Subject Engineering Physics

Important long Questions

Ques 1. What is black body radiation? Explain spectral distribution of energy for
different wavelengths in a black body spectrum.
Ans 1. BLACKBODY RADIATION

A blackbody is a body which absorbs all radiation falling on it, reflecting or transmitting none. It
is a hypothetical object which is a “perfect” absorber and a “perfect” emitter of radiation over
all wavelengths. A black body in thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant temperature) emits
electromagnetic radiation called black-body radiation.

The spectral distribution of the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody (i.e. the pattern of the
intensity of the radiation over a range of wavelengths or frequencies) depends only on its
temperature.

A perfectly black body emits radiation of all possible wavelength. The graph between
intensity of radiation Eλ vs λ for various temperature represents black body spectra.
Blackbody radiation curves at several different temperatures

The curves show three important features.

● The total energy emitted (per second per unit area (spectral radianncy) E
increases rapidly with temperature ie. E = σT4 (Stefan’s law)
● At a particular temperature the spectral radiancy is maximum at a particular
wavelength λm .
● The wavelength λm for maximum spectral radiancy decreases with increase in
temperature
ie. λmT=constant (Wien’s displacement law)

Ques 2 What is Compton effect ? Derive an expression for Compton Shift.

Ans 2. Compton Effect : A. H. Compton observed that “when a monochromatic beam of high
frequency (lower wavelength) radiation (e.g., X-rays and γ-ray) is scattered by a substance, the
scattered radiation contains two type of wavelengths one having same wavelength as that of
incident radiation while the other having the wavelength greater (or lower frequency) than that
of incident radiations. This effect is known as Compton Effect.

Quantum Explanation: The explanation was given by Compton which was based on quantum
theory of light. According to quantum theory when photon of energy hυ strikes with the
substance some of the energy of photon is transferred to the electrons, therefore the energy (or
frequency) of photon reduces and wavelength increases.

Various assumptions were made for explaining the effect these were:

(i) Compton Effect is the result of interaction of an individual particle and free electron
of target.

(ii) The collision is relativistic and elastic.

(iii) The laws of conservation of energy and momentum hold good.

According to the principle of conservation of energy

or

..............(1)

According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum along and perpendicular to the
direction of incident photon (i.e., along x and y axis), we have

or
..........(2)

and

or
..............(3)

Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

or

or
 ……..(4)

Squaring equation (1), we get………..(5)

……………………

Subtracting (5) from (4), we get

………..(6)

According to the theory of relativity

or

or

Multiplying both sides by c2, we get

.........(7)

Using equation (1.38) equation (1.37) becomes

………..(8)
To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us substitute and, we thus
have

Compton shift

.........(9)

From above equations (8) and (9) following conclusions can be drawn

The wavelength of the scattered photon λ’ is greater than the wavelength of incident photon λ.

Δ λ is independent of the incident wavelength.

Δ λ have the same value for all substance containing free electron

Δ λ only depend on the scattering angle .

Ques 3. Derive time independent and time dependent Schrodinger’s wave equation? Give the
physical significance of wave function. What conditions must it fulfill?

Ans 3. Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation : – describes the situation when force
acting on a particle or potential energy does not depend upon time but vary with the position of
particle. If a moving material particle has a wave associated with it, then its periodic
displacement in space and time should be given by a definite wave equation. Consider a system
of stationary waves to be associated with the particle. Let ψ be the periodic displacement for
the matter waves at any position (x, y, z) at any instant t, the differential equation of motion of
the wave is given by

2 1 ∂2ψ
∇ψ=
u2 ∂t2

2 1 ∂2ψ
∇ ψ- =0 …(1)
u2 ∂t2

where u is the velocity of matter wave. Ψ is the wave displacement function. The solution of eqn.
(1) is given by

ψ (x,y,z,t) = ψ0 (x,y,z)e-iωt …(2)

where ψ0 is the amplitude of the wave at any position (x,y,z). It is independent of time.

Eqn. (2) can be written as

⃗
⃗ ( )
ψ r ,t = ψ0 ( r) e-iωt …(3)

Differentiating eqn. (3) with respect to time

∂ψ
= -iω ψ0 e-iωt = - iωψ …(4)
∂t

Differentiating again
2
∂ψ
= (-iω)2 ψ0 e-iωt = - ω2ψ …(5)
∂t2
2
∂ψ
Put the value of in eqn. (1), we get
∂t2

2 ω2
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(6)
u2

2πu
But ω = 2πν = , Eqn. (6) becomes
λ

2 4π2
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(7)
λ2

h
Introducing the deBroglie’s concept of wavelength, i.e. λ = , eqn. (7) can be written as
mv

2 4π2m2v2
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(8)
h2

2 m2v2 h
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(9) where ħ =
ħ2 2π

2 m2v2
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(10) where mv = p linear momentum
ħ2

1
The total energy of a particle is given by E = K + V = mv2 + V
2

∴ p2 = m2v2 = 2m (E - V)

Put the above value in eqn. (10), we get

 2 2m (E-V)
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(11)
ħ2

Schrodinger’ time dependent wave equation: – describes the situation when energy depends
upon time.

the differential equation of motion of the wave is given by

2 1 ∂2ψ
∇ψ=
u2 ∂t2

2 1 ∂2ψ
∇ ψ- =0 …(1)
u2 ∂t2

where u is the velocity of matter wave. Ψ is the wave displacement function. The solution of eqn.
(1) is given by
-i(ωt-kx)
ψ (x,t) = ψ0 (x)e …(2)

where ψ0 is the amplitude of the wave at any position (x,y,z). It is independent of time.

Eqn. (2) can be written as

-i(ωt-kx)
ψ (x,t) = ψ0 (x) e …(3)

Differentiating eqn. (3) with respect to time

∂ψ -i(ωt-kx) E i
= -iω ψ0 e = - iωψ = - i ψ × …(4)
∂t ħ i

∂ψ E
= ψ
∂t iħ

∂ψ
Eψ = iħ …(5)
∂t

Eqn. (5) shows that energy is function of time.

Differentiating eqn. (3) with respect to position x, we get

∂ψ -i(ωt-kx) p
= ik ψ0 e = ikψ = i ψ
∂x ħ
 ħ ∂ψ
pψ = …(6)
i ∂x

ħ⃗
In 3-dimension, pψ = ∇ψ …(7)
i

1 p2
The total energy of a particle is E = mv2 + V = + V
2 2m

p2ψ
Eψ = + Vψ …(8)
2m

Substituting the values from eqn. (5) and (7) in eqn. (8), we have

ħ2 ⃗
2
∂ψ
iħ = - ∇ ψ + Vψ …(9)
∂t 2m

Eqn. (9) represents time dependent Schroedinger wave equation.

Physical significance of wave function The quantity whose variations builds up matter
wave is called wave function. It is denoted by symbol ψ. According to Max Born ψ itself has no
physical significance but I ψ I2 represents probability density, it means it represents probability
of finding the particle at that point and at any given moment.

Conditions for acceptable wave function: For a wave function to be acceptable over a specified
interval, it must satisfy the following conditions:

● The function must be single-valued

● It is to be normalized.
● It must have a finite value
● It must be continuous in the given interval.

Ques 4. A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and x = a with zero potential energy.
At points for which x ≤ 0 and x ≥ a, the potential energy is infinite. Solving Schroedinger’s
equation, obtain energy eigen values and normalized wave function function.

Ans 4. Potential energy function of the particle is given by

V = 0 for 0 < x < a and V = ∞ for x ≤ 0 & x ≥ a

Under these conditions, particle is said to move in an infinitely deep potential well or in an
infinite square well.

The time independent Schroedinger wave equation for a free particle (V = 0) in three dimension
is

2 2m E
∇ψ+ ψ=0 …(1)
ħ2

0r
2 2 2
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ 2m E
2 + 2 + 2 + ψ=0 …(2)
∂x ∂y ∂z ħ2

Given that a particle is in motion along x-axis, eqn. (2) reduces to

d2ψ 2m E
+ ψ=0 …(3)
dx2 ħ2

The general solution of eqn. (3) is of the form

ψ (x) = A sinsin αx + B coscos αx …(4)

Differentiating eqn. (4) twice with respect to x

d2ψ
+ α2ψ = 0 …(5)
dx2

2 2m E
From eqn. (4) and eqn. (5) we get α = …(6)
ħ2

Boundary conditions are

ψ (x) = 0 for x = 0 …(7a)

ψ (x) = 0 for x = a …(7b)

Apply boundary condition (7a) to eqn. (4) we have

0 = B coscos 0 or this implies to B = 0

0 = A sinsin αa or sinsin αa = 0
Or sinsin αa = sinsin nπ or αa = ± nπ where n = 1,
2, 3, ………..

nπ
Or α= ± …(8)
a

n2 π2 h2 n2 h2
Put the value of α in eqn. (6), we get En = = …(9) where n = 1, 2, 3, …..
2 m a2 8 m a2

Eqn. (9) represents the permitted energy values known as eigen values of the particle confined
in a one dimensional potential box. The wave function ψ corresponding to each eigen value are
called eigen function.

By substituting the value of B and α in eqn. (4), we get

nπx
ψn(x) = A sinsin ( ) …(10)
a

The probability of finding the particle per unit length is unity i.e. according to condition of
normalization, we have
+∞

∫ -∞
|ψ (x)|
n
2
dx = 1

| nπx 2
|
a

∫ 0
A sinsin (
a
) dx = 1

| nπx 2
|
a
A2 ∫ 0
sinsin (
a
) dx = 1

A2
[ ]
a
2nπx
2 ∫ 0
1- coscos
a
dx = 1

A2
(a) = 1
2

2
A=
a

Put the value of A in eqn. (10) the normalized wave function of the particle moving along a line
between x = 0 and x = a with zero potential energy, at points for which x ≤ 0 and x ≥ a, is given by

2 nπx
ψn(x) = sinsin ( ) …(11)
a a
Ques Explain the concept of Maxwell’s displacement current and show how it led to the
modification of the Ampere’s law?

Ques 5. Prove that the velocity of plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given by

c = 1/ (µ0ε0)1/2

Ans 5. Maxwell's equations describing electric and magnetic fields in vacuum

expressed in differential form are

where ɛ0 is the permittivity of free space, µ0 is the permeability of free space, ρ is the
charge density, and is the current density.

For which Maxwell's equations take the form,

Taking the curl of the cross product equations yields

With the vector calculus identity

where is shorthand for , Eq.'s become

With three spatial components for each field, we have six separate wave equations.

However for plane waves propagating along , several of these wave equations vanish,
and we have

Compairing above equation with general form of wave equation,

is 3 x 108 m/s. of light in vacuum

Ques 6. What is Poynting vector? Discuss the work energy theorem for the flow of energy in an
electromagnetic field.

Ans 6. Poynting Vector: Poynting vector S is defined as the cross product of electric field
vector and magnetic field vector. The magnitude of Poynting vector represents the
electromagnetic energy passing through per unit area per unit time.

S=EXH
Statement: The time rate of E. M. energy within a certain volume plus the time rate of energy
flowing out through the boundary surface is equal to power transferred into the electromagnetic
field.
According to Maxwell’s equation
∂H
∇ X E = -μ0
∂t

------------1
∂E
∇ X H = J + ε0
∂t

-----------2
Take scalar product of H with equation 1 and E with equation 2.

∂H ∂ 1
H.(∇ X E) = -μ0H = - ( μ0H2)
∂t ∂t 2

----------------------------3
∂E ∂ 1
E.(∇ X H) = E.J + ε0E. = E.J + ( ε E2)
∂t ∂t 2 0

-----------------4
Subtracting equation 3 by equation 4

E.(∇ X H) - H.(∇ X E) = E.J + (

∂ 1
)
∂ 1
ε E2 + ( μ0H2)
∂t 2 0 ∂t 2

∂ 1 1
∇.( H X E) = E.J + ( ε E2 + μ0H2)
∂t 2 0 2

∂ 1 1
-∇.( E X H) = E.J + ( ε E2 + μ0H2)
∂t 2 0 2

Since E X H = S
∂ 1 1
-∇.S = E.J + ( ε E2 + μ0H2)
∂t 2 0 2
 ∂ 1 1
-E.J = ∇.S + ( ε0E2 + μ0H2)
∂t 2 2

Taking volume integral on both side

∂ 1 1
- ∫ (E.J)dv = ∫ (∇.S)dv +
∂t ∫ ( ε E2 + μ0H2)dv
2 0 2

--------------5
Using Gauss divergence theorem

∫ v
(∇.S)dv = ∫ A
S.dA

-----------------6
From equation 5 and equation 6

∂ 1 1
- ∫ (E.J)dv = ∫ S.dA +
∂t ∫ (
2
ε0E2 + μ0H2)dv
2

This is mathematical form of Poynting theorem. It is conservation law of energy in

electromagnetic field.
Physical Significance of each term
1. –∫ (E.J)dv this term represents the rate of transfer of energy into the
electromagnetic field due to the motion of charge.
2. ∫ S.dA represents the amount of energy crossing per second through the closed
surface.
3.
∂
∂t
∫ (1
2
1
ε0E2+ μ0H2 dv
2 ) represents the rate of energy electromagnetic energy
stored.

Ques7.Discuss the phenomena of interference of light due to thin films and find the
conditions of maxima and minima. Show that the interference patterns of reflected and
transmitted light are complementary.
Ans 7. Thin film of uniform thickness:

(a) Reflected Pattern: Let us consider a thin film of thickness t, refractive index µ and a ray AB of
monochromatic light of λ is falling on it at an angle i. This ray is partly reflected and partly refracted
as shown in Figure given below.

Path difference = (BD + DE)film- (BH)air

= [µ (BD +DE)- BH]air
= [µ(BD + DG + GE) – BH]
= µ (BD + DG)
As µGE = BH
BH = EB sin i
GE = EB sin r
µ GE = EB = sin i
µ = sin i / sin r

Extend BL and ED to meet at K we have

LKD = LNDE = r

Triangles BLD and LKD are congruent

BD=DK
Then path difference = µ(BD + DG) = µ(KD + DG)
= µ KG = µ KB cos r
Δ = 2 µt cos r

Now, here since reflection from denser medium is taking place by one ray so additional path
difference of λ/2 is taken into account. Thus the total path difference is

ΔT = 2 µt cos r – λ/2

Condition for maxima

ΔT = (2 µ cos r- λ /2) = n λ

2 µt cos r = (2n + 1) λ /2 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. .

Condition for minima

ΔT = (2 µt cos r- λ /2} = (2n + 1) λ /2

2 µt cos r = (n + 1) λ

n is the integer so (n + 1) is also integer and can be taken as n

2 µt cos r = nλ n = 0, 1, 2

when cos r is kept constant and thickness increases gradually, the path difference becomes λ /2, λ,
3 λ /2, 2 λ, 5 λ /2, . . . and as a result the film will appear dark (t = 0), bright, dark and so on. On the
other hand if t is constant and r is varied we again get a series of maxima and minima.

(b) Transmitted Pattern: Here the path difference two rays DR and MS will be

Δ= µ (DE + EM) – DH
= 2 µt cos r …

In this case there will be no additional path difference so the total path difference

ΔT = 2 µt cos r

Condition for maxima

Δ = 2 µt cos r = nλ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. .

Condition for minima

Δ= 2 µt cos r = (2n + 1) λ/2 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …… . ..

We find that the conditions for maxima and minima are found in case of transmitted pattern are
opposite to those found in case of reflected pattern. Under the same conditions of the film looks
dark in reflected pattern it will look bright in transmitted pattern. Thus the interference patterns
of reflected and transmitted light are complementary.

Ques 8. Describe formation of Newton’s ring in reflected monochromatic light. Prove that in reflected
light, the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers.

Ans 8. When a plano convex lens is placed on a plane glass plate, a wedge shaped film is
formed between the lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the glass plate. When a
monochromatic light beam is made to fall normally on this film and the film is observed in
reflected light alternate bright and dark rings are seen concentric round the point of contact of
the lens and the glass plate.

Figure shows the experimental arrangement of the same. Light beam from a monochromatic
source is allowed to fall on a glass plate inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizon. After
reflection from this plate light falls on the wedge shaped film formed between the lower surface
of the lens and upper surface of the glass plate from which light beam is again reflected. The
incident and reflected beams interfere to give bright and dark fringes which can be observed
with the help of a microscope.

For a wedge shaped film in reflected light, we know that,

λ
Path difference, δ = 2μtcoscos (r+θ) +
2

For normal incidence,

r=0

And for very thin film,

θ≈0

λ
Hence, Path difference, δ = 2μt +
2

For maxima, δ = nλ

λ
Therefore, 2μt + = nλ
2

Or,
 λ
2μt = (2n-1) …………….. (1)
2

λ
For minima, δ = (2n-1)
2

Hence,

λ λ
2μt + = (2n-1)
2 2

2μt = nλ …………..(2)

Eqn. (1) and (2) are the conditions for bright and dark Newton’s rings.

Diameters of the dark rings:

Applying the theorem of chords for the chords OD and PQ in the adjacent figure:

NP×NQ = NO×ND

r×r = t×(2R-t)

Where r is the radius of the ring, t is the thickness of the film and R is the radius of curvature of
plano convex lens.

r2 = 2Rt - t2

Neglecting t2, as the thin film is very thin, we get,

r2 = 2Rt

r2
t= ……. (3)
2R

Substituting this value in eqn. (2)

r2
2μ = nλ
2R
 nλR
r n2 =
μ

Or,

4nλR
D n2 =
μ

4nλR
Dn = ………..(4)
μ

This shows that diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural
numbers.

Ques 9 .Discuss Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit. Show that the relative intensities of the
successive maximum are nearly 1:4/9π2:4/25 π2:4/49π2 …………...

Ans 9. Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit:-

Let WW’ - Plane wavefront of incident light of wavelength λ

e – width of single slit AB, L1 and L2 – convex lens

The diffracted beam is focused at the screen XY by convex lens. The diffraction pattern
consists of central bright band followed by alternate dark and bright bands of decreasing
intensity on either side of central maximum.

P – the point at which all the beams diffracted at an angle θ are focused.
Path difference between the rays emerging from extreme points of the slit

Δ = BN = ABsinsin θ = esinsin θ

2π
And corresponding phase difference = esinsin θ
λ

Let slit AB is divided into n equal parts, each part having same amplitude a, thus the phase
1 2π
difference between the two successive parts is δ = esinsin θ ………………(1)
n λ

Resultant amplitude

nδ
2
R=a
δ
2

R=a
sinsin (πesinsin
λ
θ
)
(πesinsin
nλ
θ
)
sinsin α
R=a
()
α
n

πesinsin θ
where = α ……………(2), and If n → ∞, a →0 and na = A (finite)
λ

sinsin α sinsin α
R = na =A ……………(3)
α α

Resultant Intensity due to single slit

( )
2
sinsin α
I = R2 = A ……………(4) I varies with α.
α

(A) For Principal Maximum

R=A
sinsin α A
α
=
α [
α3 α5 α7 α2 α4 α6
α- + - + …………… = A 1- + - + ……………
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7! ] [ ]
πesinsin θ
R is maximum if the negative terms vanish in the above eqn i.e. α = 0 or = 0 or θ = 0
λ

Intensity of Principal Maximum is Io = A2

(B) For Minimum Intensity

I is minimum, when sinsin α = 0 but α ≠ 0
 sinsin α = sinsin mπ i.e. α = ± mπ where m = 1, 2, 3, ……….

πesinsin θ
= ± mπ
λ

esinsin θ = ± mλ ………(5) where m = 1, 2, 3, …………..

The values of m gives the directions of first, second, third …………….order minima

(C) For Secondary Maxima

In addition to principal maxima, there are also secondary maxima between the two
successive minima. Differentiating eqn. (4) with respect to α.

( ) = A 2sinsinα α [αcoscos αα -sinsin α ] = 0

2
dI d sinsin α 2
= A 2
dα dα α

As sinsin α ≠ 0 for Secondary maxima , Thus αcoscos α - sinsin α = 0

α = tantan α ……………(6)consists of two curves i.e.

y= α and y = tantan α

3π 5π 7π
The points of intersections are α = 0, ± , ± , ± , ……….
2 2 2

( )=A
2
sinsin α 2
For Principal maxima, α = 0, Io = A
α

[ ( )
]
2
3π
sinsin ±
( )
2
3π sinsin α 2 4 A2
For Ist secondary maxima, α = ± , I1 = A = A = =
2 α 3π 9 π2
±
2
A2 I
= o
22 22

[ ( )
]
2
5π
sinsin ±
( )
2
5π sinsin α 2 4 A2
For IInd secondary maxima, α = ± , I2 = A = A = =
2 α 5π 25 π2
±
2
A2 I
= o
62 62

[ ( )
]
2
7π
sinsin ±
( )
2
7π sinsin α 2 4 A2
For IIrd secondary maxima, α = ± , I3 = A = A = =
2 α 7π 49 π2
±
2
A2 I
= o
112 121

The relative intensities of successive maximas are

4 A2 4 A2 4 A2
Io : I1 : I2 : I3 :……………… = 1 : : : :……………
9 π2 25 π2 49 π2

Ques 10. What do you mean by resolving power of grating? Explain Rayleigh criterion of
resolution. Derive an expression for resolving power of grating.

Ans 10 Rayleigh’s Criterion for resolution

Statement: Two sources are resolvable by an optical instrument when the central
maximum of one diffraction pattern falls over the first minimum of the other diffraction
pattern and vice versa.

• Let us consider the resolution of two wavelengths and by a grating.

• If the difference in wavelengths is such that their principal maxima are separately visible,
then there is a distinct point of zero intensity in between the two wavelengths. Hence
 according to Rayleigh they are said to be “Resolved”.
• When the difference in wavelengths is smaller and such that the central maximum of the
wavelength coincides with the first minimum of the other as shown in figure, then the
resultant intensity curve is as shown by the thick curve. The curve shows a distinct dip in
the middle of two central maxima. Thus the two wavelengths can be distinguished from
one another and according to Rayleigh they are said to be “Just Resolved”.
• When the difference in wavelengths is so small that the central maxima corresponding
to two wavelengths come still closer as shown in figure, then the resultant intensity
curve is quite smooth without any dip. This curve is as if there is only one wavelength
somewhat bigger and stronger.
• Hence according to Rayleigh the two wavelengths are “Not Resolved”.
.

Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating

The resolving Power of a diffraction grating represents its ability to form separate
spectral θ lines for wavelengths very close together

Expression for resolving power

Derivation

Let a parallel beam of light of wavelength λ and λ + dλ be incident, normally on a plane

transmission grating element (a + b) and total number of rulings ‘N’. Let the diffracted beam be
received by the telescope objective L. the total width is N (a + b) and total aperture of telescope
objective is,

Let nth principal maxima of wavelength be formed in the direction , we have.

Let the first minima adjacent to the nth maxima be formed in the direction . Then form the
grating equation of minima, we have
Clearly the first minima adjacent to nth principal maxima in direction increasing will be obtained
if m = nN + 1.

According to Rayleigh’s criterion, two spectral lines of wavelength λ and λ + dλ are just resolved
when nth maxima of wavelength λ + dλ falls on first minima of wavelength λ + dλ adjacent to its
nth maxim. For nth maxima of wavelength λ, we have

Ques 11 What are the requirements for producing laser action? Describe the
construction and working of Ruby laser. What are the drawbacks of Ruby laser?

Ans 11. Requirements of Laser Action

1. The number of atoms in the higher (excited) energy state must be greater than in lower (ground)
state
(i.e., N2 > N1). The process of achieving a large number of atoms in excited state than ground state

is called “Population Inversion” and the process by which population inversion is achieved is

called “Pumping”.

2. The energy density of stimulated radiation must be large, this makes P21(stim) > P12 (spont) i.e.,

stimulated emission exceeds spontaneous emission.

Construction of Ruby laser:

It consists mainly four parts:

1.Active material: A rod of ruby crystal acts as the active material. Ruby is actually Al2O3 crystal
with 5 % impurity of Cr2O3 which gives it a pink color.

2. Resonant cavity: One end of the ruby rod is made fully reflecting while the other end is
partially reflecting. This is called resonant cavity.

3. Pumping system: A helical xenon flash tube with a power supply.

4. Cooling system: Cooling arrangement is done in which water circulates in the glass tube
enclosing the ruby crystal.

Working:

Ruby laser is a three-level system containing energy levels E1, E2 and E3. When a flash is
produced in the xenon tube atoms in energy level E1 are raised to energy level E3 through optical
pumping. E3 is a short-lived state having lifetime 10-8s. So atoms from this state immediately
drop to energy level E2 which is a metastable state. Atoms stay here for a longer time (10-3s). So
population inversion is achieved between E1 and E2. When atoms drop from E2 to E1 they emit
photons of energy E2-E1. These photons keep on reflecting inside the resonant cavity. When the
beam of photons becomes intense enough it escapes the partially reflecting end of the ruby
crystal. Thus a pulse of laser beam is obtained.

Ruby laser has following drawbacks or disadvantages:

1. As the terminus of laser action is the ground state, it is difficult to maintain the
population inversion. This fact results in ruby laser’s low efficiency.

2. The ruby laser requires high power pumping source.

3. The laser output is not continuous but occurs in the form of pulses of microsecond
duration.

4. The defects due to crystalline imperfection are also present in ruby laser.

Ques 12. Draw a neat diagram of He-Ne Laser and explain its construction and working.
How is it superior to a Ruby Laser?

Ans 12 Construction of He Ne laser -Helium neon laser used a mixture of 10:1 for its
active medium. It consists of a long and narrow discharge tube of diameter of about 1
cm and about 80 cm long. The mixture is at a pressure of about 1 mm of Hg, the partial
pressure of helium gas being 5 to 10 times that of neon.

Active medium: The gas mixture of He and Ne forms the active medium. Ne act
as active center.

Pumping Source: Electric discharge method is used for pumping and

achieving population inversion.

Optical resonator system: A set of mirrors form the optical resonator system.

Working
Working: The laser process in a HeNe laser starts with the collision of electrons from the
electrical discharge with the helium atoms in the gas. This excites helium from the ground state
to a long-lived, metastable excited state. These excited helium atoms then collide with the
ground-state neon atoms, producing excited neon atoms. The number of neon atoms entering
the excited states builds up until population inversion is achieved. Spontaneous and stimulated
emission between the states results in emission of 632.82 nm wavelength light, along with
other emission wavelengths (see figure at right). From these states, the electrons quickly decay
to the ground state. The HeNe laser's power output is limited because the neon upper level
saturates with higher current, while the lower level varies linearly with current.

Superiority of He Ne laser over ruby laser

Helium neon laser is better than ruby laser or most of the four level lasers are better than three
level lasers due to the following reasons:

● The laser output is continuous in the case of helium-neon laser. But it is in the form of
pulse in the ruby laser.
● Ruby laser requires high power pumping source, whereas Helium-neon laser requires low
power pumping source like electric discharge.
● Efficiency of helium-neon laser is more than ruby laser.
● The defects due to crystalline imperfections are also present in the ruby laser. But it is
not so in the helium-neon laser.

Ques 13 What is the propagation mechanism of light inside optical fiber? Explain
acceptance angle and acceptance cone of an optical fiber. What do you mean by numerical
aperture? Derive expression for them .
Ans 13. Propagation of Light in optical fiber

The light in the fiber is guided inside the core of the fibre by the principle of TIR, for this
The following condition must satisfy
1. The refractive index of core, n1 must be greater than the refractive index of the
cladding, n2.
2. At the core-cladding interface the angle of incidence, φ must be grater than the
critical angle defined by

Let us consider that the light is launched from medium of refractive index no and is
incident at an angle θi with respect to the axis. The light undergoes refraction at A. The
ray refracts into the core of fibre at angle ( > ).The ray reaches to core-cladding
interface at B. At B if the angle of incidence φ is greater than the critical angle the light
ray will suffer TIR and reach at D. At D again the ray suffers TIR, thus this ray will stay
within the fibre. Thus in a MMSIF the light follows a zig-zag path.
Snells Law at the launching end of the fibre,

In triangle ABN = (90 - ), therefore

At ;

as then
Generally the light is launched in air, i.e., no = 1

Acceptance Angle: is called the acceptance angle of fibre. It is the maximum

angle to the axis of the fiber that light entering the fiber is guided in the core.

Acceptance Cone: In three dimensions, the ray within the acceptance angle will be
guided in the core of the fibre forms a cone. It is .

Numerical Aperture of the Fibre

The numerical aperture is the sine of acceptance angle. Thus

The numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fibre. It measures
the amount of light accepted by the fibre.

Fractional Index Difference: It is the ratio of the difference in the refractive index of
core and cladding with respect to refractive index of core.

and

Therefore
Ques 14. What do you understand by attenuation in optical fibre? Discuss the important factors
responsible for loss of power in optical fibre. What are the advantages of optical fiber over copper
wires?

Ans 14. Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending
losses. Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal attenuation is
defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po). Optical input
power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source.The following equation defines
signal attenuation as a unit of length:

Therefore, the unit of attenuation is decibels/kilometer (dB/km). Attenuation is caused by

i. absorption
ii. scattering
iii. bending losses.
ABSORPTION. - Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fiber. Absorption is
defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another
energy form, such as heat. Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:

● Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

● The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
● The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties

Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules
or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the
glass fiber. Since intrinsic and extrinsic material properties are the main cause of absorption,
they are discussed further.

Intrinsic Absorption. - Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-material properties. If an

optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would
be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.

Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic absorption bands. Basically,
absorption occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts with an electron and excites it to a
higher energy level.

Extrinsic Absorption. - Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber
material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the
fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these
metal ions from one energy level to another.

Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the fiber. Water in
silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond. The amount of water (OH-) impurities present
in a fiber should be less than a few parts per billion. Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic
absorption is affected by the level of impurities (OH-) present in the fiber. If the amount of
impurities in a fiber is reduced, then fiber attenuation is reduced.

SCATTERING. - Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.

During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the
average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the
density areas as shown in figure. Light is then partially scattered in all directions.

Figure - Light scattering.

The main source of loss is called Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering is the main loss
mechanism between the ultraviolet and infrared regions. Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (1/&λ4). As the wavelength increases, the
loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.

If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering
mechanism is called Mie scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these large defects in the fiber
core, scatters light out of the fiber core. However, in commercial fibers, the effects of Mie
scattering are insignificant. Optical fibers are manufactured with very few large defects.

BENDING LOSS. - Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified
according to the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss.
Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is
cabled. Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter.
Microbend and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss caused by
microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During installation, if fibers are
bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.

Ques 15 How does the magnetization vary with applied magnetic field in type I type II
superconductors? Mention a few applications of superconductors.

Ans 15 . Type I or Soft Superconductors

(a)Type I superconductors are those superconductors that lose their superconductivity

very easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from
the graph of the intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when
the Type I superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily loses its
superconductivity at the critical magnetic field (Hc) (point A).
After Hc, the Type I superconductor will become a conductor.

b) Type I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors because of this

reason that is they lose their superconductivity easily.
c) Type I superconductors perfectly obey the Meissner effect.
d) Example of Type I superconductors: Aluminum (Hc = 0.0105 Tesla), Zinc (Hc =
0.0054)

2) Type II or Hard superconductors:

The following is the definition and Properties of Type II or Hard Superconductors:

a). Type II superconductors are those superconductors that lose their superconductivity
gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you
can see from the graph of the intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic
field (H), when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually
loses its superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to lose their superconductivity
at the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and completely lose their superconductivity at
the upper critical magnetic field (Hc2).

b) The state between the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and upper critical magnetic
field (Hc2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.
After Hc2, the Type II superconductor will become a conductor.
c) Type II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because of this
reason that is they lose their superconductivity gradually but not easily.

d) Type II superconductors obey the Meissner effect but not completely.

e) Example of Type II superconductors: NbN (Hc = 8 x 106 Tesla), Babi3 (Hc = 59 x 103
Tesla)
f) Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for strong
field superconducting magnets.

Applications of Superconductors

● SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) are being used in

the production of highly sensitive magnetometers. They are generally used
for the detection of land mines.
● Superconducting magnets are also used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) machines.
● As we know due to the electrical resistance, there is a power loss while
power transmission. So nowadays, superconducting cables are used in
place of ordinary cable lines to avoid power loss.
● Superconductors are also being used for the development of high-intensity
Electro Magnetic Impulse (EMP). They are used to paralyze all the
electronic equipment within the range.
● Maglev trains work on the superconducting magnetic levitation
phenomenon. Japenese Maglev train is a real-life example of magnetic
levitation.

Ques 16 What is the Meissner effect in superconductors? Explain how the Meissner
effect proves that superconductors are perfect diamagnet.

Ans 16
Since diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibility therefore in superconducting state
material behaves as ideal diamagnet.
Ques 17 What are nanomaterials? Discuss top down and bottom up approaches in fabrication

of nanomaterials.Explain Chemical vapour deposition and Sol gel technique for synthesis of
nanomaterials.

Ans 17 There are two general approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials as shown in figure:

a) Top- down approach:

b) Bottom–up approach

Top-down approach:

 Top-down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk material into nanosized
structures or particles.
 Top-down synthesis techniques are extension of those that have been used for
 producing micron sized particles.
 Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and depend either on removal or division of
bulk material or on miniaturization of bulk fabrication processes to produce the desired
structure with appropriate properties.
 The biggest problem with the top-down approach is the imperfection of surface
structure. For example, nanowires made by lithography are not smooth and may contain
a lot of impurities and structural defects on its surface. Examples of such techniques
are high-energy wet ball milling, electron beam lithography, atomic force manipulation,
gas-phase condensation, aerosol spray, etc.
Bottom-up approach:

 The alternative approach, which has the potential of creating less waste and hence the
more economical, is the ‘bottom- up’.
 Bottom-up approach refers to the build up of a material from the bottom: atom-by-atom,
molecule-by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster.
 Many of these techniques are still under development or are just beginning to be used
for commercial production of nanopowders.
 Oraganometallic chemical route, revere-micelle route, sol-gel synthesis, colloidal
precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, template assisted sol-gel, electrodeposition etc,
are some of the well- known bottom–up techniques reported for the preparation of
luminescent nanoparticals.

Q.18 Discuss Chemical vapour deposition and Sol gel technique for synthesis of
nanomaterials.

A.18

Sol Gel Process

The sol-gel process is a more chemical method (wet chemical method) for the synthesis of
various nanostructures, especially metal oxide nanoparticles. In this method, the molecular
precursor (usually metal alkoxide) is dissolved in water or alcohol and converted to gel by
heating and stirring by hydrolysis/alcoholysis. Since the gel obtained from the
hydrolysis/alcoholysis process is wet or damp, it should be dried using appropriate methods
depending on the desired properties and application of the gel. For example, if it is an alcoholic
solution, the drying process is done by burning alcohol. After the drying stage, the produced
gels are powdered and then calcined. The sol-gel method is a cost-effective method and due to
the low reaction temperature there is good control over the chemical composition of the
products.

The basis of the sol-gel method is the production of a homogeneous sol from the precursors
and its conversion into a gel. The solvent in the gel is then removed from the gel structure and
the remaining gel is dried. The properties of the dried gel depend significantly on the drying
method. In other words, the “removing solvent method” is selected according to the application
in which the gel will be used. Dried gels in various ways are used in industries such as surface
coating, building insulation, and the production of special clothing. It is worth mentioning that,
by grinding the gel by special mills, it is possible to achieve nanoparticles.
.