fourth
band gives the tolerance value.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 12

 RESISTOR COLOUR CODING CHART

Resistor Standard Colour Code and Numerical Value

COLOUR NUMBER MULTIPLIER
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109

Tolerance Code
Brown Color ±1%
Red Color ±2%
Gold Color ±5%
Silver Color ±10%
No Color ±20%

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 13

MODEL CALCULATION

Band I Band II Band III Tolerance

Yellow Violet Orange Gold
4 7 3 ±5%
4 7 103 ±5%
47000Ω or 47kΩ ±5%

TABULATION

Resistance Value by Color Coding (Ω)

Sl.No Resistance Value by
Multimeter (Ω)
Band I Band II Band III Total

Sample Viva Questions

1. What is a resistor?

2. What is the function of a resistor?

3. How will you find out the resistor value?

4. What is tolerance?

RESULT
Thus, the value of resistor using color coding was studied and measured using standard color
coding chart.

24ESGE102 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 14

EX.NO:1.C MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING DSO AND
MULTIMETER
AIM
To measure the following Ac parameters by applying Ac signal

- Peak – Peak Magnitude of the Voltage

- RMS Value of the Voltage
- Time Period
- Frequency
APPARATUS REQUIRED

QUANTITY
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE
(NO. S)
1. Digital Storage Analog 30 MHz 1
Oscilloscope(DSO)
2. Audio Frequency Oscillator Analog 2 MHz 1
3. Bread Board 1
4. Connecting Probes, wires As Required

THEORY
The Digital storage oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument; it is used to obtain
waveforms when the different input signals are given. The oscilloscope observes the changes in
the electrical signals over time, thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously
graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude,
frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval and etc.
AC Amplitude
To measure the alternating current (AC) amplitude, start by plugging the AC signal into
one of the oscilloscope’s inputs before optimizing the signal. The AC signal will oscillate and
resemble a sine wave. Measurement of signal’s amplitude by counting the number of vertical
divisions between the signal’s highest and lowest points (i.e. its peak and trough). The amplitude
in volts is obtained by multiplying the number of vertical divisions by your volts/division setting.
AC Frequency
To measure the alternating current frequency, plug the AC signal into one of the
oscilloscope’s inputs before optimizing the signal. Count the number of horizontal divisions from
one high point to the next (i.e. peak to peak) of the oscillating signal. Multiply the number of
horizontal divisions by the time/division to find the signal’s period and then calculate the signal’s
frequency with this equation: frequency=1/period.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 15

FORMULA USED

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑉𝑚⁄ … (Volts)

√2
f = 1 / T … (Hz)
ω = 2 π f … (radian)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AFO CRO

MODEL WAVEFORM

AC input Voltage

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 16

TABULATION

Maximum voltage Peak- to-

Time in Seconds
Vm in Volts Peak RMS
Sl. Voltage Voltage Frequency
𝑉
No 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑚⁄ f = 1/T
VPP=2Vm √2 in Hz
in Volts
Per No of Actual in Volts Per No of Actual
division divisions Value division divisions Value

PROCEDURE

1. The circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The sinusoidal voltage is applied with the help of AFO.
3. Readings are taken for different magnitudes and frequencies using CRO.
4. Readings are tabulated

Sample Viva Questions

1. What is meant by AC supply?

2. What is peak to peak voltage?
3. What is rms voltage?
4. What is maximum voltage?
5. What is Frequency?
6. How is the time period measured?

RESULT
Thus, the Peak – Peak Magnitude of the voltage, RMS Value of the Voltage,
TimePeriod, Frequency are measured using DSO.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 17

EX.NO:2. STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES

AIM:
To verify the truth table of basic logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND
and EX-OR gates.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Apparatus IC Version of basic gate Quantity

1. Digital IC trainer kit - 1

2. AND gate IC 7408 1

3. OR gate IC 7432 1

4. NOT gate IC 7404 1

5. NAND gate IC 7400 1

6. NOR gate IC 7402 1

7. EX-OR gate IC 7486 1

8. Connecting wires As required -

THEORY:

Nowadays, computers have become an integral part of life as they perform many
tasks and operations in quite a short span of time. One of the most important functions of the
CPU in a computer is to perform logical operations by utilizing hardware like Integrated
Circuits, electronic circuits and software technologies. But how these hardware and software
perform such operations is a mysterious puzzle. In order to have a better understanding of such
a complex issue, we must have to acquaint ourselves with the term Boolean Logic, developed
by George Boole. For a simple operation, computers utilize binary digits rather than digital
digits. All the operations are carried out by the Basic Logic gates.

A logic gate is a basic building block of a digital circuit that has two inputs and one
output. The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. These
gates are implemented using electronic switches like transistors, diodes. But, in practice basic
logic gates are built using CMOS technology, FETS and MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Semiconductor FET) s. Logic gates are used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, and
embedded system applications and in electronic and electrical project circuits. The basic logic

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 18

gates are categorized into seven: AND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, XNOR and NOT. These logic
gates with their logic gate symbols and truth tables are explained below.
AND Gate
The AND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ inputs one output, which perform logical
conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of this gate is true only when
all the inputs are true. When one or more inputs of the AND gate’s inputs are false, then only
the output of the AND gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an AND gate with two inputs
is shown below in figure 2.1.

2.1 Symbol and truth table of AND gate and Pin diagram of 7408: 2-input AND Gate

OR Gate
The OR gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ inputs and one output, that performs a logical
conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of the OR gate is true only
when one or more inputs are true. If all the inputs of the gate are false, then only the output of
the OR gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an OR gate with two inputs is shown below
in figure 2.2.

2.2 Symbol and truth table of OR gate and Pin diagram of 7432: 2-input AND Gate
NOT Gate
The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the input
of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa. The symbol and truth

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 19

table of a NOT gate with one input is shown in figure 2.3. By using this gate, we can
implement NOR and NAND gates.

2.3 Symbol and truth table of NOT gate and Pin diagram of 7404

NOR Gate
The inclusive NOR (Not-OR) gate has an output that is normally at logic level “1”
and only goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when ANY of its inputs are at logic level “1”.
The Logic NOR Gate is the reverse or “Complementary” form of the inclusive OR gate. The
symbol and truth table of a NOR gate with two inputs is shown in figure 2.4.

2.4 Symbol and truth table of NOR gate and Pin diagram of 7402

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 20

NAND Gate
The NAND (Not – AND) gate has an output that is normally at logic level “1” and only
goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when ALL of its inputs are at logic level “1”. The Logic NAND
Gate is the reverse or “Complementary” form of the AND gate. The symbol and truth table of
a NAND gate with two inputs is shown in figure 2.5.

2.5 Symbol and truth table of NAND gate and Pin diagram of 7400

Exclusive-OR Gate
The Exclusive-OR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output. The short form
of this gate is Ex-OR. It performs based on the operation of OR gate. If any one of the inputs
of this gate is high, then the output of the EX-OR gate will be high. The symbol and truth table
of the EX-OR are shown below in figure 2.6

𝑄 = 𝐴̅𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵̅

2.6 Symbol and truth table of EX-OR gate and Pin diagram of 7486

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 21

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

2. For all the ICs 7th pin is grounded and 14th pin is given +5 V supply.

3. Apply the inputs and verify the truth table for all gates.

Sample Viva Questions

1. What are the universal gates ?

2.Draw the truth table of AND gate.

3.Draw the truth table of NOT gate.

4.Draw the truth table of OR gate.

5.How many gates will be there in an IC 7404

chip? 6.What gate does the IC 7408 consist of?

7. What are the 7thand 14thpin in all the gates?

8. Which pins are used to apply VCC and Ground signal for the basic logic gate IC?

RESULT:

Thus, truth tables of basic logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND and EX-
OR gates were studied and verified.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 22

EX.NO:3 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

AIM
To generate a clock signal of 1KHz (square waveform) by an Astable multivibrator
using IC555 timer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
EQUIPMENTS &
RANGE QUANTITY
COMPONENTS

Power Supply (0-30) V 1

Resistors 3300+330=3.630KΩ 1
7.3MΩ
Capacitors 0.01μF, 0.1μF 1

CRO (0-20) MHz 1

Diode IN4007 1
IC555 - 1

THEORY
The 555 timers are a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or
oscillation. A single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours
whereas counter timer can have a maximum timing range of days. An astable multi vibrator is
a square waveform generator. Forcing the Op-amp to operate in the saturation region generates
square waveform. It is a free running symmetrical multivibrator because it does not require any
external trigger.

In the 555 Oscillator circuit, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit
to re-trigger itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator.
During each cycle capacitor, C charges up through both timing resistors, R1 and R2 but
discharges itself only through resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the discharge
terminal, pin 7. Then the capacitor charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit) which is
determined by the 0.693(R1+R2)C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the
lower comparator limit) determined by the 0.693(R2*C) combination. Thisresults in an output
waveform whose voltage level is approximately equal to Vcc – 1.5V and

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 23

whose output “ON” and “OFF” time periods are determined by the capacitor and resistors
combinations.

PIN DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 24

DESIGN
Charge and Discharge Time:

𝑡1 = 0.693(𝑅1 + 𝑅2). 𝐶

𝑡2 = 0.693 × 𝑅2 × 𝐶

where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

Oscillator Cycle Time

𝑇 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 0.693(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2) 𝐶

Output Frequency

1.45
𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇 =
(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2) 𝐶

Oscillator Duty Cycle

𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑡1
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒(%) = =
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 + 𝑇𝑂𝑁 (𝑡2 + 𝑡)1 × 100

Model Calculation
Given f = 1KHz and D =0.5

Frequency (F) = 1.45 / (R1+2×R2) × C

C = 1.45 / (R1+2×R2) × f

D=𝑅2/(𝑅1+𝑅2) =0.5
0.5R1+0.5R2 =R2
R1 = R2

Let C = 0.1μF, R1 =R2 =R

f =1.45 /(𝑅1+𝑅2) 𝐶

f=1.45/2𝑅C=1 KHz=1.45/(2∗10−6∗0.1∗10−6∗𝑅)

R=7.2 KΩ

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 25

TABULAR COLUMN

Designed value
Practical frequency
S. NO Theoretical frequency
(KHz)
R1 R2 C

PROCEDURE
1) The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) The square waveform is obtained at output pin of Op-amp.

3) Note the amplitude & Time period of the waveform & plot it in the graph.

4) Duty cycle is calculated using the formula given

Sample Viva Questions

1. What is a clock signal?

2. What are the applications of Clock signal?

3. What is the purpose of CRO?

4. Can we generate clock signal without using 555 timers?

5. What is the use of triggering signal, Threshold and control voltage?

RESULT
Thus, IC555 timer was operated in A stable mode to generate square wave.

Theoretical Duty cycle: 25%

Practical Duty Cycle: ---------- --.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 26

 EX: NO: 4 SOLDERING PRACTICE USING GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

AIM:

To practice soldering of components, devices and circuits using general purpose PCB.

TOOLS REQUIRED

1) Soldering iron

2) Solder lead

3) Flux

THEORY:

SOLDERING:

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.
Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components. The metal
to be soldered is heated with a soldering iron and then solder is melted into the connection.
Solder is metallic "glue" that holds the parts together and forms a connection that allows
electrical current to flow.

Safety Precautions
1. A soldering iron can heat to around 400°C, which can burn you or start a fire, so use it
carefully.
2. Unplug the iron when it is not in use.
3. Keep the power cord away from spots where it can be tripped over.
4. Take great care to avoid touching the tip of the soldering iron on a power line. If a
power cord is touched by a hot iron, there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock.
5. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when it is not in use.
6. Never put the soldering iron down on your work bench, even for a moment!
7. The smoke that will form as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and can be quite
irritating.
8. Avoid breathing it by keeping your head to the side of, not above, your work.
9. Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal. Wash your hands after using solder.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 27

PROCEDURE

1. Plan before you start to solder. Identify all the parts that you will be using.
2. Components such as LED’s must be placed the correct way around in order to
function.
3. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.
4. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.
5. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the
surface to join the plates/wires.
6. Don't overheat the connection, as this might damage the electrical component you
are soldering.
7. Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny.
8. Wipe the tip of the iron on a damp sponge to clean it. The tip should now be
shiny.
9. Unplug the soldering iron when it is not in use.
Common Problems and Troubleshooting

1. Solder will not flow.

- The parts to be joined may be dirty. Remove the solder and clean the parts.
2. The connection looks grainy or crystalline.
- Parts were moved before the solder was allowed to cool.
- Reheat to form a good joint. You may need a larger soldering iron to heat
connections adequately.
3. The tip is oxidized.
- Soldering is much easier with a shiny, clean tip.
- Clean the tip with a damp synthetic sponge while the iron is hot.
- To avoid oxidizing the tip, do not leave the iron plugged in when not in use.
- Do not use the iron at a higher temperature than is necessary to melt solder.
- Clean the tip of the iron on a damp synthetic sponge as soon as it starts to change
from a silver color.
4. There is too much or too little solder.
- Using too much solder can cause a solder bridge, which means that two adjacent
joints are accidentally connected.
- Using too little solder might result in poor electrical continuity between the board
and component. The connection should be smooth, shiny, and rigid.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 28

Sample Viva Questions

1. What is a Resistor?

2.What is a capacitor?

3.What is Soldering and De-Soldering?

4. What is a PCB? State the use of PCB?

5. What are the uses of soldering and de-soldering?

RESULT
The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or wire is checked.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 29

 EX.NO:5 MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF WAVE
AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

AIM

To obtain the rms and DC values of output of Half wave and Full Wave rectifier
and calculate the ripple factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

SL.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT QUANTITY

RANGE
1. Transformer 12v-0v-12v 1
Resistor 1 KΩ
2. 1
3. Capacitor 100 μF 1
4. PN Junction Diode IN 4007 4
5. Breadboard - 1
6. CRO 30MHZ 1
7. Connecting wires and probe - As Required

THEORY

A rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting AC voltage into

unidirectional voltage. A rectifier utilizes unidirectional conduction devices like Vacuum diode
or PN junction diode.

Half Wave Rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using only
one half of the applied ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during one half of the ac cycle.
During positive half cycle of the input signal the anode of diode becomes positive with respect
to cathode and hence the diode conducts. For an ideal diode the forward voltage drop is zero
so the whole input voltage appears across the load. During negative half of the input signal the
anode of the diode becomes negative with respect to cathode and hence the diode does not
conduct. For an ideal diode the impedance offered by the diode is unity so the whole input
voltage drop across diode. Hence voltage drop across RL is zero.

In Full Wave Rectifier the diode D2 and D4 will conduct during the positive half of
the input signal and during the negative half cycle of the input signal the diode D1 andD3
conducts. Hence both the half cycles are converted into output and the efficiencyis high
compared with the half wave rectifier.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 30

Ripple Factor

γ = √ (Vrms / Vdc)2 - 1

Where, Vrms = The rms value of the a.c component of the output voltage

Vdc = The average or d.c value of the output voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 31

 TABULATION

Without Filter With Ripple Factor

Filter

Rectifier Theoretic Practic

T (mS) alValue al
Value
Vm (V) T (ms)
Charging Discharging

1.21

HW
R

Vdc = Vm/2π , Vrms = Vm/2

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 32

MODEL WAVEFORM

TABULATION

Without Filter With Filter

Ripple Factor

Rectifier Theoretical Practical

T (mS) Value Value
Vm (V) T (mS)
Charging Discharging

0.48
FWR

Vdc = 2 Vm/π , Vrms = Vm/√ 2

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the DSO across the load to observe the waveform.

3.Use the multimeter to find the vrms at the output of half(full) wave rectifier by choosing ac
range.

4. To find Vdc, adopt the same procedure as at 3 but put the multimeter in dc range.

4. Calculate the ripple factor by the formula Vrms/Vdc

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 33

Sample Viva Questions

1. Define Rectifier

2.What is Half-Wave Rectifier?

3. Define Ripple Factor

4.What type of output we get from HWand FW Rectifier?

5.What is the value of Ripple factor for HW and FW Rectifier?

6.What are the formulae for Vrms for HW and FW Rectifier?

7. What are the formulae for Vdc for HW and FW Rectifier?

8. Define Full wave rectifier?

Result

Thus, the output of Half wave and Full Wave rectifier circuit is obtained and plotted.
The ripple factor is calculated and verified with theoretical value.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 34

 EX.NO:6 Simulation of HWR and FWR using Tinker CAD.

AIM

The aim is to understand and analyze the rectification process, where alternating current (AC) is
converted into direct current (DC). This experiment demonstrates how each type of rectifier operates
and compares their efficiency and output using Tinker CAD.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Virtual components available in the Tinker CAD environment (Power Source, Diodes, Resistor,
Capacitor, Breadboard, Wires, Ground, Oscilloscope).

Circuit Diagram

Half Wave Rectifier:

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 35

Full Wave Rectifier:

Procedure:
1. Set up the Tinker CAD environment
Log in to Tinker CAD.
Go to the Circuits section and create a new circuit.
2. Components required for HWR
AC Voltage Source.
Diode (e.g., 1N4007).
Resistor (Load resistor).
Breadboard.
Oscilloscope (to observe waveforms).
Wires for connections.
3. Construct the HWR circuit.
Place the AC Voltage Source on the breadboard, Connect a Diode, Resistor, Ground Connection
and Oscilloscope Setup.
4. Run the simulation.
Start the simulation in Tinker CAD, Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope.

Results:

The results demonstrate the advantages of Full Wave Rectification over Half Wave Rectification
in terms of efficiency and output quality.

20ESGE201 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY Page 36