MAGNETIC FIELDS

A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which
has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. A permanent magnet will position
itself in a North and South direction when freely suspended. The North-seeking end of the
magnet is called the North pole, N, and the South-seeking end the South pole, S. The area
around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the effects of the magnetic
force produced by the magnet can be detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or
heard and therefore is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field
could be represented pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux,
which enables investigation of the distribution and density of the field to be carried out.

The distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar magnet
is placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is sprinkled some iron filings.
If the cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a pattern similar to that shown in Figure
below.

The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets
 (a) With unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes place
(b) With similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs

Magnetic Flux And Flux Density

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by a
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Ø (Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic
flux is the Weber, Wb. Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined
area that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux:

Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density =
Area

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T,
where 1 T = 1 Wb/m2. Hence,

∅
B¿ tesla where A(m2) is the area
A

Problem 1. A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200 mm by 100
mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole is 150 µWb, calculate the flux density
Problem 2. The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and the
effective area of a pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux produced is 353
mWb, determine the radius of the pole face.

Magnetomotive Force And Magnetic Field Strength

Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit,

mmf,Fm = NI (amperes)

where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in amperes. The unit of mmf
is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the SI unit
of mmf is the ampere. Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force),

¿
H ¿ l ampere per metre

where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres.

Thus mmf = NI = Hl amperes.

Problem 3. A magnetizing force of 8000 Ampere/metre is applied to a circular magnetic circuit

of mean diameter 30 cm by passing a current through a coil wound on the circuit. If the coil is
uniformly wound around the circuit and has 750 turns, find the current in the coil.
Permeability and B –H curves

For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force is a
constant, i.e. B/H = a constant. This constant is µo, the permeability of free space (or the
magnetic space constant) and is equal to 4×10 -7 H/m, i.e., for air, or any non-magnetic medium,
the ratio

B
=µo
H

(Although all non-magnetic materials, including air, exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can
effectively be neglected.) For all media other than free space,

B
=µo µr
H

where µr is the relative permeability, and is defined as

flux density in material flux density in a vacuum

Flux density ∈material

µr =
Flux density ∈ a vacuum

µr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no unit.
From its definition, µr for a vacuum is 1. µo µr = µ, called the absolute permeability

m0mr = m, called the absolute permeability By plotting measured values of flux density B
against magnetic field strength H, a magnetization curve (or B/H curve) is produced. For non-
magnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical curves for four magnetic materials are shown in
Figure below
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is proportional to the slope of the B–H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field strength. The approximate range of values of
relative permeability¿r ) for some common magnetic materials are:

B–H curves for materials

1. A flux density of 1.2 T is produced in a piece of cast steel by a magnetizing force of 1250
Ampere/metre. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions

2. Determine the magnetic field strength and the mmf required to produce a flux density of
0.25 T in an air gap of length 12 mm.

3. A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic material. The ring has
a mean circumference of 40 cm and a uniform cross sectional area of 4 cm 2. If the current
in the coil is 5 A, calculate (a) The magnetic field strength, (b) The flux density and (c)
the total magnetic flux in the ring
Reluctance

Reluctance S (or RM) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the presence of
magnetic flux.

F m ¿ HI l l
Reluctance S = = = = =
Ø Ø BA (B/ H ) A µ o µrA

The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H-1) or A/Wb

Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent
magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen.

4. Determine the reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and cross-sectional

area 1800mm2 when the relative permeability is 4000. Find also the absolute permeability
of the mumetal.

Composite Series Magnetic Circuits

For a series magnetic circuit having n parts, the total reluctance S is given by:

S = S1 + S2 + ... + Sn

(This is similar to resistors connected in series in an electrical circuit.)

5. A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6 cm long path of cross-sectional area 1
cm2 and a 2cm path of cross-sectional area 0.5 cm 2. A coil of 200 turns is wound around
the 6 cm length of the circuit and a current of 0.4A flows. Determine the flux density in
the 2 cm path, if the relative permeability of the cast steel is 750.
Comparison Between Electrical And Magnetic Quantities

Hysteresis

Hysteresis is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density B whenever there are changes in the magnetic
field strength H.