Course Title:

Research Methodologies
Course Instructor:
Dr. Umar Asim
Class:
M.Phil. Chemistry
Methods of Data Collection

Structure:

7.1 What is Data?

7.2 What is Information?
7.3 Types of Data
7.4 Sources of Primary Data
7.5 Sources of Primary Data
7.6 Sources of Secondary Data
7.7 Primary Data v/s Secondary Data
7.8 Appropriateness of Methods of Data Collection
7.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
7.1 WHAT IS DATA?

•Definition: Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts or figures. It can exist in various
forms:
• Numbers: 10, 3.14, -25
• Text: "Hello", "Data Science", "This is a sentence."
• Images: Photographs, drawings, videos
• Sounds: Audio recordings, music files
• Symbols: Mathematical symbols, chemical formulas
• Observations: Measurements, recorded events
•Key Characteristics:
• Raw: Data in its original, unorganized form.
• Unprocessed: Data that has not been analyzed or interpreted.
• Building Block: Data is the foundation for information and knowledge.
•Examples:
• A list of daily temperatures.
• A collection of customer names and addresses.
• The results of a scientific experiment.
7.1 WHAT IS DATA? (Continued)

•Data Quality: For data to be useful, it should be:

• Accurate: Free from errors and reflects reality.
• Timely: Collected and analyzed within a relevant timeframe.
• Specific: Relevant to the intended purpose.
• Organized: Structured in a way that facilitates analysis and interpretation.
•Purpose:
• When presented within a meaningful context, data can lead to:
• Increased understanding of phenomena.
• Reduced uncertainty in decision-making.
• Improved problem-solving.
• Enhanced knowledge and insights.
7.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION?
•Definition: Information is data that has been processed, organized, structured, or
presented in a way that gives it meaning and relevance.
•Key Characteristics:
• Organized: Data that has been arranged and structured in a meaningful
way.
• Contextualized: Data that is presented within a specific context to make it
relevant.
• Interpreted: Data that has been analyzed and interpreted to extract
insights.
• Meaningful: Information provides value by conveying insights, patterns,
and relationships.
• Actionable: Information can influence decisions, actions, and behavior.
•Examples:
• Sales reports: Summarizing sales figures by region, product, or time
period.
• Weather forecasts: Predicting future weather conditions based on
historical data.
• Market research reports: Analyzing consumer trends and preferences.
• Medical diagnoses: Interpreting medical test results to identify health
conditions.
7.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION? (Continued)

Data vs. Information

•Data: Raw, unorganized facts (e.g., individual student test scores)
•Information: Processed data with meaning (e.g., class average score, top-
performing students, identification of learning gaps).
Relationship to Knowledge
•Data: The foundation – raw, unprocessed facts.
•Information: Data organized and given context to become meaningful.
•Knowledge: The application of information and experience to understand,
interpret, and solve problems.
7.3 TYPES OF DATA

•1. Secondary Data:

• Definition: Data that has already been collected by someone else for a
different purpose and is then used by a new researcher.
• Sources:
• Published Research: Journal articles, books, conference papers
• Government Databases: Census data, economic statistics, weather
records
• Industry Reports: Market research reports, industry publications
• Company Records: Financial statements, sales data, customer
databases
• Online Databases: Academic databases (e.g., JSTOR, Google
Scholar), statistical repositories
7.3 TYPES OF DATA (Continued)

• Advantages:
• Readily Available: Often easily accessible and readily available.
• Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive to obtain than primary data.
• Time-Saving: Can save significant time and resources in data
collection.
• Broader Scope: Can provide a broader perspective and access to
larger datasets.
• Disadvantages:
• May not be specific to the research question: May not perfectly align
with the researcher's needs.
• May not be entirely reliable: Data quality and accuracy can vary.
• May be outdated: Data may not be current or reflect the most recent
changes.
Primary Data:

•Definition: Original data collected specifically for the current research project.
•Collected by: The researcher themselves or their team.
•Characteristics:
• Original: Unique to the specific research study.
• Directly Collected: Gathered firsthand from the source.
• Unprocessed: In its raw form before analysis.
•Sources:
• Experiments: Controlled studies to test hypotheses.
• Surveys: Gathering information through questionnaires.
• Interviews: Conducting in-depth conversations
• Observations: Observing behavior or phenomena directly.
• Focus Groups: Gathering insights from a small group of individuals through
a guided discussion.
• Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or event.
• Pilot Studies: Small-scale studies conducted before the main research to
test methods and refine procedures.
Primary Data: (Continued)

•Advantages:
• Specific to Research Objectives: Collected directly to answer the specific
research questions.
• High Relevance: Directly addresses the research needs and objectives.
• High Accuracy: Greater control over data collection methods ensures
higher accuracy.
• Up-to-date: Provides the most current and relevant information.
• Unique Insights: Can uncover new and original findings.
•Disadvantages:
• Time-Consuming: Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive to
collect.
• Costly: Can be expensive to collect, especially for large-scale studies.
• Resource-Intensive: Requires significant planning, resources, and
expertise.
• Potential for Bias: Researcher bias can influence data collection and
interpretation.
7.4 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA

•Definition: Primary data is original data collected directly by the researcher for
the specific purpose of their research.
•Key Characteristics:
• Original: Collected firsthand by the researcher.
• Specific: Tailored to the unique research objectives.
• Unprocessed: In its raw form before analysis.
•Distinguishing Primary from Secondary Data:
• Primary data is collected directly from the source (e.g., surveys,
experiments, observations).
• Secondary data is collected by others and then used by the researcher (e.g.,
published research, government databases).
7.4 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•Advantages of Primary Data:

• Specificity: Directly addresses the research questions.
• Accuracy: Collected with specific research goals in mind, allowing for
greater control over data quality.
• Up-to-date: Can provide current and relevant information.
• Unique Insights: Can uncover new and original findings.
•Disadvantages of Primary Data:
• Time-consuming: Can be a lengthy and time-consuming process.
• Costly: Can be expensive to collect, especially for large-scale studies.
• Resource-intensive: Requires significant planning, resources, and
expertise.
•Example: A researcher conducting a study on consumer preferences for a new
product would collect primary data by conducting surveys, conducting interviews
with potential customers, or observing customer behavior in a retail setting.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

1. Experiments
•Definition: Experiments involve a controlled study where researchers
systematically manipulate one or more variables (independent variables) to
observe their effects on other variables (dependent variables).
•Key Characteristics:
• Control: Researchers attempt to control for extraneous variables that could
influence the results. This can involve creating control groups, using
placebos, or conducting the experiment in a controlled environment.
• Manipulation: The key feature of experiments is the deliberate
manipulation of the independent variable(s). This allows researchers to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Observation and Measurement: Researchers carefully observe and
measure the effects of the manipulated variables on the dependent
variables.
• Replication: Experiments should be designed to be replicable, allowing
other researchers to independently verify the findings.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•Suitable for:
• Medicine: Testing new drugs, treatments, and medical devices.
• Nutrition: Studying the effects of diet and exercise on health.
• Psychology: Investigating human behavior, cognition, and emotions.
• Social Sciences: Studying the impact of social interventions on various
outcomes.
• Natural Sciences: Investigating physical and chemical phenomena.
•Example:
• Clinical Trial: A clinical trial to test the effectiveness of a new medication.
Researchers randomly assign participants to two groups: an experimental
group that receives the medication and a control group that receives a
placebo. They then observe the health outcomes of both groups.
• Laboratory Experiment: A psychologist conducts an experiment to study
the effects of stress on memory. Participants are randomly assigned to two
groups: a stress group and a control group. The stress group is exposed to a
stressful situation, while the control group remains in a relaxed
environment. Researchers then measure the memory performance of both
groups.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

Advantages of Experiments:
•Establish Cause-and-Effect: Experiments allow researchers to establish cause-
and-effect relationships between variables.
•Control: By controlling extraneous variables, researchers can increase the
internal validity of their findings.
•Replication: Experiments can be replicated by other researchers to test the
reliability of the findings.
Disadvantages of Experiments:
•Artificiality: The controlled environment of an experiment may not always reflect
real-world conditions.
•Ethical Concerns: Some experiments may raise ethical concerns, particularly
when involving human or animal subjects.
•Practical Limitations: Conducting experiments can be time-consuming,
expensive, and logistically challenging.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

2. Surveys
•Definition: A systematic method of collecting data from individuals through a set
of questions.
•Methods:
• Mail Surveys: Questionnaires sent through postal mail.
• Telephone Surveys: Interviews conducted over the phone.
• Online Surveys: Questionnaires administered through websites or email.
• In-person Interviews: Face-to-face interviews with respondents.
•Types of Questions:
• Closed-ended Questions: Offer a limited number of response options (e.g.,
multiple-choice, yes/no).
• Advantages: Easy to analyze, reduces bias.
• Disadvantages: May not capture the full range of opinions.
• Open-ended Questions: Allow respondents to provide their own answers in
their own words.
• Advantages: Allows for more nuanced and detailed responses.
• Disadvantages: More difficult to analyze, may introduce bias in
interpretation.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•Advantages:
• Cost-effective: Can be relatively inexpensive, especially for online surveys.
• Large Sample Sizes: Can reach a large number of respondents.
• Data Collection Speed: Can collect data quickly, especially with online
surveys.
• Versatility: Can be used to gather information on a wide range of topics.
•Disadvantages:
• Low Response Rates: May not always achieve a high response rate.
• Potential for Bias:
• Selection Bias: The sample may not be representative of the
population.
• Non-response Bias: Respondents who choose to participate may differ
systematically from those who do not.
• Social Desirability Bias: Respondents may provide answers they
believe are socially acceptable.
• Limited Depth: May not capture the full complexity of respondents' views.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

3. Questionnaires
•Definition: A set of written questions used to gather information from
respondents.
•Key Features:
• Standardized: Uses a consistent set of questions for all respondents.
• Self-administered: Respondents typically fill out the questionnaire
themselves.
• Versatility: Can be used for a wide range of research purposes.
•Types of Questionnaires:
• Structured Questionnaires: Use a fixed set of questions with limited
response options (e.g., multiple-choice, Likert scale).
• Unstructured Questionnaires: Allow for open-ended responses and
flexibility in question order.
• Mixed Questionnaires: Combine structured and unstructured questions.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•Advantages:
• Cost-effective: Relatively inexpensive to administer.
• Easy to administer: Can be easily distributed and collected.
• Data collection speed: Can collect data from a large number of
respondents quickly.
•Disadvantages:
• Low response rates: May not always achieve a high response rate.
• Potential for bias:
• Social desirability bias: Respondents may provide answers they
believe are socially acceptable.
• Non-response bias: Respondents who choose to participate may differ
systematically from those who do not.
• Limited flexibility: May not capture the full range of respondent
perspectives.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•4. Interviews
• Definition: A method of collecting data through face-to-face or phone
conversations.
• Types:
• Structured Interviews: Use a predetermined set of questions with limited
flexibility.
• Unstructured Interviews: Allow for more open-ended discussion and
exploration.
• Semi-structured Interviews: Combine elements of both structured and
unstructured interviews.
• Focus Group Interviews: Gather insights from a small group of individuals
through a guided discussion.
• In-depth Interviews: Conduct detailed and in-depth conversations with
individuals.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

• Advantages:
• Rich Data: Can gather detailed and in-depth information.
• Flexibility: Allows for probing and exploring complex issues.
• Nonverbal Cues: Can observe nonverbal cues such as body language.
• Building Rapport: Can build rapport and establish trust with respondents.
• Disadvantages:
• Time-consuming: Can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.
• Costly: Can be expensive, especially for in-person interviews.
• Interviewer Bias: The interviewer's presence and questioning style can
influence respondent answers.
• Limited Sample Size: Typically involves smaller sample sizes compared to
surveys.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

•5. Observation
• Definition: Systematic observation of behavior or phenomena.
• Types:
• Direct Observation: The researcher directly observes the behavior or
phenomenon.
• Indirect Observation: Observing through recorded data (e.g., video
footage, documents).
• Participant Observation: The researcher becomes part of the group
being observed.
• Non-participant Observation: The researcher observes from a
distance without interacting with the subjects.
7.5 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA (Continued)

• Advantages:
• Naturalistic: Provides insights into real-world behavior in natural
settings.
• Unbiased: Can minimize respondent bias compared to self-report
methods.
• Unexpected Discoveries: Can uncover unexpected behaviors or
patterns.
• Disadvantages:
• Time-consuming: Can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.
• Subjectivity: Observer bias can influence observations.
• Ethical Considerations: May raise ethical concerns regarding privacy
and informed consent.
7.6 SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

•Definition: Secondary data is data that has already been collected by someone
else for a different purpose and is then used by a new researcher.
•Key Characteristics:
• Pre-existing: Data that has been collected previously.
• Collected for other purposes: Originally gathered for a different research
objective or for operational purposes.
• Readily available: Often easily accessible from various sources.
•Sources of Secondary Data:
• Published Sources:
• Books: Textbooks, research monographs, scholarly publications.
• Journals: Academic journals, industry publications.
• Magazines and Newspapers: Articles, reports, and news stories.
• Government Publications: Census data, economic reports, statistical
yearbooks.
• Reports: Market research reports, industry reports, government
reports.
7.6 SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA(Continued)

• Electronic Sources:
• Databases: Academic databases (e.g., JSTOR, Google Scholar),
statistical databases.
• Websites: Government websites, company websites, news websites.
• Online Archives: Digital libraries, online repositories.
• Social Media: Social media data (with ethical considerations).
• Unpublished Sources:
• Internal Company Records: Sales data, customer databases, financial
reports.
• Personal Archives: Diaries, letters, memoirs.
• Government Records: Internal government documents, census data.
7.6 SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA (Continued)

•Advantages of Secondary Data:

• Readily Available: Often easily accessible and readily available.
• Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive to obtain than primary data.
• Time-Saving: Can save significant time and resources in data collection.
• Broader Scope: Can provide a broader perspective and access to larger
datasets.
•Disadvantages of Secondary Data:
• May not be specific to the research question: May not perfectly align with
the researcher's needs.
• May not be entirely reliable: Data quality and accuracy can vary
depending on the source.
• May be outdated: Data may not be current or reflect the most recent
changes.
• May not be in the desired format: May require data cleaning and
transformation.
• May not be freely available: Access to some secondary data sources may
require subscriptions or fees.
7.7 PRIMARY DATA V/S SECONDARY DATA

•Origin:
• Primary Data: Collected directly by the researcher for the specific research
purpose.
• Secondary Data: Collected by someone else for a different purpose and
then used by the researcher.
•Purpose:
• Primary Data: Collected specifically for the current research objectives.
• Secondary Data: Collected for a different purpose and then re-purposed
for the current research.
•Collection:
• Primary Data: Involves direct interaction with the source (e.g., surveys,
experiments, observations).
• Secondary Data: Obtained from existing sources (e.g., published research,
databases).
7.7 PRIMARY DATA V/S SECONDARY DATA (Continued)

•Characteristics:
• Primary Data:
• Original and unique to the specific research.
• More reliable and up-to-date (generally).
• More specific to the research objectives.
• Secondary Data:
• May not be specific to the research question.
• May be outdated.
• May have limitations in terms of data quality and accuracy.
•Examples:
• Primary Data: Data collected through a survey conducted by the
researcher.
• Secondary Data: Census data, published research articles, company
financial reports.
•Data Analysis:
• Primary Data Analytics: Analyzing data collected specifically for the
current research.
• Secondary Data Analytics: Identifying and utilizing existing data sources
to address a new research question.
7.8 APPROPRIATENESS OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

•Factors to Consider:
• Research Questions: The specific research questions will determine the
most appropriate data collection methods.
• Research Design: The overall research design (e.g., exploratory,
descriptive, experimental) will influence the choice of methods.
• Sample: The characteristics of the target population and the sampling
method will impact data collection.
• Resources: Time, budget, and available resources will constrain the choice
of methods.
• Ethical Considerations: Ethical implications must be carefully considered
for each method.
7.8 APPROPRIATENESS OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION (Continued)

•Matching Methods to Research Questions:

• Surveys: Suitable for gathering information on attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors.
• Interviews: Appropriate for in-depth exploration of complex issues and
individual experiences.
• Observations: Useful for studying behavior in natural settings.
• Experiments: Ideal for establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
•Importance of Appropriate Method Selection:
• Choosing the right methods will ensure that the data collected is relevant,
reliable, and valid.
• It will also help to minimize potential biases and ensure the ethical conduct
of the research.