Chapter 6

Usual functions

6.1 An overview of inverse function

Let I be an interval of R, f a function defined on I and J = f (I). Our interest lies in the existence
of the inverse function of f , i.e the existence of a function f −1 from J into I such that:

∀x ∈ I, f −1 (f (x)) = x and ∀y ∈ J, f (f −1 (y)) = y

Proposition 6.1: Existence of an inverse function

Let I be an interval and f a function defined on I. If f is continuous and strictly monotone
on I then f is a bijection from I to J = f (I) and admits a reciprocal function f −1 from J to
I which has the following properties:

1. f −1 is continuous on J.

2. f −1 is strictly monotonic on J and has the same direction of monotonicity as f .

3. f −1 is bijective.

Remark 6.1 The graphical representations of f and f −1 are symmetrical with respect to the line
with equation y = x.

117
Example 6.1
Let f be a function defined by:

f : R∗+ −→ R
x 7−→ f (x) = ln(x)

We have:

x 0 +∞

+∞
f (x)
−∞

Set I = R∗+ , then J = f (I) =] − ∞, + ∞[= R

From the table of variations of f we have:

1. f is continuous on I

2. f is strictly increasing on I

then f admits an inverse function f −1 denoted by ex or exp(x) defined by:

f −1 : R →]0, + ∞[
x 7→ f −1 (x) = ex

Proposition 6.2: (Differentiability at a point)

Let f : I → J be a bijective and differentiable function at x0 ∈ I.

If we have f ′ (x0 ) ̸= 0 then f −1 is differentiable at y0 = f (x0 ) and moreover:
1
(f −1 )′ (y0 ) =
f ′ (x 0)

Proposition 6.3: (Differentiability on an interval)

Let f : I → J be a bijective and differentiable function on I (with I is an open interval).

If we have: ∀x ∈ I; f ′ (x) ̸= 0, then f −1 is differentiable on J and moreover:
1
∀y ∈ J; (f −1 )′ (y) =
f ′ (f −1 (y))

Example 6.2

Let f (x) = ln(x) and I = R∗+ , then J = f (I) = R. From the previous example, f is bijective
from I into J and admits an inverse function f −1 (x) = ex .
1
We have: for all x ∈ R∗+ , f (x) is differentiable and moreover f ′ (x) = ̸= 0. According to
x
proposition (5.3) f −1 is differentiable on J = R and
1 1
∀y ∈ R; (f −1 )′ (y) = (ey )′ = = = ey
f ′ (f −1 (y)) 1
ey

118
Remark 6.2 In the previous formula, we can replace y by x and write:

∀x ∈ R; (ex )′ = ex

6.2 Logarithmic Functions

6.2.1 The neperian logarithm function
Definition 6.1
The function that satisfies the following two conditions is called the neperian logarithm function
and is denoted by ln:
1
1. ∀x ∈ R∗+ ; (ln(x))′ =
x
2. ln(1) = 0

Remark 6.3 (Properties of derivatives)

1. According to the previous definition, the function ln(x) is differentiable on R∗+ and ∀x ∈ R∗+ ;
1
(ln(x))′ = .
x

1
2. The function ln(|x|) is differentiable on R∗ and ∀x ∈ R∗ ; (ln(|x|))′ =
x

3. Let g be a function differentiable and non-zero on I then the function ln(|g(x)| is differentiable
g ′ (x)
on I and its derivative: (ln(|g(x)|)′ =
g(x)

Proposition 6.4: (Limits and classical inequalities)

1. lim ln(x) = +∞
x→+∞

2. lim+ ln(x) = −∞
x→0

ln(x)
3. lim =0
x→+∞ x
ln(x)
4. lim = 0 (with α ∈ R∗+ ).
x→+∞ xα
5. lim+ x ln(x) = 0
x→0

ln(x + 1)
6. lim =1
x→0 x
7. ∀x ∈] − 1, + ∞[; ln(x + 1) ≤ x

119
 y

ln(x)
1

0 x
−3 −1 1 e3
−1

−3

Figure 6.1 – Graphical representation of the function ln(x)

Proposition 6.5: (Algebraic properties of the function ln(x))

For all x,y ∈ R∗+ and α ∈ Q, we have the following properties:

1. ln(x × y) = ln(x) + ln(y)

!
x
2. ln = ln(x) − ln(y)
y
1
 
3. ln = − ln(x)
x
4. ln(xα ) = α ln(x)

6.2.2 The logarithmic function with base a

Definition 6.2
Let a ∈]0,1[∪]1, + ∞[.
We call the logarithm function with base a and denote loga , the function defined by:

ln(x)
∀x ∈]0, + ∞[; loga (x) =
ln(a)

Remark 6.4 (Properties of the function loga )

1. We have: ln(x) = loge (x) i.e., the neperian logarithm function is the logarithm function with
base e.

2. The logarithm function with base a verifies relations analogous to those stated for the neperian
logarithm function.

120
 y

log2 (x)

1
ln(x)
0 x
−3 −1 1 e3
−1

log 1 (x)
2

−3

Figure 6.2 – Graphical representation of the logarithmic functions and logarithms with base a for
1
a= ,a=2
2

6.3 Exponential Functions

6.3.1 The exponential function

Definition 6.3
The inverse function of the function ln(x) is called the exponential function and is denoted by:
exp(x) or ex , and satisfies the following properties:

1. ∀x ∈]0, + ∞[; x = eln(x)

2. ∀y ∈ R; y = ln(ey )

Proposition 6.6
1. The function ex is continuous and strictly increasing on R.

2. The function ex is differentiable on R and we have: ∀x ∈ R; (ex )′ = ex

3. If u is differentiable on I then: the function eu(x) is differentiable on I and its derivative

defined by: ∀x ∈ I; (eu(x) )′ = u′ (x).eu(x)

121
Proposition 6.7: (Limits and inequalities)

1. lim ex = 0
x→−∞

2. lim ex = +∞
x→+∞

xα ex
3. lim xe−x = 0, lim = 0, lim = +∞ (with α ∈ R)
x→+∞ x→+∞ ex x→+∞ xα

ex − 1
4. lim =1
x→0 x
5. ∀x ∈ R; ex ≥ 1 + x

1
ex ln(x)
0 x
−3 −1 1 e3
−1

−3

Figure 6.3 – Graphical representation of the function ex

Proposition 6.8: (Algebraic properties of the function ex )

For all x,y ∈ R and α ∈ Q, we have:

1. ex+y = ex × ey
1
2. e−x =
ex
ex
3. ex−y =
ey
4. eαx = (ex )α

122
6.3.2 The exponential function with base a
Definition 6.4
Let a ∈]0,1[∪]1,∞[.
The inverse function of the function loga (x) is called the exponential function with base a and
is denoted ax :

1. ∀x ∈ R; ax = ex ln(a)
ln(ex ln(a) )
2. ∀x ∈ R; loga (ax ) = loga (ex ln(a) ) = =x
ln(a)

Remark 6.5 The function ax is differentiable on R and we have:

∀x ∈ R; (ax )′ = ln(a)ax

1
( 12 )x
10 x

0 x
−3 −1 1 3
−1

−3

1
 x
Figure 6.4 – Graphical representation of functions 10x et
2

Remark 6.6 The exponential function with base a verifies similar properties to those of the expo-
nential function.

6.4 Power functions

Definition 6.5
Let α ∈ R, we name power function of exponent α, the function defined by:

∀x ∈]0, + ∞[; xα = eα ln(x)

Remark 6.7 If n ∈ N∗ , we have :

n
P
ln(x) k=n k=n
en ln(x) = ek=1 = eln(x) = x = |x × x ×{z.... × x} = xn
Y Y

k=1 k=1 nf ois

123
Proposition 6.9

1. For α ∈ R∗ , the power function with exponent α is a continuous function on ]0, + ∞[

and strictly monotonic (strictly increasing if α > 0 and strictly decreasing if α < 0).

2. It is differentiable on ]0, + ∞[ with derivative : (xα )′ = αxα−1 , ∀x ∈]0, + ∞[

3. We have:

0,
si α < 0 +∞, si α < 0
 
 
 
lim x = 1,
α
si α = 0 and lim x =α
1, si α = 0
x→+∞  x→0+ 
+∞, si α > 0 0, si α > 0

 


y
y = x−2.5
3
1
y = x3

0 x
−3 −1 1 3
−1

−3
y=x

1
Figure 6.5 – Graphical representation of functions xα , with α = −2.5,1,
3

Proposition 6.10
For x ∈ R∗+ and α,β ∈ R we have the following relationships:

1. xα+β = xα xβ .
1
2. x−α = .
xα
xα
3. xα−β = .
xβ
4. xαβ = (xα )β = (xβ )α .

124
6.5 Circular (or trigonometric) functions
6.5.1 Recalls on the functions cos(x) and sin(x).
Proposition 6.11

7−→ cos(x)

x


The functions  and are defined on R and satisfy the following properties:
x 7−→ sin(x)



1. ∀x ∈ R; |cos(x)| ≤ 1 ∧ |sin(x)| ≤ 1

2. cos(x) and sin(x) are 2π-periodic i.e.:

cos(x + 2π) = cos(x)




∀x ∈ R;

and
sin(x + 2π) = sin(x)



3. The function cos(x) is even and the function sin(x) is odd, i.e.:

cos(−x) = cos(x)



∀x ∈ R;

and
sin(−x) = − sin(x)



4. The functions cos(x) and sin(x) belong to C ∞ (R) and we have:

(cos(x)) = − sin(x)

 ′

a ∀x ∈ R; and

(sin(x))′ = cos(x)



cos (x) = cos(x + n π2 )


 (n)

b ∀x ∈ R,∀n ∈ N; and

sin(n) (x) = sin(x + n π2 )



y
2π

cos(x)
1

−2π − 3π −π − π2 0 π
2
π 3π 2π x
2 2

−1
sin(x)

Figure 6.6 – Graphical representation of functions sin(x) and cos(x)

125
Proposition 6.12: (Formules d’addition)

For all (x,y) ∈ R2 , we have the following formulas:

• cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y)

• cos(x − y) = cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y)

• sin(x + y) = sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)

• sin(x − y) = sin(x) cos(y) − cos(x) sin(y)

• cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x)

• sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)

   
• sin(x) + sin(y) = 2 sin x+y
2
cos x−y
2
   
• sin(x) − sin(y) = 2 cos x+y
2
sin x−y
2
   
• cos(x) + cos(y) = 2 cos x+y
2
cos x−y
2
   
• cos(x) − cos(y) = −2 sin x+y
2
sin x−y
2

6.5.2 Recall about the function tan(x)

Definition 6.6
The tangent function is one of the main trigonometric functions and defined by:

tan : R\{ π2 + kπ/k ∈ Z} −→ R

sin(x)
x 7−→ tan(x) =
cos(x)

Proposition 6.13

The function tan(x) is differentiable on R\{ π2 + kπ/k ∈ Z} and we have:

π 1
∀x ∈ R\{ + kπ/k ∈ Z}; (tan(x))′ = = 1 + tan2 (x)
2 cos2 (x)

126
 y
y = tan(x) π

−2π − 3π −π − π2 0 π
2
π 3π 2π x
2 2

−1

x = − 3π
2
x = − π2 x= π
2 x= 3π
2

Figure 6.7 – Graphical representation of the function tan(x)

Proposition 6.14

The function tan(x) checks the following properties:

1. The function tan(x) is π-periodic i.e :

π
∀x ∈ R\{ + kπ/k ∈ Z}; tan(x + π) = tan(x)
2

2. For any x,y ∈ R\{ π2 + kπ/k ∈ Z} we have:

tan(x) + tan(y)

tan(x + y) =


1 − tan(x) tan(y)





and
tan(x) − tan(y)


tan(x − y) =



1 + tan(x) tan(y)


2 tan(x)
3. ∀x ∈ R\{ π2 + kπ/k ∈ Z}; tan(2x) =
1 − tan2 (x)

Proposition 6.15: (Some usual limits)

sin(x)
1. lim =1
x→0 x
1 − cos(x) 1
2. lim =
x→0 x 2 2
cos(x) − 1
3. lim =0
x→0 x
4. limπ tan(x) = −∞
x→− 2

5. limπ tan(x) = +∞
x→+ 2

tan(x)
6. lim =1
x→0 x

127
6.6 Hyperbolic Functions

6.6.1 Hyperbolic cosine, sine and tangent functions

Any function f defined on R can be uniquely decomposed into a sum of two functions fev and fod
where fev is an even function and fod is an odd function. This means for every x ∈ R we can write

f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)

f (x) = +
2 2

and we choose

f (x) + f (−x)

fp (x) =


2




et
f (x) − f (−x)


fi (x) =



2

Remark 6.8 We can easily check that this decomposition is unique, and fev is an even function and
fod is an odd function.

Definition 6.7: (Hyperbolic cosine)

We call the hyperbolic cosine function and denoted (ch or cosh), the even part of the exponential
function defined by:
ch : R −→ R
ex + e−x
x 7−→ ch(x) =
2

Definition 6.8: (Hyperbolic sine)

The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by (sh or sinh), is the odd part of the exponential
function defined by:
sh : R −→ R
ex − e−x
x 7−→ sh(x) =
2

Definition 6.9: (Hyperbolic tangent)

The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted by (th or tanh), is the quotient of the hyperbolic
sine function with the hyperbolic cosine function and defined by:

th : R −→ R
sh(x) ex − e−x
x 7−→ th(x) = = x
ch(x) e + e−x

128
Proposition 6.16

• The function ch(x) is a function defined on R, continuous and even.

• The function sh(x) is a function defined on R, continuous and odd.

• The function th(x) is a function defined on R, continuous and odd.

• The functions ch(x), sh(x) and th(x) are differentiable on R and their derivatives are
defined by: 
(ch(x)) = sh(x)
 ′







(sh(x))′ = ch(x)


∀x ∈ R;



1



(th(x)) = = 1 − th(x)2


 ′
ch(x)2


Proof
These properties can be verified using the properties of the ex function. In our proof, we’re
interested with the function th(x).
We have:
ex − e−x
∀x ∈ R; th(x) = x
e + e−x
• The continuity: The functions (ex − e−x ) and (ex + e−x ) are continuous on R, with
ex − e−x
ex + e−x ̸= 0 then the quotient function x is continuous on R =⇒ th(x) is
e + e−x
continuous on R

• The parity: We have:

e−x − ex ex − e−x
∀x ∈ R; th(−x) = = − = −th(x)
e−x + ex ex + e−x

So th(x) is odd.

• The differentiability: The functions (ex − e−x ) et (ex + e−x ) are differentiable on R, with
ex − e−x
ex + e−x ̸= 0 then the quotient function x is differentiable on R =⇒ th(x) is
e + e−x
differentiable on R and we have:
!′
ex − e−x (ex + e−x )(ex + e−x ) − (ex − e−x )(ex − e−x )
∀x ∈ R; (th(x)) = ′
=
ex + e−x (ex + e−x )2
!2
ex − e−x
⇐⇒ th(x) = 1 − x
′
= 1 − th(x)2
e + e−x
4 1
also th(x)′ = = .
(ex +e )
−x 2 ch(x)2

Remark 6.9 The functions ch(x),sh(x) and th(x) have the following properties:

1. ch(0) = 1, sh(0) = 0 and th(0) = 0.

2. lim sh(x) = −∞, lim ch(x) = +∞ and lim th(x) = −1

x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞

129
 3. lim sh(x) = +∞, lim ch(x) = +∞ and lim th(x) = 1
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞

Therefore, the above results can be grouped together in tabular form.

x −∞ 0 +∞ x −∞ 0 +∞

sh(x)′ = ch(x) + ch(x)′ = sh(x) − 0 +

+∞ +∞ +∞
sh(x) 0 ch(x)
−∞ 1
(a) Function sh(x) (b) Function ch(x)

Figure 6.8 – Functions sh(x) and ch(x)

x −∞ 0 +∞
1
th(x)′ = +
ch(x)2
1
th(x) 0
−1

Figure 6.9 – Function th(x)

y y
y = sh(x) y = ch(x)
3 3

1 1

0 x 0
−3 −1 1 3 −3 −1 1 3 x
−1 −1

−3 −3

Figure 6.10 – Graphical representation of functions sh(x) et ch(x)

130
 y

y = th(x)

0 x
−3 −1 1 3
−1

−3

Figure 6.11 – Graphical representation of the function th(x)

Proposition 6.17
For every real x, we have:

• ch(x) + sh(x) = ex

• ch(x) − sh(x) = e−x

• ch(x)2 − sh(x)2 = 1

Proposition 6.18: (Addition formulas)

For all (x,y) ∈ R2 , we have the following formulas:

• ch(x + y) = ch(x)ch(y) + sh(x)sh(y)

• ch(x − y) = ch(x)ch(y) − sh(x)sh(y)

• sh(x + y) = sh(x)ch(y) + ch(x)sh(y)

• sh(x − y) = sh(x)ch(y) − ch(x)sh(y)

th(x) + th(y)
• th(x + y) =
1 + th(x)th(y)
th(x) − th(y)
• th(x − y) =
1 − th(x)th(y)

131
Proof
We prove these formulas by using the expressions of hyperbolic functions with the exponential
function. We have:
1 x 
ch(x)ch(y) + sh(x)sh(y) = (e + e−x )(ey + e−y ) + (ex − e−x )(ey − e−y )
4
1 x y 
= 2e e + 2e−x e−y
4
1  (x+y) 
= e + e−(x+y)
2
= ch(x + y).

The other relations are shown using the same method.

Proposition 6.19: (Some usual limits of hyperbolic functions)

ch(x) 1
1. lim =
x→+∞ ex 2
sh(x) 1
2. lim =
x→+∞ e x 2
sh(x)
3. lim =1
x→0 x
ch(x) − 1 1
4. lim =
x→0 x 2 2

6.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

6.7.1 The function arc-sinus

According to the variation table below, we have:

The function sin(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on [− π2 , π2 ], then the function sin(x) represents
a bijection from [− π2 , π2 ] to [−1,1].

x − π2 0 + π2

sin(x)′ = cos(x) +

1
sin(x) 0
−1

Figure 6.12 – Function sin(x)

132
Definition 6.10
The inverse function of the restriction of sin(x) on [− π2 , π2 ] is called the arcsine function and is
denoted by arcsin(x) or sin−1 (x):

arcsin : [−1,1] −→ [− π2 , π2 ]
x 7−→ arcsin(x)

Proposition 6.20

The function arcsin(x) has the following properties:

1. The function arcsin(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on [−1,1]. (According to the
inverse function theorem)

2. ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]; arcsin(sin(x) = x.

3. ∀y ∈ [−1,1]; sin(arcsin(y) = y.

4. ∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ],∀y ∈ [−1,1]; (sin(x) = y ⇐⇒ x = arcsin(y)).

5. The function arcsin(x) is odd.

Proof
Let’s prove property (5).

1. The function arcsin(x) is defined on [−1,1], so in this case the domain of definition is
symmetric about 0.

2. Let x ∈ [−1,1] and:

arcsin(−x) = y (6.1)
⇔ −x = sin(y) ⇔ x = − sin(y) ⇔ x = sin(−y) (Since sin(x) is odd)
We have: y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] =⇒ −y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]
So we obtain: arcsin(x) = −y ⇔ − arcsin(x) = y
From equation (6.1) we get: arcsin(−x) = − arcsin(x)

=⇒ The function arcsin(x) is odd.

Remark 6.10 The following table contains some usual values for the function arcsin(x)

sin(0) = 0 arcsin(0) = 0
sin( π6 ) = 1
2
arcsin( 12 ) = π
6
√ √
sin( π4 ) = 2
2
arcsin( 2
2
) = π
4
√ √
sin( π3 ) = 2
3
arcsin( 23 ) = π
3

sin( π2 ) = 1 arcsin(1) = π
2

133
Proposition 6.21

The arcsine function is differentiable on ] − 1,1[ and verifies:

1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arcsin(x))′ = √
1 − x2

Proof
The function sin(x) has the following two properties:

1. sin(x) is differentiable on ] − π2 , π2 [.

2. ∀x ∈] − π2 , π2 [; (sin(x))′ = cos(x) ̸= 0

=⇒ (from proposition (5.3)), the function arcsin(x) is differentiable on ] − 1,1[ and

we have:
1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arcsin(x))′ = (6.2)
cos(arcsin(x))
Let x ∈] − 1,1[, and y = arcsin(x)
π π
=⇒ y ∈] − , [ ∧ cos(y) > 0
2 2
q
Based on the relationship cos2 (y) + sin2 (y) = 1, we deduce that: cos(y) = 1 − sin2 (y).
Since for all x ∈] − 1,1[ we have: sin(arcsin(x)) = x
√
=⇒ cos(arcsin(x)) = 1 − x2

From equation (6.2) we obtain:

1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arcsin(x))′ = √ .
1 − x2

y
π
y = arcsin(x)
2

−2 − π2 −1 0 1 π
2
2 x

−1
y = sin(x)
− π2

Figure 6.13 – Graphical representation of the function arcsin(x)

134
6.7.2 The Arccosine Function
In the variation table below, we have:
The function cos(x) is continuous and strictly decreasing on [0,π], so the function cos(x) makes a
bijection from [0,π] into [−1,1].

x 0 π

(cos(x))′ = − sin(x) −

1
cos(x)
−1

Figure 6.14 – The function cos(x)

Definition 6.11
The inverse function of the restriction of cos(x) on [0,π] is called the arccosine function and is
denoted by arccos(x) or cos−1 (x) :

arccos : [−1,1] −→ [0,π]

x 7−→ arccos(x)

Proposition 6.22

The function arccos(x) has the following properties:

1. The function arccos(x) is continuous and strictly decreasing on [−1,1]. ( From the inverse
function theorem)

2. ∀x ∈ [0,π]; arccos(cos(x) = x.

3. ∀y ∈ [−1,1]; cos(arccos(y) = y.

4. ∀x ∈ [0,π],∀y ∈ [−1,1]; (cos(x) = y ⇐⇒ x = arccos(y)).

5. The function arccos(x) is neither even nor odd.

Remark 6.11 The table below shows some usual values for the function arccos(x).

cos(0) = 1 arccos(1) = 0
√ √
cos( π6 ) = 2
3
arccos( 2
3
) = π
6
√ √
cos( π4 ) = 2
2
arccos( 22 ) = π
4

cos( π3 ) = 1
2
arccos( 12 ) = π
3

cos( π2 ) = 0 arccos(0) = π
2

135
Proposition 6.23

The arccosine function is differentiable on ] − 1,1[ and verifies:

1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arccos(x))′ = − √
1 − x2

Proof
We have the function cos(x) satisfying the following two properties:

1. cos(x) is differentiable on ]0,π[.

2. ∀x ∈]0,π[; (cos(x))′ = − sin(x) ̸= 0

=⇒ (from proposition (6.3)), the function arccos(x) is differentiable on ] − 1,1[ and

we have:
1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arccos(x))′ = (6.3)
− sin(arccos(x))
Let x ∈] − 1,1[, and y = arccos(x)

=⇒ y ∈]0,π[ ∧ sin(y) > 0

q
Using the relationship cos2 (y) + sin2 (y) = 1, we deduce that sin(y) = 1 − cos2 (y).
Since for any x ∈] − 1,1[ we have: cos(arccos(x)) = x, then we get:
√
sin(arccos(x)) = 1 − x2

From equation (6.3) we obtain:

1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (arccos(x))′ = − √ .
1 − x2

y = arccos(x) π

π
2

−1 0 1 π
2
π x

−1 y = cos(x)

Figure 6.15 – Graphical representation of the function arccos(x)

136
6.7.3 The Arctangent function
sin(x)
The function tan(x) = is defined on D = R\{ π2 + kπ : k ∈ Z}. It is continuous and
cos(x)
differentiable on its domain of definition and for all x ∈ D we have:
1
(tan(x))′ = = 1 + tan2 (x)
cos (x)
2

Consider the restriction of the function tan(x) on the interval ] − π2 , π2 [, from the table of variation
below we have: the function tan(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on ]− π2 , π2 [, then the function
tan(x) makes a bijection from ] − π2 , π2 [ into R.

x − π2 π
2

1
(tan(x))′ = +
cos2
+∞
tan(x)
−∞

Figure 6.16 – The function tan(x)

Definition 6.12
We call the arctangent function arctan(x) or tan−1 (x) the inverse of the tangent function on
] − π2 , π2 [ defined by:
arctan : ] − ∞, + ∞[ −→ ] − π2 , π2 [
x 7−→ arctan(x)

Proposition 6.24

The function arctan(x) has the following properties:

1. The function arctan(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on R, with values in ] − π2 , π2 [

2. ∀x ∈] − π2 , π2 [; arctan(tan(x)) = x

3. ∀y ∈ R; tan(arctan(y)) = y.

4. ∀x ∈] − π2 , π2 [,∀y ∈ R; tan(x) = y ⇐⇒ x = arctan(y)

5. The function arctan(x) is odd.

Remark 6.12 The table below shows some usual values for the function arctan(x).

137
 tan(0) = 0 arctan(0) = 0
tan( π6 ) = √1
3
arctan( √13 ) = π
6
√
tan( π4 ) = 1 arctan(1) = 2
2

√ √
tan( π3 ) = 3 arctan( 3) = π
3

Proposition 6.25

The function arctan(x) is differentiable on R and verifies:

1
∀x ∈ R; (arctan(x))′ =
1 + x2

Proof
The function tan(x) has the following two properties:

1. The function tan(x) is differentiable on ] − π2 , π2 [.

1
2. ∀x ∈] − π2 , π2 [; (tan(x))′ = = 1 + tan2 (x) ̸= 0
cos2 (x)
From proposition (6.3), the function arctan(x) is differentiable on ] − π2 , π2 [ and we have:

1 1
∀x ∈ R; (arctan(x))′ = =
1 + tan (arctan(x))
2
1 + x2

y = tan(x)

π
2 y = arctan(x)

− π2 0 π
x
2

− π2

Figure 6.17 – Graphical representation of the function arctan(x)

138
Proposition 6.26: (Some properties)

1. For any x ∈ [−1,1] we have:

π
arccos(x) + arcsin(x) =
2

2. For all x ∈ R∗− we have:

1 π
 
arctan(x) + arctan =−
x 2
3. For every x ∈ R∗+ we have:

1 π
 
arctan(x) + arctan =
x 2

Proof
We’ll show properties (2) and (3).
 
Set f (x) = arctan(x) + arctan x1 .
1
Since the functions and arctan(x) are differentiable on R∗ ), the function f is differentiable
x
on R∗ and we have:
1 1 1 1 1
 ′ !
x2
f ′ (x) = +  2 = − 2 =0
1+x 2 x 1+ 1 1+x 2 x 1 + x2
x

From this we deduce that f is a constant function on each of the intervals ]−∞,0[ and ]0,+∞[.
On the other hand, we have:
1 π
  
lim− f (x) = lim− arctan(x) + arctan =−
x→0 x→0 x 2
and
1 π
  
lim+ f (x) = lim+ arctan(x) + arctan =
x→0 x→0 x 2
so f can’t be extended by continuity at 0. So we deduce that:

C
1 if x ∈]0, + ∞[
∃C1 ,C2 ∈ R tq:f (x) =
C2 if x ∈] − ∞,0[

π π
 
Since f (1) = 2 arctan(1) = 2 = = C1
4 2
π π
and f (−1) = 2 arctan(−1) = 2 − = − = C2
4 2

 π if x ∈]0, + ∞[
=⇒ f (x) =  2π
−2 if x ∈] − ∞,0[

1 π 1 π
   
So ∀x ∈ R∗− ; arctan(x) + arctan = − and ∀x ∈ R∗+ ; arctan(x) + arctan =
x 2 x 2

139
6.8 The inverse hyperbolic functions

6.8.1 The inverse of hyperbolic Sine function

From the above table of variation of sh(x) we have: sh(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on R.
Hence, it realizes a bijection from R into R.

Definition 6.13
The inverse function of the hyperbolic sine function on R is denoted argsh(x) or sh−1 (x).

argsh : R −→ R
x 7−→ argsh(x)

Proposition 6.27

The function argsh(x) has the following properties:

1. The function argsh(x) is defined on R, it is continuous and strictly increasing on R.

2. ∀x ∈ R; argsh(sh(x))=x.

3. ∀y ∈ R; sh(argsh(y))=y.

4. ∀(x,y) ∈ R2 ; y = sh(x) ⇐⇒ x = argsh(y).

5. argsh(x) is odd function.

Proof
We’ll show that argsh(x) is odd.
Let x ∈ R, and

y = argsh(−x) (6.4)

(6.4)⇐⇒ sh(y) = −x ⇐⇒ sh(−y) = x (Since sh(x) is odd)

=⇒ −y = argsh(x) ⇐⇒ y = −argsh(x).
From (6.4), we get: argsh(−x) = −argsh(x).
So, ∀x ∈ R; argsh(−x) = −argsh(x) =⇒ argsh(x) is odd.

Proposition 6.28

The function argsh(x) is differentiable on R and verifies:

1
∀x ∈ R; (argsh(x))′ = √ .
1 + x2

140
Proof
The sh(x) function verifies the following two properties:

1. sh(x) is differentiable on R.
ex + e−x
2. ∀x ∈ R; (sh(x)) = ch(x) =
′
̸ 0
=
2
From proposition (6.3), the function argsh(x) is differentiable on R :
1 1
∀x ∈ R; (argsh(x))′ = =
sh (argsh(x))
′
ch(argsh(x))
q
On the other hand, we have: ch(x)2 − sh(x)2 = 1 =⇒ ch(x) = 1 + sh2 (x) because ch(x) is
positive function.
q √
=⇒ ∀x ∈ R; ch(argsh(x)) = 1 + (sh(argsh(x))2 = 1 + x2

1
=⇒ ∀x ∈ R; (argsh(x))′ = √
1 + x2
.

Proposition 6.29
 √ 
∀x ∈ R; argsh(x) = ln x + 1 + x2

y
y = sh(x)

y = argsh(x)

−1 0 1 x
−1

Figure 6.18 – Graphical representation of the function argsh(x)

141
6.8.2 The inverse hyperbolic cosine function
From the table of variation of the function ch(x) above we have:
ch(x) is continuous and strictly increasing on [0, + ∞[. So it forms a bijection from [0, + ∞[ into
[1, + ∞[.

Definition 6.14
The inverse function of the restriction of ch(x) on [0, + ∞[ is denoted by argch(x) or ch−1 (x)

argch : [1, + ∞[ −→ [0, + ∞[

x 7−→ argch(x)

Proposition 6.30

The argch(x) function has the following properties:

1. The function argch(x) is defined on [1, + ∞[, it is continuous and strictly increasing on
[1, + ∞[.

2. ∀x ∈ [0, + ∞[; argch(ch(x))=x.

3. ∀y ∈ [1, + ∞[; ch(argch(y))=y.

4. ∀x ∈ [0, + ∞[,∀y ∈ [1, + ∞[; y = ch(x) ⇐⇒ x = argch(y).

Proposition 6.31

The inverse hyperbolic cosine function is differentiable on ]1, + ∞[ and verifies:

1
∀x ∈]1, + ∞[; (argch(x))′ = √
x2 −1

Remark 6.13 The proof of proposition (6.31) is similar to the proof of proposition (6.28).

Proposition 6.32
 √ 
∀x ∈]1, + ∞[; argch(x) = ln x + x2 − 1

142
 y
y = ch(x)

y = argch(x)

−1 0 1 x
−1

Figure 6.19 – Graphical representation of the function argch(x)

6.8.3 The inverse hyperbolic tangent function

From the table of variation of the function th(x) above we have: th(x) is continuous and strictly
increasing on R. So it makes is a bijection from R into ] − 1,1[.

Definition 6.15
The inverse function of the function th(x) on R is denoted by argth(x) or th−1 (x)

argth : ] − 1,1[ −→ R
x 7−→ argth(x)

Proposition 6.33

The function argth(x) has the following properties:

1. The function argth(x) is defined on ] − 1,1[, it is continuous and strictly increasing on

] − 1,1[.

2. ∀x ∈ R; argth(th(x))=x.

3. ∀y ∈] − 1,1[; th(argth(y))=y.

4. ∀x ∈ R,∀y ∈] − 1,1[; y = th(x) ⇐⇒ x = argth(y).

5. The argth(x) function is odd.

Proposition 6.34

The function argth(x) is differentiable on ] − 1,1[ and verifies:

1
∀x ∈] − 1,1[; (argth(x))′ = .
1 − x2

143
Proposition 6.35
1 1+x
 
∀x ∈] − 1; 1[; argth(x) = ln
2 1−x

Proof
Let x ∈] − 1; 1[, and y = argth(x).
We have:
ey − e−y e2y − 1
th(x) = =
ey + e−y e2y + 1
1 + th(y) 1 + th(argth(x)) 1+x
=⇒ e2y = = =
1 − th(y) 1 − th(argth(x)) 1−x
1+x 1+x 1 1+x
   
⇐⇒ e2y = ⇐⇒ 2y = ln ⇐⇒ y = ln
1−x 1−x 2 1−x
1 1+x
 
=⇒ ∀x ∈] − 1,1[; argth(x) = ln
2 1−x

y
y = argth(x)

y = th(x)
1

−1 0 1 x
−1

Figure 6.20 – Graphical representation of the function argth(x)

144