Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

Itgalpur, Rajanukunte, Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CIV1008 – Basic Engineering Sciences

Module 1: Introduction to various fields in Civil Engineering

1.1 Civil Engineering:

It is the first basic branch of engineering. Its relation to the fulfillment of human needs is direct, whereas
the other engineering branches are complementary to the function of civil engineering. Civil engineering
is called the general engineering because civil engineering uses the principles and information provided
by other branches of engineering while erecting civil engineering structures.
Civil Engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.

1.2 Role of Civil Engineers:

❖ Providing shelter to people in the form of low-cost houses to high rise apartments
❖ Laying ordinary village roads to express highways
❖ Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams, canals for supplying water to agricultural fields
❖ Supplying safe and potable water for public industrial uses
❖ Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment solid waste disposal techniques
❖ Constructing hydro-electric thermal power plants for generating electricity
❖ Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbour and airports
❖ Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and across seas
❖ Tunneling across mountains also under water to connect places easily reduce distance

1.3 Fields of Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a very broad discipline that incorporates many activities in various fields. The
different fields of civil engineering and the scope of each can be briefly discussed as follows:
1. Structural Engineering
Structural engineering deals with the analysis & design of various components of a civil engineering
structure. Any civil engineering structure has several components, for e.g., a building has components
like slabs, beams, columns & foundation. Analysis deals with estimating the loads, forces & stresses on
the component. Design deals with selecting an appropriate material & deciding suitable dimensions for
the structural component such that they resist the loads safely without failure. It is also important to
ensure that the design is economical as well.

2. Transportation Engineering
Transportation Engineering involves planning, design, construction & maintenance of the basic

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facilities or infrastructure required for transportation systems. The transport system includes roadways,
railways, air & waterways. Role of civil engineers in this field is to construct and maintain roads,
expressways, bridges, flyovers, bus terminals, railway tracks, runways, ports & harbours. It also includes
planning the systems and facilities to optimal capacity keeping with future growth andexpansion needs.
3. Geotechnical Engineering
All structures are constructed on top of the earth. Any building, bridge, dam, retaining wall etc. rests on
soil and is supported by soil. The foundation connects the structure & soil. The foundation transfers load
from the structure to the soil. The foundation is laid at a certain depth below the ground surfacetill a
hard layer is reached. The soil should be thoroughly checked for its suitability for construction purposes.
The study dealing with the engineering properties & behaviour of soil under loads &changes in
environmental conditions is called geo-technical engineering.

4. Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative position of points on the earth’s surface by
measuring distances, directions and vertical height. It is the first step before any construction activity is
commenced.
Surveying helps in preparing maps and plans, which help in project implementation (setting out the
alignment for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or airport or harbour).
Surveying also helps in estimating quantities of earth-fill, excavations and thus also aids in estimating
cost of project.

5. Environmental Engineering
Environmental Engineering deals with the protection & maintenance of the natural and built
environment. It includes monitoring and maintaining the quality of air & water, monitoring and
management of waste disposal.
It also includes providing water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial needs along with
providing sewage disposal facilities and this part of environmental engineering is known as Water
Supply and Sanitary Engineering.

6. Building Materials & Construction Technology Management

Any engineering structure requires a wide range of materials for construction. The choice of material
depends upon the purpose of application, aesthetics, suitability for the particular application & most
importantly its cost. The efficiency or success of any construction project depends on the management
of materials, manpower, machinery & money. Hence, management is an inevitable part of any
construction activity. The different activities should be planned properly; the manpower, materials &
machinery should be optimally utilized, so that the construction is completed in time and in an
economical manner.

7. Hydraulics Engineering, Water resources & Irrigation Engineering

This field of civil engineering deals with managing the water resources (rivers, ground water) of the
country. It also deals with the process of supplying water by artificial means to fields for raising crops.
This is a very important activity for a country like India with scanty rainfall & very few perennial rivers.
This branch deals with the construction & maintenance of dams for storage of water and canal

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networks for conveying water. Apart from these, other associated structures like canals regulators,
aqueducts, weirs, barrages etc. are required for a proper irrigation system. The facilities for Hydro-
electric power generation also come under the purview of this branch.

8. Architecture and town planning

Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures.
Key aspects of architecture include: Design, Materials, Structure, Functionality, Sustainability, and
Aesthetics.
Town planning (or urban planning) involves the design and regulation of the use of space within urban
areas. It focuses on: Land Use, Infrastructure, Transportation, Public Spaces, Housing, Sustainability,
Economic Development, and Community Involvement.
The integration of architecture and town planning ensures that individual buildings fit harmoniously
within their urban context, creating functional, sustainable, and aesthetically pleasing environments.

9. Remote Sensing & GIS

The improvement in space technology, availability of GPS enhanced the scope of geographic
information system. Good mapping technique helps to get required information accurately and quickly
to effectively manage and monitor the available resources for optimal use.
GIS is an high-tech equivalent of map. It represents a means to locate ourselves in relation to world
around us. It deals with measurement, mapping, monitoring and modeling of geographic information
around us.

1.4 Overview of Structural Engineering:

• A structure may be defined as an assemblage of load-bearing elements in a construction.
• Man-made structures include buildings, towers, bridges and dams (civil engineering structures) and
Aircraft, ships, oil rigs, cranes, cars and furniture (Aeronautical / mechanical engineering).
• Structural analysis is the application of solid mechanics to predict the response in terms of forces and
displacements of a given structure (existing/proposed) subject to specified loads.
• Structural Engineering deals with planning of positions/layout of different elements and design
(determination of size, shape and material) of component such that safety and serviceability
requirements are not sacrificed, yet economy is considered.
• Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance are parts of structural engineering.
• Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi-storied buildings are analyzed & designed
structurally.

1.4.1 Type of Structures:

Framed Structures: In framed structure, the load transfer mechanism is from Floor slab to the Beams in
the floor then to the columns and Foundation system.
Load bearing Structures: In load bearing structure, the load transfer mechanism is directly from floor
slab to the adjoining walls and then to the foundation system.

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1.4.2 Differences between Framed and Load bearing Structure

Framed Structures Load Bearing Structures

Load transfer path is from slab/floor to Load transfer path is from slab/ floor to wall,
beam,beam to column and column to wallto footing.
footing.
Limited storey buildings can only be
Multi storey buildings can be constructed.
constructed.
Framed structure is more resistant to lateral Load bearing structure is less resistant to
loadsdue to earthquake and wind. lateralloads due to earthquake and wind.
Carpet area available is more. Carpet area available is less.
Mostly used form of construction. Rarely used form of construction nowadays.
Excavation for this type of construction is Excavation for this type of construction is more.
less.
The speed of construction is more. The speed of construction is less.
Cost of repair of framed structure is more. Cost of repair of load bearing structures is less.
Skilled as well as non-skilled
Skilled work force is required for
workercan construct load bearing structures.
construction.
The thickness of wall can be maintained The thickness of wall cannot be maintained
uniformthroughout. uniform throughout.
It is flexible in design as location of It is not flexible in design as walls cannot
walls canshifted. beremoved/shifted.
Room dimensions cannot be changed as
Room dimension can be changed.
wallshave to be placed above walls below.
In load bearing structure, large span areas
In framed structure, large span areas
notpossible.
possible.
Load Bearing walls can be of Brick,
The frame can be RCC, Steel, Wood frame
Stone,concrete block etc.
etc.
Large openings in walls are possible. Limitations for openings in walls.

1.4.3 Components of a Building

• Slab
• Beam
• Column
• Walls
• Foundation

Slab: Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal, in building floors, roofs, bridges,
and other types of structures. The slab may be supported by walls, by reinforced
concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab, by structural steel beams, by columns, or by
the ground.
Beam: A beam is a horizontal member and resists externally applied loads essentially by bending (or
flexure). Beams can also be referred to members, elements, rafters, shafts, or purlins. Beams may be in
a wide range of cross-sectional shapes depending on their different applications and strength purposes.

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Some common shapes are I beams, T-beams, channel sections, rectangular, hollow rectangular and pipes.

Column: Columns are vertical structural members which resist the external load primarily by axial
compression and sometimes both axial force and bending (when it is part of frame element) in case of
lateral loads such as wind and earthquake loads. Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and
the effective length of the column, which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of
the column.

Walls: Walls are used to divide or enclose in building construction, to form the periphery of a room or
a building. In traditional masonry construction, walls support the weight of floors and roofs (i.e., load
bearing structure). Modern steel and reinforced concrete frames, as well as heavy timber and other
skeletal structures, require exterior walls for shelter (i.e., Framed Structure).

Footings: Footings are structural elements that transmit column or wall loads to the underlying soil
below the structure.
Footings are designed to:
transmit the loads to the soil without exceeding its safe bearing capacity
prevent excessive settlement of the structure to a tolerable limit
Minimize differential settlement
Prevent sliding and overturning

1.4.4 Bridges
A bridge is a structure which provides a safe passage for a road or railway track over obstacles, without
closing the obstacle below.
The obstacle to be crossed may be a river or stream, a canal, road or a railway track. A bridge may also
be built for the safe passage of a canal (aqueduct).
A bridge helps to connect difficult terrains, enables easy trade and transportation of goods and helps
reduce travelling time. Bridges have political & economic importance in addition to its use for military.
Components of a bridge
The components of a bridge are mainly grouped into:
a. Super Structure – Portion of the bridge above
the bearing
b. Sub Structure – Portion of the bridge below the
bearing

Deck Slab: Deck is bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads. Deck transfers loads to the Girders
depending on the decking material.

Girder: Girder/Beam is the part of superstructure which is under bending along the span. It is the load
bearing member which supports the deck slab.

Bearings: Bearings transfers loads from the girders to the pier caps. Bearing is a component which
supports part of the bridge and which transmits forces from one part to another part of the structure while
permitting angular and/or linear movement between parts.

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Bed Blocks: Bed block rests over the top of the piers & abutments is generally provided to evenly
distribute the dead and live loads on the pier and abutments. They are usually made up of Reinforced
Cement Concrete.

Abutments: Abutments are vertical structures used to retain the earth behind the structure. The dead and
the live loads from the bridge superstructure is also supported by the bridge abutments.

Piers: Pier is a part of the substructure which supports the superstructure and which transfers loads
coming on the superstructure to the foundations. Depending up on aesthetics, site, space and economic
constraints various shapes of piers are adopted to suit to the requirement. Mostly Reinforced Concrete
or pre-stressed concrete are adopted for the construction of piers

Foundation: Foundation is the component which transfers loads from the substructure to the bearing
strata. Depending on the geotechnical properties of the bearing strata, shallow or deep foundations are
adopted.
Usually, piles and well foundations are adopted for bridge foundations.

1.4.5 Classification of Bridges

1. Based on Materials used

• Concrete Bridge
• Steel Bridge
• Timber Bridge
• Composite Bridge
2. Based on the purpose
• Road Bridge
• Rail Bridge
• Rail & Road Bridge
• Pedestrian Bridge
• Aqueduct
3. Based on Span
• Culvert < 6m
• Minor Bridge 6m-60m
• Major Bridge > 60m
4. Based on Alignment
• Straight
• Skew
5. Based on Structural action
• Beam bridges
• Cable stayed bridges
• Suspension bridges
• Cantilever bridge
• Truss bridge
• Arch bridge

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1.5 Introduction to Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering

Soil Mechanics:
• Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineeringproblems
dealing with soil as an engineering material.
• It deals with properties, behavior and performance of soil as a construction material orfoundation
support
• The soil should be thoroughly checked for its bearing capacity and suitability for construction
purposes.
Objectives of Foundation
• To distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely
• To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move
• To prevent the building from overturning due to lateral forces
• To give level surface for the construction of super structure

Factors affecting Foundation

• Soil types and ground water table conditions.
• Structural requirements.
• Construction requirements.
• Site condition and environmental factors
• Economy.

1.5.1 Types of Foundations

Foundations are mainly classified into two groups based on the
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep Foundation

Shallow Foundation
• A shallow foundation is one whose depth is generally less than the width of the footing and less than
3m.
• Shallow foundations are located just below the lowest part of the wall or a column which they
support.
• They are used when the surface soils are strong enough to support the load imposed upon it.
• Footing is a structural member, which is the bottom most part of a foundation made of brick work,
masonry or concrete.
• Footings are used to transmit the load of the wall or column such that the load is distributed over a
large area.
Types of Shallow Foundation
Shallow Foundations are classified into the following types:
1. Strip Footing / Strip Foundation
2. Spread or Isolated Footing / Spread Foundation
3. Combined Footing / Combined Foundation
4. Mat or Raft Foundations

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1. Strip Footing:
• A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall.
• A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so
closelyspaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each
other.
• A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

• A spread (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual
column.
• A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or hunched to spread the load over a
large area.

3. Combined Footing:
• A combined footing usually supports two columns. It is used when the
two columns are so close to each other that their individual footings
would overlap.
• A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close
to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line.
• A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4. Mat or Raft Foundation:

• A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of
columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part of the
structure.
• A mat is required when – a) the allowable soil pressure is low or
where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings
would overlap. Mat foundations are useful in reducing the
differential settlements.

Deep Foundation
• When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations
are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata.
• Deep foundations are, therefore, used when surface soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation and a
firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached economically by shallow foundations.

Types of Deep Foundation

The deep foundations are of the following types
1. Pile Foundation
2. Pier Foundation
3. Caisson Foundation

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1. Pile Foundation:
• A pile is a slender column made of wood, concrete or steel.
• A pile is either driven into the soil or formed in situ by
excavating a hole and then filling it with concrete.
• A group of piles are driven to the required depth and are
capped with R.C.C. Slab, over which super structure is
built. The pile transfers the load to soil by friction or by
direct bearing.

2. Pier Foundations:
• A pier is a vertical column of relatively larger cross-
section than piles.
• A cast in-situ pile greater than 0.6 m diameter is
generally termed as a pier. Piers have large diameter as
compared to a pile.
• For walls carrying heavy loads, piers are dug at regular
intervals and filled with plain concrete. The piers are
taken up to good bearing strata. The piers are connected
by concrete or masonry arch.

3. Caisson Foundation:
A caisson is a hollow prismatic watertight box or chamber, which is built above the ground level and
then sunk to the required depth as a single unit.
It is a watertight chamber used for laying foundations under water, as in rivers, lakes, harbors. The
caisson subsequently becomes an integral part of the foundation.

1.6 Transportation Engineering

• Transportation engineering is the science of safe and efficient movement of people and goods.
• Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any
country.
• Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every commodity
produced, whether it is food, clothing, agricultural products, industrial products or medicine, needs
transportation at all stages from production to distribution.
• In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw material like seeds, manure, coal,
steel oil etc.
• In the distribution stage, transportation is required from the production centers, namely farms and
factories to the marketing centers and later to the retailor and consumers for distribution.

Modes of Transportation:
The four major modes of transportation are:
1. Roadways or highways
2. Railways
3. Airways
4. Waterways

• Transport by air is the fastest among the four modes.

• Air travel also provides more comfort apart from the saving in transportation time for the passengers

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and goods between the airports.

• Transportation by water is the slowest mode among all the modes but it is the economical mode of
transport.
• Transportation by water is possible between ports on the sea routes or along rivers or canals where
inland transportation facilities are available.

1. Roadways or highways
Classification of Road:

Sectional view of Divided National Highway

Road Elements
➢ Pavement
➢ Camber
➢ Kerb
➢ Shoulders
➢ Medians

Pavement:
• A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above
the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the
sub-grade.
• The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced,
so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade.

Camber:
• Camber is a transverse slope provided to the road to drain off surface water.
• Camber depends on type of rainfall and pavement.
• Excessive camber causes transverse tilt of vehicle.

Kerb:
• Kerb is a boundary between pavement and footpath or median.
• It remarkets the road boundary and provide lateral support to the pavement.

Shoulders:
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• Shoulder is an extra space provided to the road to use an emergency lane.

• Shoulder is much rougher than road so that it can’t be used as a regular traffic lane.

Median:
• Function of median is to segregate the traffic in opposite direction, avoid head on collision and
reduce the gleaming effect due to the headlight at night.

2. Railway engineering: Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the
design,construction and operation of all types of rail transport systems.

Rails:
• Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to
provide an unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the
movement of trains.
• To be able to withstand stresses, they are made of high-carbon
steel.
• They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large
area of the formation through sleepers and the ballast.

Sleepers:
• Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails.
• They have an important role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.
• Sleepers hold the rails in their correct gauge and alignment.
• It also helps in transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast.

Ballast:
• Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular material placed and packed
below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation.
• It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.

Formation (Subgrade):
• Subgrade is the naturally occurring soil which is prepared to receive the ballast.
• The prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, along with sleeps and rails, is called
the formation.
• The formation is an important constituent of the
track, as it supports the entire track structure.

3. Airport Engineering:
Airport Engineering encompasses the
planning, design, and construction of
terminals, runways, and navigation aids
to provide for passenger and freight
service.
• An airport is a facility where
passengers connect from ground
transportation to air transportation.
• It is a location where aircraft such as
airplanes, helicopters take off and
land.

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• Aircraft may also be stored or maintained at an airport.

• An airport should have runway for takeoffs and landings, buildings such as hangars and terminal
buildings. Runway orientation is important in airport planning.
• Current practice is to layout a runway in the direction of prevailing wind.
• Runways may be a man-made surface (often Bitumen, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural
surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).
Components of Airport
1. Runway:
• “Rectangular area on an airport used for landing and take-off”
• Runway orientation is important in airport planning.
• Current practice is to lay out a runway in the direction of prevailing wind.
• Runways may be a man-made surface (often Bitumen, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural
surface (grass, dirt, gravel).

2. Terminal buildings:
• These buildings are the spaces where passengers board or alight from flights.
• These buildings house all the necessary facilities for passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the
customs and have lounges to wait before disembarking. It can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve
as waiting areas for passengers.
• Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security checks and customs are the basics of all
airport terminals.
• Large airports can have more than one terminal that are connected to one another through link ways
such as walkways, sky-bridges or trams. Smaller airports usually have only one terminal that houses
all the required facilities.

3. Apron
• Portion of the airport usually provided in front of TB, means for parking, loading/unloading of
aircraft, refueling.
• It is paved area for parking of aircraft Loading and unloading of passengers and cargo. Usually
located near to the terminal building or hanger.
• They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very large areas that the
major airports have.
• Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons. It is typically more accessible to users than
the runway or taxiway.
• Apron portion is not managed by air traffic control (ATC).

4. Taxiway:
• These are defined as the paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of aircraft and are intended to
provide linkages between one part of the airfield and another.
• Hence on the taxiways aircrafts move only on the ground and there is no air movement associated
and the movement is relatively slow.
• They mostly have hard surface such as Bitumen or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes
use gravel or grass.

5. Aircraft Stand:
• An aircraft stand is a place where an aircraft can be parked.
• It is part of the apron
6. Hangar:
• A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft.
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• Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight and for maintenance, repair,
manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft.

7. Control Tower:
• A tower at an airfield which air traffic is controlled by radio and observed physically and by radar.

8. Parking:
• Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park.

1.7 Hydraulics, Water resources and Irrigation Engineering

• Hydraulics deals with mechanics of

water (fluid) flow
• Hydraulics is further classified into
Fluid Statics, Fluid kinematics and
Fluid Dynamics

1.7.1 Key Applications of hydraulics in Civil Engineering

Water Supply and Distribution: Engineers use hydraulic principles to design pipelines, reservoirs,
and distribution networks that ensure a reliable and efficient supply of water to urban and rural areas.
Hydraulic Structures: Construction of hydraulic structures like Dams, weirs, and spillways serve
various purposes, including water storage, hydroelectric power generation, flood control, and irrigation.
Stormwater and Flood Management: Hydraulics helps design drainage systems, levees, flood
barriers, and retention basins particularly in regions prone to heavy rainfall or coastal areas by
controlling and channelizing water flow, reducing the risk of flooding.
Irrigation and Agricultural Hydraulics: Design canals, pumps, and distribution networks that
efficiently deliver water to crops, optimizing water use and supporting sustainable agriculture. Modern
irrigation systems, such as drip and sprinkler systems, are designed to minimize water waste and
improve crop yields, reflecting the growing importance of hydraulic efficiency in agriculture.
Environmental Hydraulics: The protection and restoration of natural water bodies, such as rivers,
lakes, and wetlands, are increasingly important in civil engineering.

1.7.2 Water resources engineering

• Water resource engineering deals with identification & utilization of available water resources
minimizing the loss.
• This also deals with ground water utilization, ground water recharge (Natural and Artificial) and
rain water harvesting.
• Not all natural freshwater, surface water or groundwater, is accessible for use. The available water
resources consider factors such as: the economy, environmental feasibility and Physical possibility
of catching water which naturally flows out to the sea.

Sources of water
1. Surface sources: Lakes, Ponds, Rivers, Streams, Storage reservoir.

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2. Subsurface sources: Open wells, Tube wells, Artesian wells, Springs, Infiltration gallery.

Artesian well: When a well is driven into a confined

aquifer where water is flowing in confinement with
pressure, the well is called as an Artesian well. Pump is
not required. This can be understood by a water supply
scheme fed by an over-head tank.
Infiltration gallery: A tunnel constructed at shallow
depth along the bank of a river through the water bearing
strata, to collect water seeping through the bottom, these
are constructed by masonry work.
Springs: Springs generally emerge at the base of a
hillslope. Springs represent places where the saturated
zone (below the water table) comes in contact with the
land surface.

1.7.3 Irrigation Engineering

It deals with water management for agriculture purpose. Irrigation is the science of artificial application
of water to the agricultural field in accordance with crop requirements throughout the period of growth
for full maturity of crop.

Advantages
• Increase in food production
• Insuring optimum growth or maximum yield
• Mixed cropping
• Generation of hydropower
• Improving domestic water supply
Disadvantages
• Over irrigation may cause water logging which can reduce crop yield. Over irrigation combined
with fertilizers & pesticides can lead to increase in nutrient level of nearby lakes and rivers leading
to Eutrophication and may also cause groundwater contamination.
• Irrigation may lead to creation of climatic condition which favourable for public health diseases.

1.7.4 Dam and its purposes

A dam is a physical obstruction constructed across a river to store the water in reservoir and divert it for
multipurpose from its upstream side. The pool of water form on the upstream side of the dam, is called
as the reservoir of the dam.

Purpose of Construction of Dams:

Power generation: Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world Many countries
have rivers with adequate water flow that can be dammed for power generation purposes.
Water supply: Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted from rivers pent up
behind low dams or weirs. Other major sources include deep upland reservoirs contained by high dams
across deep valleys.
Stabilize water flow/irrigation: Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for

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agricultural purposes and irrigation.

Flood prevention: Dams that are created for flood control
Land reclamation: Dams are used to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be
submerged, allowing its reclamation for human use.
Water diversion Dams: that are constructed for diverting water for various purposes
Recreation Dams: built for any of the above purposes may find themselves displaced by the time of
their original use Nevertheless, the local community may have come to enjoy the reservoir for
recreational and aesthetic reasons

Components of a Dam structure

• Heel: contact with the ground on the

upstream side.
• Toe: contact on the downstream side.
• Abutment: Sides of the valley on which
the structure of the dam rest.
• Galleries: small rooms like structure
left within the dam for checking
operations.
• Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are
constructed for diverting water before
the construction of dam. This helps in
keeping the river bed dry.
• Spillways: It is the arrangement near the
top to release the excess water of the
reservoir to downstream side
• Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt accumulation
in the reservoir side

Classification of Dams

1. Based on Material
• Earthen Dam
• Masonry Dam
• Steel Dam
• Concrete Dam
2. Based on Structural behavior
• Gravity Dam
• Buttress Dam
• Arch dam
• Embankment Dam
3. Based on Functionality
• Storage Dam
• Diversion Dam
• Detention Dam
• Coffer Dam
• Check Dam

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 Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV 1008)

1.8 Environmental Engineering

Environment is the available nature around us. It includes the life support system such as water, air and
land/Soil. Environmental engineering deals with the technology to save nature from human and natural
abuse and pollution. The study involves balanced compromise between environment and safety.

Environmental Engineering primarily deals with:

• Technique of water collection, purification and supply
• Waste water collection, treatment and disposal
• Control of all types of pollution

1.8.1 Objectives of Water treatment

• Removal of floating suspended matter.

• Improvement in the aesthetic quality of water by removing unpleasant taste and odour.
• Removal of settleable suspended matter and non-settleable colloidal impurities.
• Removal of dissolved mineral matter, colour and bacteria.
• Softening of water for use in domestic washing laundries and boilers.
• Making the water non-corrosive, suitable for industrial processing, and recreational uses.

1.8.2 Water Quality parameters

Water Quality Parameters can be divided into three types

1. Physical Parameters
• Suspended solids – Sense of Sight
• Turbidity – Sense of Sight
• Colour – Sense of Sight
• Odour and taste – Sense of Smell and Taste
• Temperature – Sense of Touch

2. Chemical Parameters
• Total Dissolved solids
• Alkalinity
• pH
• Hardness
• Nitrogen content
• Chloride content
• Fluoride content
• Different gases
• Metals
• DO, COD, BOD

3. Biological Parameters
• Bacteriological aspects
• Virologic aspects
16
 Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV 1008)

• Parasitological aspects
• Algae
1.8.3 Drinking Water Standards as per IS 10500: 2012

Sl. No. Parameter Permissible Limit

1 pH 6.5 to 8.5
2 Conductivity 1.5 ms/cm
3 Turbidity 1 to5 NTU
4 Acidity 120 mg/l
5 Total Alkalinity 200 mg/l
6 TDS 500 to 2000 mg/l
7 Total Hardness 300 to 600 mg/l
8 Calcium as Ca 75 to 200 mg/l
9 Magnesium as Mg 30 to 100 mg/l
10 Chlorides 250 mg/l
11 Sulphates 150 mg/l
12 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 4 to 5 mg/l
13 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 0 mg/l

1.8.4 Water treatment process/units and functions

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 Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV 1008)

1.8.5 Waste Water

Wastewater is liquid waste, often produced as the byproduct of many uses of water.
• Household uses
• Industrial uses
• Commercial uses
• Agricultural uses
• Livestock uses

Terminologies in Waste Water

• Sewage: Mixture of water and liquid waste generated due to different activities in the community.
• Domestic sewage: Liquid waste generated due to domestic household activities.
• Industrial waste water: Waste generated due to industrial activity.
• Sanitary sewage: Mixture of domestic and industrial sewage.
• Sewers: Pipes or conduits required to carry the sewage from one point to another point.
• Sewerage system: The entire process of collecting, treating, and disposing of sewage.

Waste water quality parameter

• Dissolved oxygen (DO): It refers to the amount of oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. Low levels
of DO can indicate poor water quality and can be harmful to aquatic life.
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): It is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically
oxidize organic and inorganic compounds in water.
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is a measure of the amount of oxygen that
microorganisms require to break down organic matter in a water sample over a specific period of
time.

Waste water treatment unit

• Screening: Screening is the preliminary stage where large floating objects and debris are removed
from the raw wastewater.
• Grit Chamber: It is designed to remove grit, sand, gravel, and other heavy inorganic particles from
the wastewater stream.
• Primary Treatment – This stage of wastewater treatment involves the removal of large matter from
wastewater through sedimentation and filtration.
• Secondary treatment – It is a biological process that uses bacteria to remove impurities from water.
• Tertiary Treatment – It removes the persistent pollutant (after secondary treatment) by various
physical and chemical process.

18
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

CIV1008 – Basic Engineering Sciences

Module 2 Notes
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering

Syllabus:
Mechanization in Construction, Application of Digital Technologies in Planning, Design, execution,
monitoring and maintenance of Construction. Overview of Smart Cities. [COMPREHENSION]

2.1. Mechanization in Construction 2.3. Disadvantages of Mechanization of

• Mechanization is the process of shifting from Construction Industry
working largely or exclusively by hand to do
that work using machines. 1. The initial cost of a machine is high. An idle
• The construction projects are becoming more machine is a waste. This wastage is
demanding and complicated in construction greater, if the machine is costly.
and delay of projects would arise if
2. Adoption of certain machines will lead to
conventional construction method is used.
• Delays in construction are costly and have unemployment.
prompted developers to embrace 3. If the operator, who works on the machine,
mechanization. is not an expert, then its result will be
• Construction machineries are used in order to useless.
achieve larger output, cost-effective, execution 4. Machines are subject to break-down and lie
of work that is not feasible by manual efforts, idle when electricity fails (if it is
reduce the amount of heavy manual work
electrically operated).
which would cause fatigue, maintaining large
output, and finalize projects on time. 5. Depreciation charges are high; this will
• Mechanization is based on rented construction reduce the profit.
equipment is cost effective. 6. Certain types of machines may become
obsolete within a short span of time.
2.2. Advantages of Mechanization of
Construction Industry 2.4. Factors Affecting Selection of
Construction Equipment
1. The work can be done speedily which avoid
time and cost over-runs. • Availability of equipment.
2. Large quantity of materials can be handled, • Suitability of job condition with special
so the size of the project can be increased reference to climatic & operating condition.
3. Complex projects can be carried out easily. • Size of equipment.
4. High quality standards can be maintained. • Unit cost of production – cost of running.
5. Optimum use of material, man power & finance. • Availability of spare parts and selection of
6. Shortage of skilled and efficient man power manufacturer.
can be overcome. • Availability of local labour for operations.
7. Easier and safer work for construction workers. • Function to be performed.
8. Increased sustainability over a building’s • Capacity of the equipment.
lifetime. • Method of operation and its limitations.
9. Little to no building-site construction waste.
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

2.5. Common Types of Construction Equipment 3. Hauling Equipment

4. Conveying equipment
1. Earth moving equipment - Excavators, 5. Aggregate & concrete production equipment
Tractors, Bulldozers
• Dozers, also known as Bulldozers are 2.6. Precast concrete
strong machines that are usually used
for tasks like pushing, digging, • Precast Concrete is a construction product
excavating, and leveling materials like produced by casting concrete in a reusable
soil and debris at various work sites. mould or "form" which is then cured in a
• In most cases, bulldozers usually come controlled environment, transported to the
with the large, heavy blade in the front construction site and lifted into place.
that is used to push material. In some
• In contrast, standard concrete is poured into
cases, you would have bulldozers with
certain other modifications like rippers site-specific forms and cured on site.
in the rear that helps to break down the • Precast construction is also known as
tough ground. "prefabricated”.
• An excavator is required to lift heavy • It produced in plants in a location away
amounts of soil. from the construction site.
• Excavators are popular earthmoving • These components are manufactured by
vehicles that feature a bucket, arm, industrial methods based on mass
rotating cab and movable tracks. production in order to build a large number
• These components provide superior of buildings in a short time at low cost.
digging power and mobility, allowing
this heavy equipment to perform a 2.6.1. Advantages
variety of functions, from digging
• Precast Construction is Efficient and fast. It
trenches and breaking holes to lifting
is two times Faster than conventional
away waste and excavating mines.
construction.
• Concrete is cast off site. Hence, it is
2. Hoisting Equipment
unaffected by weather when casting
• Hoisting is the lifting of the material
• Better quality control and control on curing
against gravity and maybe done with a
• Produces a high standard of workmanship
wide range of equipment from the small
in factory conditions - reduces potential for
hand-operated simple screw or
accidents, addresses on-site skill shortage.
hydraulic-jack to modern high-powered
Hence, more durable.
cranes and elevators.
• Enables faster program times - not affected
• Hoisting is lifting a weight from one
by weather or labour shortages. It requires 3
location and moving it to another
times less labour than conventional
location which is at a reasonable
construction.
distance. Big projects such as
• Less cost. More economical and eco-
construction of dams, industrial
friendly. Up to 25% less consumption of
buildings, etc. require hoisting
raw material
equipment.
• Fire resistant
• Hoisting equipment includes jacks,
• No plastering is required. It has a high-
winches, chain hoists, and cranes.
quality finish that can be left exposed.
• Crane is the only single machine which,
as a single piece, is capable of providing
three- dimensional movement of the
weight.
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

2.6.2. Disadvantages 2.7.2. Digital Technologies in Construction

• System building is less flexible in its design Planning
concept than purpose-made structures
• Planning, scheduling is an important part of
• Structural connection between the precast
the construction management.
concrete units can present both design &
• Inevitably, lack of planning would negatively
contractual problems
affect the project delivery performance.
• It requires a different site for its production
• Microsoft Project, Primavera and Web-based
• Costlier for small projects
Project Management System are the most used
• Requires skilled workers
digital technologies in construction planning.
2.7. Digital Technologies
2.7.3. Digital Technologies in Structural Analysis
• The construction industry is very vital as it and Design
helps provide the necessary buildings and
supporting civil infrastructure. • Structural analysis allows designers to make
• However, the problems of productivity, sure that a structure is safe for use under the
poor planning and poor coordination has not estimated loads that the structure is expected
allowed it to maximize its full potential. to withstand.
• Digital technology refers to the systems,
• Structural analysis is performed prior to the
hardware and processes that use digital data
or signals to achieve a particular set of user- design stage, and it provides the internal forces
defined results. and stresses that will be evaluated during the
• The use of digitalized solutions in design and code checking.
coordinating and planning construction
activities can help resolve these challenges. 2.7.4. Building Information Modelling (BIM)
• In construction, digital technology has
caused a cultural shift and comprises the set • Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a
of tools that use and manipulate digital data very broad term that describes the process for
to help improve, deliver and operate the
specifying, creating, and managing digital
built environment. These tools include:
➢ Use of drones to facilitate site surveys information about a built asset such as a
➢ Facilitating remote meetings (eg Skype) building, bridge, highway or tunnel.
➢ Artificial Intelligence & Machine learning • BIM integrates structured, multi-disciplinary
➢ 3D printing data to produce a digital representation of an
➢ Software such as Computer Aided Design, asset across its lifecycle, from planning and
Computer Aided manufacturing and
Building Information Modelling. design to construction and operations.
➢ Internet of things. • The process of BIM supports the creation of
➢ Cloud-based computing intelligent data that can be used throughout the
➢ Virtual reality lifecycle of a building or infrastructure project.
• Benefits of BIM include
2.7.1. Advantages of using digital technologies
➢ Visualize Projects in Preconstruction
• Improved Productivity ➢ Better Coordination and Clash Detection
• More Comprehensive Project Planning ➢ Cost and resource savings due to Model-
• Predict the Overruns Based Cost Estimation (5D BIM)
• Improved Safety and Quality
• Better Collaboration and Mobility ➢ Improved communications and
coordination
• Optimizing Worksite Performance
➢ More opportunities for prefabrication and
modular construction
➢ Higher quality results
 Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

2.8. Construction Automation 3. Brick Laying

Use of mechanical and electrical systems with Works in tandem with construction workers, but lays
computer control for performing construction three time more bricks than humans.
activities with minimum manual labour. One of the most meritorious advantages is that it can
Automation in construction leads to productivity lay brick in unconventional patterns to achieve novel
improvement, Quality and reliability, safety as well structures. Helps in achieving better efficiency
as enhancement of working conditions. Automation levels.
will not only help in decreasing the time of
4. Mass tiling
construction and amount of labor required but also
Robotic production of tiling work.
reduce the safety hazards and the risks involved Allows for the existence of tiles with fine detail.
Areas of automation in Construction Otherwise, these tiles would be economically
• Roads & Runways construction unfeasible
• Structures, Buildings construction
• Ports, Tunnels 5. Concrete Finishing
• Factories and industries Automated concrete troweling and paving.
Automates tasks that is repetitive and hard for human
2.8.1. Advantages of automation in construction to do as well
• Uniform quality with higher accuracy than A similar set of robots are also used for concrete
that provided by skilled workers. compaction.
• Replacing human operators in tasks that
involve hard physical or monotonous work. 6. Demolition
• Replacing humans in tasks performed in Remote controlled demolition robots for concrete
dangerous environments sawing and Demolition, Water based concrete
• Increasing productivity and work efficiency demolition & recycling
with reduced costs.
2.10. 3D Printing
• Economic improvement
Construction 3D printing is a method for
• Improving work environment
manufacturing construction elements or entire
2.9. Robotics in construction buildings by means of a 3D printer printing
• Tasks that can be most automated are cheap concrete, polymer, metal, or other materials, layer-
for human labor to perform. by-layer. The most common type of printer is based
• This makes robot economics challenging on a robotic arm that moves back and forth while
(one can use cheap labor as well). extruding concrete. It is also known as contour
• Therefore, rather than labor replacement, crafting.
robot adoption seems to be driven by: 2.10.1. Benefits of 3D Printing
1. Workers Safety (i.e. remote demolition 1. Automation
and remote inspection) Lower Labour cost, Reduced risk of accidents and
2. Efficiency (i.e. real time surveying, More precision
continuous paving) 2. Speed
3. Pushing the boundaries (i.e. mass tiling) Faster execution and Faster return
2.9.1. Application of robots 3. Sustainability
1. Surveying Efficient used of Material and Reduced waste
Drones for aerial mapping and surveying 4. Design Freedom
construction sites. New designs are possible as the 3D printer can
Allow for real time surveying, improve logistics and create complex surfaces
collaboration across construction team.
This would allow for tremendous time saving. 2.10.2. Challenges in 3D concrete printing
• High initial investment cost
2. Paving • Limitations in print size (mostly vertically)
Robots pave road with bricks or concrete. • Limited selection of materials
Improved efficiency.
Process completion is faster, much more clean, better • Technical expertise required to operate and
finished work and a significant reduction in wastage. maintain printers.
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

2.11. Overview of Smart Cities 2.11.2. Smart City Characteristics

• 55% of world’s population lives in urban areas Traditionally, Cities are viewed as systems
which is expected to reach 68% by 2050. comprising of two main layers:
• China, India and Nigeria are projected to account ➢ An Infrastructure layer
for 37% of the increase ➢ A Service layer
• India had an urbanization of 34% in 2018 and this The main point that differentiates a smart city is the
is expected to reach 42% by 2030 and 53% by addition of a third layer in-between the original two
2050. i.e. Data/Digital layer.
• Significant increase in urban population places a
burden on civic infrastructure and services like
sanitation, water, sewage, housing, electricity and
public transport.
• According to UN Habitat, cities consume 78% of
the world’s energy and produce more than 60% of
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Increasing demand for sustainable, inclusive,
reliable and efficient urban service puts our urban
infrastructures under a huge pressure. 2.11.3. Digital layer
• So, management and Governance of Cities is This layer grows through the increasing number of
extremely challenging & unpredictable. sources for data generation in cities, such as
• Digitalization provides a powerful tool to address sensors, cameras, GPS, smart phones, and many
these issues and create a paradigm shift in our others.
concept of cities. • The base of this data layer is the
telecommunications infrastructure (both cables and
2.11.1. Smart City Definition
wireless), which allows for the physical
1. Smart cities use intelligent solutions to optimize transmission and storage of information.
infrastructure and smart and responsive
• The second enabler is the network layer connection
governance to engage citizens in the management of all devices through the telecommunications
of their city. A system of sensors, networks, and infrastructure This is done using specific protocols
applications collect useful data, like traffic and systems such as the Internet.
congestion, energy use, and CO2 levels. • The third aspect is to identify and exchange the data
2. Smart cities are those that are able to attract generated which is done through the world wide
investments, experts and professionals, quality web i.e., the communications dimension that
infrastructure, simple and transparent online connects all data.
business and public service processes that make it • Finally, at the top of this pyramid, you have the
easy to practice one’s profession or to establish an individual devices that generate and store data
enterprise and run it efficiently, without any (Smart phones, GPS devices, Sensors). When you
bureaucratic hassles these are essential features of combine all the systems above, you get the Internet
a citizen centric and investor friendly smart city. of Things loT.
3. Indian Government (2014): Smart city offers
sustainability in terms of economic activities and
employment opportunities to a wide section of its
residents, regardless of their level of education
skills or income levels.
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers:
A smart city brings together technology,
government and society to enable the following
characteristics a smart economy, smart mobility, a
smart environment, smart people, smart living, and 2.11.4. Core infrastructure elements of a smart city
smart governance. Core infrastructure elements in a smart city would
5. Smart City council: A smart city is one that has include
digital technology embedded across all city
• Adequate water supply
functions.
• Assured electricity supply
Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

• Sanitation, including solid waste management

• Efficient urban mobility and public transport
• Affordable housing, especially for the poor
• Robust IT connectivity and digitalization
• Good governance, especially e Governance and
citizen participation
• Sustainable environment
• Safety and security of citizens, particularly women,
children and the elderly, and
• Health and education
2.11.5. Disruptive technology
Disruptive technology is a technology that affects the
way businesses, consumers, or industries function.
• Every smart city is a dynamic and complex system
with its own challenges and problems.
• To solve these problems, new and emerging
technologies (disruptive technologies) are created.
• Internet of Things, big data, blockchain, artificial
intelligence, data analytics, and machine and
cognitive learning are just a few examples.
• They generate changes in key sectors such as
health, energy, transportation, education, public
safety.

2.11.6. Anatomy of Smart Cities

Includes
1. Transportation
2. Buildings
3. Utilities
4. Environment
5. Infrastructure
6. Public
 Module 2: Current Trends and Evolution in Civil Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

2.11.8. Benefits of a Smart Implementation for Cities

1. Benefits to Citizens
Reduces frustrations with inefficiencies in city services.
Reduces wasted time sitting in traffic
2. Benefits to Commerce
The city becomes more attractive to talent.
Professionals, like businesses, consider mobility when
deciding where to locate.
Smart implementations increase cities’ competitive
advantage. The quality of cities’ transportation
infrastructure is a major factor in business and industry
investment decisions.
3. Benefits to the Climate
Reducing pollution from transportation. Traffic
management creates a more efficient road network and
reduces travel time, reducing vehicle emissions.
2.11.9. Smart City Challenges
1. Infrastructure and Costs
Smart cities use sensor technology to gather and analyze
information such as rush hour stats, air quality or crime
rates. The implementation of these sensors requires a
sophisticated and costly infrastructure.
2. Security and Privacy Concerns
2.11.7. Benefits of a Smart Cities
Even though security is part of the benefits, it can also
1. Environmental impact be regarded as a challenge as the use of IoT and sensor
Reducing CO2 footprint is the main driver behind technology increases. In fact, the threat of cyberattacks
development of smart sustainable cities. Improving is a critical issue for smart cities.
energy efficiency and storage, waste management, traffic 3. Social Risks
conditions are among the greatest advantages.
Inclusive urbanization must be a priority to deal with the
2. Optimized energy & water management increasing vulnerability of poor and slum populations.
Smart grids and smart water management are recurring 4. Commitment and Perseverance of Authorities
themes of smart cities. Energy consumption and potable
water monitoring ensure availability of energy and the A smart city could take between 8 to 10 years to build
quality tap water across the city. from scratch and this requires commitment and
persistence on part of the government over a long period
3. Transportation of time.
Clean and efficient transportation of goods, services and 2.11.10. Measures Required
people is essential. In the hope of optimizing mobility,
many cities are turning to smart technologies to ease • Setting up central planning authority that would
traffic congestion and provide users with real-time manage & provide single window clearances,
update. monitor progress of projects and compliances.
4. Security • To attract businesses to newly developing smart
cities, incentives in the form of long-term tax
Safety is a priority for all cities. The accelerated holidays and other tax sops need to be given.
development of smart cities should allow municipalities
to better monitor their citizens thanks to CCTV cameras • To develop smart cities at par with global standards,
with facial recognition. In addition, state-of-the-art the govt. needs to involve private sector as well as
CCTV cameras are also equipped with motion and global urban planning groups who had implemented
smoke detectors, as well as fire alarms. concept of smart city elsewhere in Asia.
 Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

Module 3 Notes
Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery
Energy: It is the capacity to do work.
3.1 Classification of Energy:
i. Potential energy
ii. Kinetic energy
i. Potential energy
• The energy stored in a body because of its specific state or position is called its potential energy.
• The potential energy of an object of mass ‘m’ due to earth’s gravity held at height ‘h’ above ground is
given by P.E = m g h
where mass is in ‘kg’ and g (9.81) is in 𝑚/𝑠2 and h is in metre (m)
• Unit of P.E is thus kg𝑚2/𝑠2 and is referred as ‘joule’.
Examples: A book on a shelf, Water in a dam, A roller coaster at the top of a hill etc.
ii. Kinetic energy
• The energy which an object has because of its motion is called its Kinetic energy.
• The kinetic energy of an object having mass ‘m’ and moving with an velocity of ‘v’ is given by
K.E = 1/2 m 𝑣2
• where mass is in ‘kg’ and v is in m/s.
• Unit of K.E is thus kg𝑚2/𝑠2 and is referred as ‘joule’.
Examples: Moving Car, Running Person, Falling Objects, Bullet in Motion etc.

3.1.1 Law of Conservation of Energy – Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be
transformed from one form to another form.

3.1.2 Numerical illustration

A cart travels along a frictionless roller coaster track. At point A, the cart is 10 m above the ground and
traveling at 2 m/s.
a. What is the velocity at point B when the cart reaches the ground?
b. What is the velocity of the cart at point C when the cart reaches a height of 3 m?
c. What is the maximum height the cart can reach before the cart stops?

1
 Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

Conservation of Energy Equation

1
The total mechanical energy at any point is: T.E = P.E + K.E = mgH + m V2
2
a. Velocity at Point B
Total energy at A and B are same, no energy is lost as the roller coaster track is frictionless.
EA = EB
1 1
mgHA + m VA2 = mgHB + m VB2
2 2
HB = 0, mass is constant. On substitution and simplification
1 1
(9.81 x 10) + 2 (2)2 = (9.81 x 0) + 2 x VB2
VB = 14.14 m/s
b. Velocity at Point C
Total energy at B and C are same, no energy is lost as the roller coaster track is frictionless.
EB = EC
1 1
mgHB + 2 m VB2 = mgHC + 2 m VC2
HB = 0, mass is constant. On substitution and simplification
1 1
(9.81 x 0) + 2 (14.14)2 = (9.81 x 3) + 2 x VC2
VB = 11.9 m/s
c. Maximum height at Point D
Total energy at C and D are same, no energy is lost as the roller coaster track is frictionless.
EC = ED
1 1
mgHC + 2 m VC2 = mgHD + 2 m VD2
VD = 0, mass is constant. On substitution and simplification
1 1
(9.81 x 3) + 2 (11.9)2 = (9.81 x HD) + 2 x 0
HD = 10.2 m

2
 Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

3.2 Classification of Energy resources

1. Primary (Natural) Energy Resources

These are energy resources found directly in nature and used in their natural form. They are further divided into:
A. Non-Renewable (Fossil Fuels)
Coal: A solid fossil fuel formed from plant remains under high pressure and temperature over millions of
years.
Petroleum: A liquid fossil fuel composed of hydrocarbons, often used for fuel, plastics, and chemicals.
Natural Gas: A gaseous fossil fuel consisting mainly of methane, used for heating, electricity, and as an
industrial fuel.
B. Renewable
These are sustainable energy sources that can be replenished naturally over time. Examples include:
Solar: Energy harnessed from the sun using solar panels or thermal systems.
Geothermal: Heat energy from beneath the Earth's surface used for electricity generation and heating.
Wind: Energy derived from wind using turbines to generate electricity.
Biomass: Organic materials like plant waste, wood, and agricultural residues used as fuel.
Hydrothermal: Energy from hot water reservoirs beneath the Earth’s surface.

2. Secondary (Synthetic) Energy Resources

These are energy forms derived from primary energy sources through processing or conversion. Examples include:
Coke: A high-carbon fuel derived from coal, used primarily in steelmaking.
Fuel Gas (Producer Gas): Synthetic gas produced by gasifying fossil fuels or biomass, often used in
industrial heating and power generation.
Oil: Refined products of crude petroleum, such as diesel, gasoline, and kerosene, used as fuels or lubricants.

3.2.1 Coal
• Coal is formed by the prolonged action of geological forces on the plant
and vegetable matter accumulated below the earth crust. The process is
called “COALIFICATION”.
• Coalification is both time and force dependent.
• Coalification brings following changes to the accumulated plant.

3
Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

3.2.2 Renewable Energy resources

• Those energy resources which will not end.
• Example: Wind, Sun, Tides and Waves, Underground heat, energy crops wood and heat.
• We can use renewable energy to provide heat and electricity for homes and business.
• The amount of stored energy within the earth is 1.1 x 1025 kWh
• The current annual world energy consumption is about 55x1012 kWh
• Considering a 7% growth in energy consumption annually in 372 years with an annual energy
consumption growth rate of 7%, all the fossil fuel is emptied within the earth.
3.2.3 Problems pertaining to use of non-renewable energy sources
Environment issue
• Green house effects
• Climate change
• Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer
Health issue
• CO poisoning
• Asthma
• Skin diseases and cancer due to depletion of stratospheric ozone
3.2.4 Renewable energy production
1. Solar Energy
Source: The Sun.
Process:
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: Solar panels (made of photovoltaic cells) convert sunlight directly into
electricity. When sunlight hits the panels, it excites electrons, generating an electric current.
Solar Thermal Systems: Mirrors or lenses concentrate sunlight to heat a fluid, which produces steam that
drives turbines to generate electricity.
Applications: Power generation, water heating, lighting, and cooking.
2. Wind Energy
Source: Moving air caused by the Earth's atmospheric pressure differences.
Process:
4
Module 3: Power Production and Consumption Machinery Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

Wind turbines capture kinetic energy from the wind.

The rotation of turbine blades turns a generator to produce electricity.
Applications: Electricity generation for homes, businesses, and industries.
3. Geothermal Energy
Source: Heat stored beneath the Earth's surface.
Process:
Wells are drilled to access hot water and steam reservoirs.
The steam is used to drive turbines, which produce electricity.
In some systems, the hot water is directly used for heating buildings (geothermal heat pumps).
Applications: Power generation
4. Biomass Energy
Source: Organic materials like plants, agricultural waste, and animal manure.
Process:
Combustion: Biomass is burned to produce heat, which generates steam for driving turbines and
generating electricity.
Biogas Production: Biomass is decomposed by microorganisms in anaerobic digesters to produce
methane-rich biogas for fuel.
Biofuels: Biomass is converted into liquid fuels like ethanol and biodiesel for use in transportation.
Applications: Heating, electricity generation, and vehicle fuel.
5. Hydropower (Hydrothermal)
Source: Flowing or falling water in rivers, dams, or streams.
Process:
Water flows through turbines in dams or hydroelectric plants.
The turbines convert the water's kinetic energy into mechanical energy, which is then transformed into
electricity by a generator.
Applications: Large-scale electricity generation and irrigation.
6. Ocean Energy (Tidal and Wave Energy)
Source: Movement of ocean tides and waves due to gravitational interactions between the Earth, Moon, and Sun.
Process:
Tidal Energy: Turbines are installed in tidal currents, and their motion generates electricity.
Wave Energy: Special devices capture the kinetic energy from surface waves and convert it into electricity.
Applications: Coastal energy generation.
3.2.5 Differences between renewable and non-renewable
source of energy

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3.2.6 Problem on Electricity Bill

Calculate the electricity bill amount for a month of 31 days, if the following devices are used as specified:
a. 3 bulbs of 30 watts for 5 hours
b. 4 tube lights of 50 watts for 8 hours
c. 1 fridge of 300 watts for 24 hours
Given the rate of electricity is 2 Rs. per unit.
Solution:
a. Bulbs
No. of bulbs = 3
Capacity = 30 watts
Duration of run = 5 hours
Total energy consumption by bulbs = 3 x 30 x 5 = 450 watts
b. Tube lights
No. of tube lights = 4
Capacity = 50 watts
Duration of run = 8 hours
Total energy consumption by tube lights = 4 x 50 x 8 = 1600 watts
c. Fridge
No. of fridge = 1
Capacity = 300 watts
Duration of run = 24 hours
Total energy consumption by the fridge = 1 x 300 x 24 = 7200 watts

Total energy consumed by all the appliances = 450 + 1600 + 7200

= 9250 watt hours / day
= 9.25 kWhr/day = 9.25 units / day
Rate per unit of electricity consumption = Rs. 2
Total electricity bill for a month of 31 days = 9.25 x 31 x 2 = Rs. 573.5

3.3 Heat Engines and its Types

• A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
• Heat engines are thermal prime movers which converts the chemical energy contained in the fuel into
heat energy by the combustion, further utilizes this heat energy to produce useful mechanical work.
• Heat engines can be further divided into two types:
External combustion Engine: are those in which combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder. Example: Steam engines, Steam turbines.
Internal combustion Engine (IC Engine): are those in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the
engine cylinder. Example: Petrol engines, Diesel engines, Gas engines, etc.

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3.3.1 Classification of IC Engines

I.C Engines can be classified into the following types
(i) According to the type of fuel used
Petrol engines - fuel used in these engines is petrol.
Diesel engines - fuel used is Diesel.
Gas engines – fuel used is Gas.
(ii) According to the number of strokes
4-stroke engine - the working cycle is completed in four different strokes.
2-stroke engine - the working cycle is completed in two different strokes.
(iii) According to the method of ignition
Spark ignition engine (S.I engine) - Fuel is ignited by an electric spark.
Compression ignition engine (C.I. engine) – Ignition takes place due to high compression.
(iv) According to the cycle of combustion
Otto cycle engine – Combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume.
Diesel cycle engine - Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure.
(v) According to the number of cylinders
Single cylinder engine – These engines consist of only one cylinder.
Multi-cylinder engine - It consists of 2,3,4,6 or 8 cylinders.
(vi) According to the arrangement of cylinders
Inline or parallel engines - Cylinders are arranged in a line.
Radial engines – Cylinders are arranged radially.
V-engines – the arrangement of two cylinders are at an angle.
Opposed type engine - Cylinders are arranged opposite to each other.
(vii) According to the method of cooling
Air cooled engines – the cooling of the engine is done by air. Example: bike
Water cooled engines – the cooling of the engine is done by water, here a radiator is used for cooling
purpose. Example: cars

Petrol Vs Diesel Engine S.I Engine C.I Engine

3.4 Pumps and its types

• Pump is defined as a mechanical device that rotates or reciprocates to move fluid from one place to another.
• The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
• Mechanical energy is delivered to the pump using an electric motor.
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• When a hydraulic pump operates, it performs two functions.

First, its mechanical action creates a vacuum at the pump inlet which allows atmospheric pressure to force
liquid from the reservoir into the inlet line to the pump.
Second, its mechanical action delivers this liquid to the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system.
• Pumps are classified as,
Dynamic (Non-positive Displacement) pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
3.4.1 Classification of pumps

1. Non-positive Displacement or Dynamic Pumps

• In these pumps dynamic force or centrifugal force causes the fluid movement from one place to another.
• These are low-pressure, high-volume flow pumps.
• They are used only for fluid transport and are not used in fluid power industry because they cannot
withstand high pressures.
• They have relatively small volumetric efficiency compared to positive pumps and low –pressure
discharge output.
• Max pressure limited to 15 to 20 bars
• Examples of these pumps are:
▪ Centrifugal pumps (Impeller Type)
▪ Axial Pumps (Propeller Type)
Working Principle of Impeller type Centrifugal pumps
The pump operates on the principle of centrifugal force.
Fluid Enters the Pump: Fluid is drawn into the pump through the suction side, typically via a pipe. A vacuum is
created at the center (eye) of the impeller due to the rotation of the impeller, which pulls the fluid inside.
Rotation of the Impeller: The impeller is powered by a motor and rotates rapidly. The curved vanes of the
impeller capture the fluid and accelerate it outward from the center to the periphery due to centrifugal force.
Kinetic Energy Imparted: As the fluid moves outward, it gains kinetic energy (velocity increases).
Conversion of Kinetic Energy to Pressure Energy: The casing surrounding the impeller is designed to convert
the high-speed fluid into high-pressure fluid. In volute casings, for example, the flow velocity decreases while the
pressure increases as the fluid moves toward the discharge outlet.
Fluid Discharge: The high-pressure fluid exits the pump through the discharge side for use in a system (e.g.,
irrigation, water supply, or industrial processes).

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2. Positive Displacement Pumps

• This type is used universally for fluid power systems as the name implies, these pumps eject a fixed volume
of flow into the hydraulic system per revolution of pump shaft.
• Positive Displacement pumps apply pressure to the liquid by using a reciprocating piston, or by rotating
members.
• They have large volumetric efficiency and high-pressure discharge output.
• These pumps have the following advantages:
High pressure capacity, up to 700 bars
Small, compact size
Better performance characteristics, i.e., high efficiency over a wide range of speed and pressure.
• Examples: Gear pumps, Vane pumps, Screw pumps, Piston pumps

3.5 Compressors
• A device which takes a definite quantity of fluid (usually gas, and most often air) and deliver it at a required
pressure.
• Air Compressor – 1) Takes in atmospheric air,
2) Compresses it, and
3) Delivers it to a storage vessel (i.e. Reservoir)
• Compression requires Work to be done on the gas.
• Compressor must be driven by some sort of Prime Mover (i.e. Engine)

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3.5.1 Classification of air compressors

Working principle of reciprocating type of air compressors

• Fig. shows single-acting piston actions in the cylinder of a reciprocating compressor.
• The piston is driven by a crank shaft via a connecting rod.
• At the top of the cylinder are a suction valve and a discharge valve.
• A reciprocating compressor usually has two, three, four, or six cylinders in it.
The reciprocating air compressor works in two primary strokes: Suction Stroke and Compression Stroke.
1. Suction Stroke
• The piston moves downward inside the cylinder, increasing the cylinder's volume.
• As the volume increases, the pressure inside the cylinder decreases, creating a vacuum.
• The inlet valve opens, and atmospheric air flows into the cylinder.
• The outlet valve remains closed during this stroke.
2. Compression Stroke
• The piston moves upward, reducing the cylinder's volume.
• The trapped air is compressed, causing its pressure to increase significantly.
• Once the pressure exceeds a pre-set value, the outlet valve opens, and the compressed air is released
into a storage tank or system.
• The inlet valve remains closed during this stroke.

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 Module 4: Overview of Petroleum Engineering Basic Engineering Sciences (CIV1008)

Module 4 Notes
Module 4: Overview of Petroleum Engineering
4.1 Introduction
• The term "petroleum" is derived from the Greek word "petra" (meaning "rock") and the Latin word "oleum"
(meaning "oil"). So, petroleum essentially translates to "rock oil,"
• Petroleum can be defined as naturally occurring liquid found beneath the Earth's surface, later refined into fuels
and other products.
• The petroleum industry encompasses the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and
marketing of petroleum products.
4.1.1 Oil and Gas in our life
• Transportation Fuel (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet/aviation fuel, marine fuel oil, compressed natural gas/CNG)
• Power Plant Fuel (natural gas, diesel fuel)
• Household Fuel (heating oil, liquefied petroleum gas/LPG, kerosene)
• Petrochemical Products (plastic, fertilizer, synthetic fiber, synthetic rubber, insecticides, pharmaceuticals,
detergent, paints, creams, solvent, industrial chemical, industrial gas, etc)
• Asphalt for road construction.
4.1.2 Oil & Gas Formation
• It is formed from the accumulation of decomposition of plants and marine animals which died million years
ago and trapped beneath the ground under high pressure and temperatures.
• Oil & gas compound consist of Carbon & Hydrogen Atom, that’s why it is called HYDROCARBON.
• Crude Oil is liquid while Natural Gas is gaseous hydrocarbon at room temperature.
4.1.3 Terms associated with oil and gas formation
Kerogen
• Kerogen is a solid, complex organic material in sedimentary rocks, mainly shale, formed from ancient
plants and marine microorganisms. It’s a key precursor to hydrocarbons like oil and natural gas.
• Under the temperature and pressure, and burial depth, kerogen undergoes a process called maturation or
thermal cracking, during maturation, the complex organic molecules in kerogen break down, transforming
into simpler hydrocarbons such as oil and natural gas.
Source rock
A source rock is a rock that can generate natural gas and/or crude oil. Gas and oil form from ancient organic matter
preserved in sedimentary rocks. As sediments are deposited, both inorganic mineral grains, such as sands and mud,
and organic matter (dead plants and animals) are mixed.
Reservoir rock
These are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its pores, so that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be
accumulated. In petroleum geology, reservoir is one of the elements of petroleum system that can accumulate
hydrocarbons (oil or gas). Reservoir rock must have good porosity and permeability to accumulate and drain oil in
economical quantities.
Cap rocks (Seal)
Cap rock is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain temperature and pressure and geochemical
conditions.

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For a long time, the only force causing the movement of oil and gas in the subsurface was believed to be buoyancy.
If so, then to form oil and gas accumulation, their migration paths must have been stopped by a roof, i.e., caprock
(seal). Clays, shales, carbonates, evaporites, and their combinations can form caprocks.
Traps
A trap is a structural or stratigraphic feature that holds hydrocarbons, preventing them from migrating to the
surface. Traps form a barrier that allows oil and gas to accumulate in a porous reservoir rock, often beneath a layer
of impermeable rock (seal) that blocks further upward movement.

4.1.4 Petroleum system

4.1.5 Introduction to the Petroleum Industry

History and Evolution of the Industry
Industrial Era: First commercial oil well (1859, Pennsylvania).
Modern Industry: Growth through technological advances like seismic surveys, drilling techniques,
and offshore exploration.
The petroleum industry encompasses the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining,
transporting, and marketing of petroleum products.
Key elements include:
- Upstream: Exploration & Production (E&P): Finding, lifting, and processing oil & gas from
subsurface into surface and ready for transportation.
- Midstream: Transportation and storage of crude oil and natural gas from E&P plant for further
processing by pipeline, railway, road, or tanker.
- Downstream: Further processing of crude oil and natural gas into useful final product or raw material
for other industry.
Petroleum is a crucial energy source and raw material for various products
E&P activities are classified based on the location of operations:
Offshore: Operations conducted at sea, requiring specialized platforms and infrastructure.
Onshore: Land-based operations, generally easier and less costly than offshore activities.
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Key Roles:
- Reservoir Engineering: Optimizing resource extraction
- Drilling Engineering: Safe and efficient drilling operations
- Production Engineering: Managing wells and production facilities
Advancements in this field contribute to energy security and economic growth.
4.2 Upstream: Oil/Gas Field life cycle

Exploration
• Activities to find oil & gas prospect beneath the earth surface by means of gravity survey, magnetic
survey, and seismic reflection survey.
• Once prospect is likely to be found, exploration (wildcat) drilling will be conducted to determine the
presence of oil & gas reserve.
• Most wildcat drilling fail to find oil & gas (dry hole), only few (less than 25%) hits oil & gas layer
(discovery).
• After discovery, more drilling is required to “appraise” the reservoir.
Appraisal
• It is required to determine the reservoir size which define the volume & to get better characteristic
of oil & gas.
• Volume will be measured in million barrels (MMbbls) oil and billion cubic feet (Bcf) gas, both
original in place volume (Oil Initial In Place / OIIP and Gas Initial In Place / GIIP) & recoverable
volume.
• Important characteristic includes pressure, temperature, oil viscosity, hydrocarbon composition,
compartmentalization, and contaminants.
Reserve type
• After appraisal, the recoverable quantity of petroleum is determined. Typically, 30% of oil and 70%
of gas can be recovered, but advanced techniques like water injection can improve recovery.
• Proved (1P): Oil and gas quantities that can be produced with high certainty, based on technical and
economic data. There’s a 90% probability (P90) that actual recovery will match or exceed this
estimate.
• Unproved Reserves: Potential resources that lack sufficient certainty for classification as proved.
These are divided into:
Probable (2P): Reserves with a 50% probability (P50) of recovery. Likely to be recoverable but not
certain.

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Possible (3P): Reserves with a 10% probability (P10) of recovery. Less likely than probable
reserves to be recovered.
Field Development Plan (FDP)
• Once the recoverable value is estimated, the company will prepare a Field Development Plan (FDP)
to monetize the reserve. The FDP includes:
Subsurface characteristic (OIIP, GIIP, contaminants, etc)
Recoverable reserve in P90-P50-P10
Production Rate & Field Life
Production Facilities (number & type of wells, surface facilities type)
Project Plan (including Cost, Schedule, Quality)
Project Economics
Other aspects like Risk, Health Safety Environment (HSE)
• The FDP requires host authority approval. After approval, the company will hold a tender for
facility development and secure a Gas Sales Agreement (GSA) for gas sales. For oil, sales follow
market trends.
• Once the GSA is secured and development costs are clear, the company will evaluate project
economics. If viable, the company will make a Final Investment Decision (FID) to proceed.
Production Facilities
• A set of equipment to extract (lift) oil & gas from subsurface to surface, process, & export it to
customer as per requirement specified in the contract.
• Based on the location, it consists of subsurface (wells) & surface facilities.
• Optimum facilities size will depend on reservoir size & contract duration which will define the
optimum production rate
Drilling & Completion (Wells)
o A well is created by drilling a hole into the earth by using a drilling rig that rotates a drill bit.
o Once drilled, a steel pipe called casing is placed in the hole & secured with cement. This process
is continued by using smaller drill bit & casing until reach the reservoir target.
o After reaching the target, well must be “completed”. The process to prepare the well to produce
oil & gas is called “completion”.
o Completion is designed to allow oil & gas to flow but to block unwanted material like sand.
Surface Production Facilities
o Surface Facilities consist of wellhead, processing, and exporting facilities.
o Wellhead is the top part of the wells which is used to control the flow, protect from excessive
pressure, and interface between surface and reservoir.
o The Christmas tree, mounted on the wellhead, consists of valves, spools, and fittings. It controls
the flow, facilitates pressure management, and allows for interventions like stimulation or
maintenance.
o Together, the wellhead and Christmas tree ensure safe extraction of hydrocarbons, enable flow
rate adjustments, and support secondary recovery processes if needed.

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• Main processing function is to separate the mixture of oil, gas, water, and other contaminants (i.e. CO2,
H2S) and to condition the crude oil and natural gas as per required sales specification.
• Once crude oil processed, it will be exported through pipeline, oil tanker, truck, or railway.
• For natural gas, it can only be exported by pipeline. If the volume is too big or the distance is too far, gas
has to be liquefied and exported in liquid phase by LNG tanker.
• Based on the location, it can be placed on land (onshore) or sea (offshore).

Offshore facilities
o Based on the substructure (the structure which supports the equipment above called topside),
offshore facilities is divided into:
o Bottom Supported & Vertically Moored
o Floating & Subsea (Figure above)
Key Differences Between Onshore and Offshore E&P Activities
Aspect Onshore E&P Offshore E&P
Location Conducted on land (deserts, plains, Conducted in bodies of water (seas, oceans)
forests, etc.) at various depths.
Accessibility Easier to access and transport Challenging to access due to remote
equipment; established infrastructure locations and water-based operations;
like roads and pipelines. requires marine transport for equipment and
workforce.
Cost Lower operational costs due to ease of Higher costs due to complex infrastructure,
logistics and infrastructure. advanced technology, and marine transport.

Infrastructure Roads, pipelines, wellheads, and surface Platforms, floating production units, subsea
facilities are typically land-based. pipelines, and specialized drilling vessels.

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Environmental Impacts on local ecosystems, water Greater risk to marine ecosystems; oil spills
Impact sources, and communities; often easier to can spread widely and affect coastal areas.
monitor.
Risks Generally lower operational risks; Higher risks due to challenging weather,
drilling depth and pressure management deepwater drilling pressures, and safety
are simpler. concerns for marine operations.

Oil and Gas processing facilities

Production Period: Typical production phase start with ramp up period (increase production rate up to peak,
normally less than a year), then plateau (maintain peak for several years, for oil production normally less than 5
years while for gas production between 5 to 10 years), then declining until reach economic limit (timing when
operating cost is higher than production revenue) or end of contractual period.
Production rate

Plateau phase

Time
Abandonment
o The last phase in upstream life cycle is abandonment.
o The activities comprise well plug & abandonment (P&A) and surface facilities removal.
o Well must be permanently closed and sealed, so no more hydrocarbon can escape to the surface.
o Surface facilities must be removed until few meter below seabed, or left on the seabed as an artificial reef
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after free hydrocarbon condition reached.

o Site must be restored to as close as its original condition.
4.3 Midstream
Onshore
o Since most of the oil & gas field is located far from the civilization, it is crucial to deliver the crude
oil & natural gas to increase its value.
o Initially, produced oil is stored inside wooden barrel which then delivered by using horse carriage. It
is the beginning of using “barrel” as oil volume measurement unit.
o 1 barrel = 42 US gallon = 159 liter.
o After invention of gasoline & diesel engine, horse carriage is replaced by truck & train.
o Once the volume getting bigger and the distance getting further, barrel method become uneconomic
and pipeline was introduced.
o Pipeline is a long connected pipe to transfer liquid/gas. Pipeline characteristic is mainly defined by
diameter, length, material, and thickness.
Offshore
o Normally, offshore pipeline laid on the seabed used to convey oil from offshore platform to onshore
facility.
o However, if the distance is too far or the volume is too low, transporting liquid via pipeline can be
technically and economically challenging.
o In this case, oil will be stored offshore (by using FPSO, FSO, or subsea storage) and then
transported by using oil tanker.
Gas Transportation
o Initially, gas is considered by-product which is only disposed by burning or commonly known as
flaring.
o Only after gas can be monetized / sold (petrochemical plant, power plant), gas transportation is
required.
o Since natural gas cannot be stored easily like liquid, produced gas has to be delivered soon after
processed by using pipeline, either onshore or offshore.
o However, if the distance is too far and the volume is too big, pipeline become un-economical. In this
case, gas has to be transformed into liquid phase by condensing it up to -162o C in atmospheric
temperature to reduce its volume by 600 times, which is known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
4.4 Downstream
• A portion of the industry that is responsible for the refining, distributing, and retail of petroleum
products, sometimes also called Refining & Marketing (R&M).
• Refining means process the raw materials (crude oil & natural gas) into higher value product, either final
product (ready to consume like LPG for home cooking) or intermediate product (raw material for further
processing like ammonia for fertilizer).
• Downstream plants include oil refineries and petrochemical plants.

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Oil refinery

4.5 Marketing
• Downstream consumers include commercial and retail consumers.
• Commercial consumers include petrochemical & industrial manufacturers, utilities (especially power
plant), transportation fleets (airlines, trucks, vessels), and municipalities.
• Downstream industry may also only involve in distribution and sales of petroleum product, either to
commercial or retail consumer, without having any plant.
• Downstream product pricing, especially mass product like gasoline, highly depends on oil price.
However, specialized product like racing lubricant is less sensitive to oil price.
4.6 Digitalization of Petroleum Industry
• Many studies indicate that the oil and gas industries often exceed budget and timeline expectations. By
adopting digitalization, these industries can tackle such challenges more effectively, leading to increased
productivity.
• Digital tools help oil and gas businesses reduce costs, improve workforce productivity, and enhance
decision-making. Additionally, digital solutions streamline the hiring and training of new employees and
enable businesses to scale more easily.
• Reports show that digital technologies can significantly benefit the oil and gas sector.
4.6.1 Key Areas Benefiting from Digital Transformation
New emerging technologies such as IoT, AR & VR, Big Data Analytics combined with data-driven insights
can transform operations, enhance agility and help in strategic decision-making, and build new business
models.
o Monitoring an asset’s status in real time
o Predictive forecasting empowered by analytics and robotics results in lower costs related to maintenance
costs and lower assets downtime
o Emissions monitoring and control and release management
o Real-time machine and sensor integration and real-time alerts
o Resource planning and dashboard to trigger maintenance workflow, plant dashboards, and trend analysis
and limiting data leakages.
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o Improve operational efficiency, safety, and minimize maintenance costs.

4.6.2 Implementation of Digital Technology in Oil & Gas Companies
1. Mobile Technology: Like every other industry worldwide, the oil and gas companies have also
started investing enormously in mobile technology for their daily activities. The usage of this
technology has improved the communication as well as the performance of workflow. With the
highly accurate recorded data, it has helped to increase productivity. Also, you can monitor the data
in real-time and improve the safety of oil and gas workers with the help of mobile devices.
2. Big Data: The oil and field industries generate a large volume of data in a single day. Especially the
modern offshore drilling fields with 80,000 sensors are capable of producing 15 million gigabytes of
data in its entire lifetime. The digitalization helps in handling as well as analyzing the big data.
Some studies have proved that almost 36% of oil and gas industries have already invested in such
tools.
3. Automation: In the oil and gas industry, digital technology and automation improve safety and
efficiency. Automation helps with tasks like planning, finding drilling spots, and maintaining
equipment. For example, some companies use drones to make operations safer and more efficient,
helping workers avoid dangerous tasks and enhancing overall safety on-site.
4. Digital Marketing: Many companies use digital marketing to boost revenue, and now the oil and
gas industry is using it too. By analyzing consumer behavior and preferences, they can better
manage supply chains, helping increase revenue by 3% and cut operational costs by 10%.
5. 4D Seismic Imaging: This advanced imaging adds a time-lapse to traditional 3D imaging, allowing
companies to predict reservoir changes over time. It can increase revenue by 5% and improve the
recovery rate by 40%, making it a valuable tool for understanding underground resources.
6. Cybersecurity: As the industry becomes more digital, cybersecurity risks increase. A famous hack
in 2012 on Saudi Aramco highlighted these risks. To protect valuable data from cyberattacks, oil
and gas companies now prioritize cybersecurity.
7. Digital Customer Services: Mobile fuel services deliver fuel directly to customers instead of
requiring visits to fuel stations. They also offer added services like maintenance checks and tire
inflation for convenience and safety. Companies like Yoshi and WeFuel provide these services.
8. Blockchain: Blockchain is a secure digital record-keeping system. In oil and gas, it helps manage
supply chains, land records, finances, and inventory. Companies use it for “smart contracts” that
automate and simplify transactions with vendors.
4.6.3 Benefits of Digital Transformation in Oil & Gas
• Efficiency Boost: Real-time monitoring and analytics reduce downtime, optimizing operations.
• Enhanced Safety: Advanced tech predicts and mitigates safety risks, safeguarding people and the
environment.
• Cost Reduction: Predictive maintenance, streamlined processes, and supply chain optimization yield
cost savings.
• Sustainability: Digital solutions monitor emissions and promote cleaner technologies, enhancing
environmental sustainability.

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Module 5 Notes
Module 5: Industry 4.0
5.1 Introduction
Industry 1.0 (1784) - Mechanization
Marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
Key innovations included the mechanization of production processes, driven by steam power and the use of
the weaving loom.
Transitioned manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, significantly increasing productivity and
efficiency.
Industry 2.0 (1870) - Mass Production
Introduced mass production and assembly lines, enabled by electrical energy.
Factories became more efficient with the division of labor and advanced machinery.
This era saw large-scale production of goods, making them more affordable and accessible.
Industry 3.0 (1969) - Automation
Focused on automation, driven by the rise of computers, electronics, and robotics.
Machines became capable of performing repetitive tasks autonomously, reducing reliance on human labor
for such processes.
The integration of software and hardware enhanced precision and production speed.
Industry 4.0 (Today) - Cyber-Physical Systems
Characterized by the fusion of digital, physical, and biological systems.
Incorporates technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), networks, and cyber-physical systems.
Emphasizes connectivity, data-driven decision-making, and smart automation, enabling real-time
monitoring and optimization of production processes.

5.2 Conventional Machining

1. Casting: Casting is the process of producing metal component of desired size and shape by pouring the
molten metal into a prepared mold and then allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal part is
known as Casting.
2. Metal forming process: Metal working or forming is a process in which metals are changed from certain
shapes to the desired shapes by subjecting them to stresses greater than the yield stress of the metal i.e.
metal working is the method of plastically deforming the metal into required shape.

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There are two basic classification of metal working processes

1. Plastic Deformation Processes: In these processes, there is no change in the volume and mass of
original material, while it gets transformed from one shape to another i.e. the metal is displaced from
one location to another.
Ex: Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Bending etc.
Classification of plastic deformation process

1. Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between two rotating rolls
in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and
compresses it. The final product is in the form of sheet.
2. Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours. The die shapes are
imparted into the final part.
3. Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take the shape of the die
hole as its cross section.
4. Wire/Rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled through the die opening to take
the cross-section.
2. Metal Removal (Machining) Processes: In these processes, the material is removed from a given stock
of the material to obtain the desired shape. Thus, in this the volume and mass of the finished component
is always less than the basic material.
Ex: Turning, Milling, Thread Cutting, Shearing etc.
The best example of a machining process is generating a cylindrical surface from a metal stock with the
help of a lathe.
Types of Machine Tooling
a) Single point tools
Turning Process: This type of tool rotates a workpiece while the cutting tool moves
in a linear motion. This process can either be done manually or automatically.
b) Multi-point tools
Drilling Process: Tool creates or refines round holes in a workpiece. This is usually
done through a rotary tool with two or four helical cutting edges.
Milling Process: This type of tool creates designs by removing material from the working piece by rotating
a cutting tool.

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5.3 Taylors Tool Life Equation

Numerical Illustration
1. In a machining experiment, tool life was found to vary with the cutting speed in the following manner.
Determine the exponent (𝑛) and constant (𝐾) of the Taylor's tool life equation.
Cutting speed (m/min) Cutting speed (m/min)
60 81
90 36

2. In a machining experiment, tool life was found to vary with the cutting speed in the following manner. What
is the percentage increase in tool life when the velocity is halved.
Cutting speed (m/min) Cutting speed (m/min)

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60 81
90 36

5.4 Metal Joining Process

Joining is the process which is used to assemble different members to yield desired complex shapes and
configurations which would otherwise difficult or not possible to make using other manufacturing process.
Types of joining process
Depending upon the type of material to be joined, its thickness, degree of permanency in joint required, applications
etc. joining can be done in following ways:
1. Welding
2. Soldering
3. Brazing
4. Adhesives
5. Fasteners
6. Riveting
5.4.1 Welding process
Welding can be defined as the process of joining two or more similar or dissimilar materials with the application of
heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the application filler metal to produce a
homogeneous joint”.
Classification of welding process

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1. Electric arc welding

Definition: Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join metals.
A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable electrode and the base material
using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.
Principle:
In this process the heat is produced by an electric arc. The arc produced by striking the electrode on the work piece
and momentarily separated by a small gap of 2-4mm. this will assist in maintaining the arc between the work piece
and electrode. Thus, the electrical energy is converted into heat energy. The high temperature at the tip of the
electrode is sufficient to melt the work piece. Also, the electrode melts and combines with the molten metal of the
work piece thereby forming a homogeneous joint.

Working:
The schematic representation of the arc welding process is shown in figure. Here the electrode holder,
holding the electrode forms one pole of the circuit and the parts to be welded forms the other pole. The electrode
acts as both filler metal as well as arc generator.
The arc which is struck between the electrode and the work piece produces temperature ranging from 5000-
6000oC. Thus, the heat of the arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten metal pool. At the same time,
the electrode tip also melts and is transferred into the molten metal of the work piece in the form of
globules(droplets) of molten metal. The molten metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of
homogeneous metal.

Applications
• Repair and maintenance work
• Joining of large pipes
• Construction of building and bridges
• Ship building
• Automotive industries

5.4.2 Soldering Process

• Soldering is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by means of a filler
material called ‘Solder’. Solder an alloy of tin and lead in various proportions, whose melting temperature is
below 4500 Celsius.
• The surfaces to be joined are first cleaned in order to remove dirt, grease and other oxides. Then, ‘flux’ is
applied at the area of the parts to be joined. Zinc chloride, dilute hydrochloric acid and alcoholic resin are
some of the fluxes commonly used in soldering.
• The flux is used to wet the surface of the work piece and to allow the molten metal to flow easily into the
area to be joined. The solder is heated and melted by a soldering iron and the molten solder is deposited at
the joint. Later the joint is allowed to cool for some time and then cleaned to remove any flux residues in
order to avoid corrosion. A typical soldering gun is as shown in figure.
• The important applications of soldering are commonly seen in electronic industry, in sheet metal work and
sealing of metal containers.
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Types of solder
Sl. No. Soft solder Hard solder
1 These are alloys of tin and lead. (Tin 64% and These are alloys of silver, copper and zinc.
lead 36%) (Silver 50%, copper 35% and zinc 15%)
o o o o
2 Melting range is between 160 - 200 C. Melting range is between 350 - 950 C.
3 Used where the joints are not subjected to heavy Used to make stronger joints and can be used
loads and high temperatures. for ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.

5.4.3 Brazing process

• Brazing is a joining process in which two similar or dissimilar metals joined by a special filler metal whose
melting temperature is above 4500 Celsius but below the melting point of the base metal.
• The filler metal used in this process is called ‘Spelter’ which is a non-ferrous alloy or metal. The most
commonly used filler metals in brazing are copper and copper alloys, silver and silver alloys and aluminium
alloys depending on the application.
Principle:
• The surfaces to be joined are first cleaned in order to remove dirt, grease and other oxides. Later, flux is
applied at the joint. Borax, boric acid, fluorides or chlorides are the commonly used flux materials.
• The base metal is heated by an oxy-acetylene welding torch and filler metal is placed at the joint. Then it
is heated with the flame as shown in the figure.
• The filler metal melts and flows throughout the joint by capillary action. The work piece is then allowed
to cool. The joint is then cleaned to remove any flux residues in order to avoid corrosion.
5.4.4 Comparison between Soldering and Brazing
Sl. No. Soldering Brazing
1 Filler metal used in soldering is called Filler metal used in brazing is called Spelter.
Solder.
o o
2 Melting point of filler metal is below 450 C. Melting point of filler metal is above 450 C.
3 Weaker joints compared to brazing. Stronger joints compare to soldering.
4 The flux used is usually Rosin. The flux used is usually Borax.
5 Economical process. Not as economical as soldering.
6 Usually suitable process to join metals with Suitable process even for joining metals of larger
small thickness. thickness.

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5.4.5 Comparison between Welding and Soldering/Brazing

Sl. No. Description Welding Soldering/Brazing
1 Melting It is a high temperature process where It is a low temperature process where the
temperature the base metals are heated above their base metals are not melted
melting temperature.
2 Filler metal The filler material used is made of same Filler materials used are not the same as
material as that of the base metal. that of the base metal.
3 Formation of Joint is formed by solidification of the Joint is obtained by means of diffusion
joint molten filler metal with the molten base of the filler metal into the base metal
metal. associated with surface alloying (in
brazing).
4 Strength of the Strength of the joint obtained in welding Strength of the joint obtained in
joint is much stronger than the parent metal. brazing/soldering is very low when
compared to that of welded joint
5 Heat affected Since welding is carried out at a high Heat affected zone is almost negligible
zone temperature, the metal adjacent to the since the process is carried out at low
weld portion called the heat affected temperature.
zone is affected to a large extent.
6 Surface finish Requires certain finishing operations Joints can be used without any finishing
like grinding, filing etc. operations.
7 Applications Welding produces stronger joints. Hence Since the joint obtained is not much
this process is used for fabrication and strong, this process is mostly used for
structural applications. joining thin sheet metals, pipes, wires
etc.

5.5 Additive Manufacturing

• Technology that can make anything.

• Eliminates many constraints imposed by conventional manufacturing.
• Leads to more market opportunities.
• Increased applications such as 3D faxing sender scans a 3D object in cross sections and sends out the digital
image in layers, and then the recipient receives the layered image and uses an AM machine to fabricate the
3D object.

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5.5.1 Differences between Additive and Subtractive manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing Subtractive Manufacturing

Layer by layer, material is added to build a solid 3D Layer by layer, material is removed from a solid block
product. to fabricate a 3D product.
Complex shapes can be easily fabricated. Limited ability to fabricate complex shapes.
Suitable for materials with low melting points, such as Applicable to all solid materials, irrespective of
plastic. melting point.
Volumetric density (and weight) of the final Associated with material wastage like chips, scraps,
component can be controlled. dissolved ions, and vapors.
No material wastage occurs in these processes. Cutting fluid should possess high lubricity to act as a
good lubricant.
Applicable to a narrow range of materials. Can efficiently handle a wide variety of materials.

5.5.2 Functional principle

• The system starts by applying a thin layer of the powder material to the building platform.
• A powerful laser beam then fuses the powder at exactly the points defined by the computer-generated
component design data.
• Platform is then lowered and another layer of powder is applied.
• Once again the material is fused so as to bond with the layer below at the predefined points.

5.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 5.5.4 Applications

Advantages AM has been used across a diverse array of industries,

o Freedom of design including:
o Complexity for free
o Potential elimination of tooling o Automotive
o Lightweight design o Aerospace
o Elimination of production steps o Biomedical
Disadvantages o Consumer goods and many others
o Slow build rates
o High production costs
o Considerable effort required for application
design
o Discontinuous production process
o Limited component1 size.