Syllabus

Basics of Thermodynamics (10hrs)

Review or thermodynamic system & properties, properties of pure substances, energy and energy
transfer, first law of thermodynamics for control mass and control volume systems, heat engine,
refrigerator and heat pump, two classical statements of second law or thermodynamics, carnot
cycles.

Internal Combustion Engines (8 hrs)

Introduction, classification of I.C. engines, parts and function of I.C. engines. working principle
of two stroke and four stroke petrol engines and thermodynamic cycles, working principle of two
stroke and four stroke diesel engines and thermodynamic cycles, comparison between: petrol and
diesel engines, two and four stroke engines, cooling system of I.C. engines: air cooling and water
cooling.

Heat Transfer (4 hrs)

Introduction, modes of heat transfer, conduction heat transfer, fourier’s law of conduction,
conduction heat transfer through plane and composite wall, convection hest transfer, newton's
law of cooling, free and forced convection, radiation heat transfer, stefan-boltzman's law,
radiation properties: emissivity, absorptivity and reflectivity.

Elements of Machines (4 hrs)

Transmission of power: belt drive, rope drive, chain drive, gear drive, bearings and lubrications;
types and applications of bearings; functions and properties of lubricating oii, grading of
lubricating oil.

Workshop Technology (4 hrs)

Introduction to safety measures and first aid, introduction to machine, drilling machine, grinding
machine, lathe machine and shaping machine, welding, soldering and brazing

1
 Table of Contents
Syllabus ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Basics of Thermodynamics (10hrs) ............................................................................................ 1

Internal Combustion Engines (8 hrs) .......................................................................................... 1

Heat Transfer (4 hrs) ................................................................................................................... 1

Elements of Machines (4 hrs) ..................................................................................................... 1

Workshop Technology (4 hrs) .................................................................................................... 1

1. CHAPTER-INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 7
1.1. Background ...................................................................................................................... 7

General Overview ................................................................................................................... 7

1.2. Scopes of Thermal Science .............................................................................................. 7

1.3. Statistical and Classical Approach to Thermodynamics .................................................. 9

1. CHAPTER ONE BASIC OF THERMODYNAMICS ......................................................... 11

1.1. Review of Basic Thermodynamics Terms ..................................................................... 11

1.2. Energy and Energy Transfer .......................................................................................... 18

1.3. Properties of a Pure Substance ....................................................................................... 23

1.3.1. Pure substance:........................................................................................................ 23

1.4. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Mass and Control Volume Systems .......... 30

1.4.1. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Mass or closed system ........................ 31

1.4.2. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volume or open system ...................... 33

1.5. Applications of Steady Flow/Steady flow devices ......................................................... 39

1.5.1. Turbine........................................................................................................................ 39

1.5.2. Compressor, Pump and Fan ........................................................................................ 40

1.5.3. Nozzle and Diffuser .................................................................................................... 40

1.5.4. Heat Exchanger........................................................................................................... 41

2
 1.5.5. Evaporator and Condenser.......................................................................................... 41

1.5.6. Throttling Device ........................................................................................................ 42

1.6. Carnot Cycles ................................................................................................................. 42

1.7. Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump ..................................................................... 44

1.7.1. Heat Engine:............................................................................................................ 44

1.7.2. Heat Pump ............................................................................................................... 45

1.7.3. Refrigerator ............................................................................................................. 46

1.8. Second Law of thermodynamics: ................................................................................... 50

1.8.1. Limitations of First Law ......................................................................................... 50

1.8.2. Second Law of Thermodynamics for Heat Engine (Kelvin Plank Statement) ....... 50

1.8.3. Second Law of Thermodynamics for Refrigerator and Heat Pump (Clausisus
Statement) ............................................................................................................................. 51

1.8.4. Isentropic efficiency of steady flow devices ........................................................... 52

1.8.4.1. Isentropic efficiency of a turbine ........................................................................ 52

1.8.4.2. Isentropic efficiency of a Pump/Compressor ...................................................... 52

1.8.4.3. Isentropic efficiency of a Nozzle ........................................................................ 52

2. CHAPTER TWO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ................................................ 53

2.1. Introduction: ................................................................................................................... 53

2.2. Classification of I.C. engines ......................................................................................... 54

2.2.1. Basic Engine Design: .............................................................................................. 54

2.2.2. Mixture formation and Ignition: ............................................................................. 54

2.2.3. Working Cycle: ....................................................................................................... 54

2.3. Parts and Functions of IC Engines ................................................................................. 54

2.4. Working Principle of Two stroke and Four Stroke Petrol Engine ................................. 57

2.4.1. Four Stroke Petrol Engine ....................................................................................... 57

3
 2.5. Working Principle of Two stroke and Four Stroke Diesel Cycle .................................. 61

2.5.1. Four Stroke Diesel Engine ...................................................................................... 61

2.5.2. Two Stroke Engines Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine ........................................... 65

2.6. Comparison between Engines ................................................................................ 67

2.6.1. Difference Between Two stroke and Four Stroke Engines ..................................... 67

2.6.2. Difference between SI (Petrol) Engine and CI (Diesel) Engine ............................. 68

2.7. Cooling System of IC engines........................................................................................ 69

2.7.1. Air Cooling System................................................................................................. 69

2.7.2. Water Cooling System ............................................................................................ 70

3. CHAPTER THREE HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................................. 71

3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 71

3.2. Modes of Heat Transfer.................................................................................................. 71

3.3. Conduction Heat Transfer .............................................................................................. 71

3.4. Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction ................................................................................. 72

3.5. Conduction Heat Transfer through plane and composite wall. ...................................... 73

3.5.1. Conduction Heat Transfer through Plane Wall ....................................................... 73

3.5.2. Electrical Analogy .................................................................................................. 74

3.5.3. Conduction Heat Transfer through composite Plane Slab ...................................... 74

3.5.4. Conduction Heat Transfer through Hollow Cylinder ............................................. 75

3.5.5. Conduction Heat Transfer through Multilayer Tube .............................................. 76

3.6. Convection Heat Transfer: ............................................................................................. 78

3.7. Newton's law of Cooling ................................................................................................ 78

3.8. Free and Forced Convection: ......................................................................................... 78

3.8.1. Natural Convection (Free Convection) ................................................................... 79

4
 3.8.2. Forced Convection: ................................................................................................. 79

3.9. Radiation Heat Transfer: ................................................................................................ 79

3.10. Stefan Boltzmann's Law: ............................................................................................ 80

3.11. Radiation properties: emissivity, absorptivity, transmissivity and reflectivity .......... 80

3.11.1. Emissive Power and Emissivity: ......................................................................... 81

4. CHAPTER FOUR ELEMENTS OF MACHINES ............................................................... 83

4.1. Transmission of Power: .................................................................................................. 83

4.1.1. Gear and Gear Trains .............................................................................................. 84

4.1.2. Chain Drives: .......................................................................................................... 84

4.1.3. Belt Drives: ............................................................................................................. 85

4.1.4. Rope Drives: ........................................................................................................... 86

4.2. Bearings and Lubrication: .............................................................................................. 87

4.2.1. Bearings: ................................................................................................................. 87

4.2.2. Lubrications: ........................................................................................................... 88

5. CHAPTER FIVE WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY ............................................................... 91

5.1. Introduction to Safety Measures and First Aid .............................................................. 91

5.1.1. Safety Measures in Workshop ................................................................................ 91

5.1.2. First Aid in Workshops ........................................................................................... 92

5.2. Introduction to Machine: ................................................................................................ 93

5.3. Drilling Machine: ........................................................................................................... 93

5.4. Grinding Machine .......................................................................................................... 95

5.5. Lathe Machine and Shaping machine, ........................................................................... 97

5.5.1. Lathe Machine: ....................................................................................................... 97

5.5.2. Lathe operations .................................................................................................... 100

5.5.3. Shaping Machine: ................................................................................................. 103

5
 5.6. Welding, Soldering and Brazing: ................................................................................. 106

5.6.1. Brazing: ................................................................................................................. 106

5.6.2. Soldering ............................................................................................................... 106

5.6.3. Welding: ................................................................................................................ 107

5.6.4. COMPARISON OF SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING ..................... 108

Important Questions .................................................................................................................... 110

6
 1. CHAPTER-INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

“Thermodynamics” is the word of Greek origin, and is translated as the combination of

therme: heat and dynamis: power. It is a science based on both theoretical and empirical
observation (practical approach).

General Overview

Science is the study of nature and natural phenomenon explained in terms of laws.
Everything around us is subject to a constant change. The cause and effect of changes due
to interaction with the external factors and ways to mitigate them is the concern of study
in most of the engineering disciplines. Thermal science deals with the interactions in the
form of mass and energy. The major form of energy involved is heat energy. In
Summary,Thermal Science deals with the following aspects,

i. Study of the relationship between heat, work, and other forms of energy.

ii. Thepossibility of different energy conversion processes. i.e. it describes which

processes are possible and which are not during energy conversion processes.

iii. The nature and "direction" of a process like the direction of heat flow is from
higher temperature to lower temperature.

iv. The effects of temperature, pressure and other properties on physical systems at
the macroscopic scale

v. Thermodynamics is the study of energy conversion, most typically through terms

of heat and work.

The broader applications of this subject can be stretched to indefinite scopes. Some of
those scopes are dealt in coming sections.

1.2. Scopes of Thermal Science

Thermal Science is an interdisciplinary subject which has an application in diverse fields

of studies.

7
i. AC and Refrigeration: The concepts of phase change processes, phase change
diagrams, humidity, hygrometry, heat content, sensible heat etc. are the
backbones of AC and refrigeration. Furthermore the basic concept of AC and
refrigeration originated on the basis of second law of thermodynamics which
paved the way for the calculation of amount of work required to transfer heat
from lower temperature to higher temperature.Hygroscopic properties of pure
substance, airflow, heat flow, comfortable heat and moisture content as well as
human ergonomics are some of the concepts of thermodynamics used in
AC/Refrigeration.

ii. Highway and Roads:The concepts of Rutting Deformation and freeze thaw cycle
help to explain the phenomenon of water sipage and deformation of road
pavements. Also the expansion of roads and bridges due to change in temperature
is explained with the concepts of thermal science.

iii. Mechanical Engineering: Thermal science is the backbone of mechanical

engineering. The effect of heat on the mechanical properties is hugely significant
and is thus analyzed in mechanical engineering.

iv. Hydropower engineering: Law of conservation of energy is applied in flow

process and energy optimization.Energy generation and loss in almost all energy
applications is analyzed considering the first law and second law of
thermodynamics. The thermal plants and nuclear plants operate on steam engines
which are also based on this subject.

v. Sanitary Engineering: The concept of entropy is used to forecast pattern of

rainfall distribution and sewage distribution. Thermal science is also used in
swimming pool design, to maintain and regulate the temperature.

vi. Chemical Engineering: Chemical processes are exothermic or endothermic in

nature. The Gibb's energy, heat content and internal energies are the chemical
concepts that use the concept of thermodynamics. The analysis of fundamental
behavior of atoms and molecules involve the analysis through statistical
thermodynamics.

8
 vii. Building and Structure: The concept of active and passive heating in buildings,
space heating and expansion of structural elements/bridges require the
thermodynamics analysis and the analysis of heat transfer. Analysis and choice of
suitable materials to construct the building and maintain the temperature, analysis
of variable expansion of building materials and appropriate materials required to
reinforce requires detail analysis of thermodynamic and heat transfer processes.

viii. Electrical and Electronics engineering: At micro/nano-scale the materials react

strongly to heat. The small fluctuations in temperature significantly alter the
electromechanical properties of electric and electronic components. The design of
fins in heat sink for optimal heat transfer and analysis of heat transfer in high
tension power transmission are the applications of thermal science in electrical
and electronics engineering.

ix. Research and philosophy: The multidisciplinary research in today's context has
led to application of thermal science in philosophical aspects too. The behavior of
nature is generalized for the socio economic contexts and the resemblance in the
performance is highly correlating. The concept of entropy has always been a topic
of research with the concern of entropy loss minimization a hot topic among
researchers. The material-design for minimal heat loss is always a topic for
research.

1.3. Statistical and Classical Approach to Thermodynamics

To understand the behavior of a system and the changes which take place in the system,
we have two approaches; the Classical approach which has macroscopic nature and the
statistical approach which has a microscopic nature. In the microscopic approach, the
analysis is done at the molecular level and then the behavior of all the molecules is added
together to determine the behavior of a system. On the other hand, in the macroscopic
approach, the analysis is based on the quantity of the matter; it does not consider the
matter at the molecular level. Hence in statistical thermodynamics, a large number of
variables are required to describe the system whereas in the case of classical
thermodynamics the number of variables required is comparatively smaller. Properties
like kinetic energy, velocity and momentum of molecules are required in the case of

9
statistical thermodynamics while properties like pressure, volume and temperature are
needed to describe a system of classical thermodynamics. Classical thermodynamics is
based more upon experimental observations whereas statistical thermodynamics is based
upon the average behavior of a group of particles.The statistical analysis of any system is
much more complex than the classical analysis. This means that the level of mathematics
and computations in both approaches is also very different.

S.No Classical Thermodynamics/ Macroscopic Statistical

. Approach Thermodynamics/Microscopic
Approach

i) A macroscopic approach to the study of : A microscopic approach, based

thermodynamics that does not require on the average behavior of large
knowledge of the behavior of individual groups of individual particles.
particles.

ii) From a macroscopic point of view, we are They are based on the statistical
concerned not with the action of the considerations and probability
individual molecules but with the time- theory.
averaged force on a given area, which can be
measured

iii) Macroscopic observations are completely Concerned with the gross or

independent of our assumptions regarding the average effects of
nature of matter manymolecules

iv) Because we are not concerned with the we deal with average values for
behavior of individual molecules, we can treat all particles underconsideration
the substance as being continuous, reducing the number of
disregarding the action of individual variables to a few that can
molecules behandled

v) Macroscopic Approach is also called Microscopic Approach is also

Classical Approach of thermodynamics called Statistical Approach.

vi) Properties like kinetic energy, velocity and Properties like pressure, volume
momentum of molecules are required in the and temperature are needed to
case of statistical thermodynamics describe a system of classical
thermodynamics.

Q.1 What are the scopes of Thermal Science? (Thermal Science in Civil Engineering?)

Q.2. Differentiate between Classical and Statistical (Macroscopic and Microscopic)

Approach of Thermodynamics.

10
 1. CHAPTER ONE BASIC OF THERMODYNAMICS

1.1. Review of Basic Thermodynamics Terms

Figure 1: System Surrounding and Boundary

i. System:Thermodynamic system is the part of the universe which is to be

studied or analyzed. System is always subject to change. In thermodynamics
our concern is to analyze the cause and effect of the change, identify the
benefits and ways to optimize (maximize the benefits and minimize the
losses) the effects.
ii. Surrounding:All the medium outside to the system is called surroundings.
Surroundings cause a change in the properties of a system which is the subject
of study/analysis.
iii. Boundary:The medium which separates system from its surroundings is
called boundary. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
iv. Universe:System and surroundings taken together is called universe

Objective of most of the thermodynamic analysis is to study the interactionbetween the

system and the surroundings and effects of this interaction on the system or on the
surroundings. System and surroundings can interact with each other either by mass
transfer or energy transfer. According to mode of interaction between the system and
the surroundings, systems are classified into three types: closed system, open system and
isolated system.

v. Control Mass:Total mass of a closed system always remains constant

therefore any closed system can be completely described by the properties of
particular amount of mass inside the system. Hence, a closed system is also

11
 called a control mass (CM). In closed system there is no mass interaction
between system and surrounding.
vi. Control Volume: In case of an open system, properties of particular mass
cannot describe the properties of the system for any instant. For the study of
an open system, we select some specified region and analyze this region with
reference to thermodynamic properties. Hence an open system is also called a
control volume (CV).A properly selected region in space which usually
encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle is called control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary
of a control volume.
vii. Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume is called control
surface. It can be real or imaginary.

Figure 2: Types of Systems

viii. Thermodynamic Property: Any parameter or variableusedto

describe a thermodynamic system is called a thermodynamic
property.Most common thermodynamic properties are pressure (P),
temperature (T) and volume (V). Other properties which will be dealt in the
following chapters are internal energy (U), total energy (E), enthalpy (H) and
entropy (S). According their nature, thermodynamic properties are generally
classified into two groups: intensive property and extensive property.
ix. Intensive property: Thermodynamic property which is independent of mass
or extent of the system or part of the system considered is called an intensive
property.Pressure and temperature are examples of intensive properties.

12
x. Extensive Property: Thermodynamic property which is proportional to mass
or part of the system considered is called an extensive
property.Volume,internal energy, total energy, enthalpy, entropy
areexamples of extensive properties.
xi. Specific Property: Since extensive properties are proportional to mass they
can be converted into intensive form by dividing its value by mass. The ratio
of an extensive property to the mass is called the specific property.
xii. Thermodynamic State: Each unique condition at which a thermodynamic
system can exist is a called a thermodynamic state. Thermodynamic state is
specified with the values of thermodynamic properties. A variable is a
property, if and only if, a) it has a single value at each equilibrium state. b) a
change in itsvalue between any twoprescribedstates is independent of path.
xiii. Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Equilibrium: Thermodynamics deals
with equilibrium states.
a. Equilibrium: A state of balance is called equilibrium. In an
equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system. Thermodynamic Equilibrium is the state of balance
where all following types of equilibrium are observed.
b. Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system.
c. Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any
point of the system with time.
d. Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches equilibrium level and stays there.
e. Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does
not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
xiv. Thermodynamic Process: The path followed by a system when it
undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a thermodynamic
process. Thermodynamic process can also be defined as a locus of states
through which system passes while undergoing change form one equilibrium
state to another. Thermodynamic process is described with the help of

13
 property diagrams. It is expressed in the forms of equations of relations
between thermodynamic properties.
xv. Reversible and Irreversible Process:Any process which passes through a
series of equilibrium states such that each intermediate States can be located
on a property diagram is called a reversible process.
Any process which passes through a series of intermediate states which cannot
be defined or cannot be located on a property diagram is called an
irreversible process.
xvi. Cyclic Process:A process is said to be a cyclic process, if the initial state
of the system is restored by a number of different processes in series. For a
cyclic process, initial and final states are identical.

Figure 3reversible Process and Irreversible Process

Figure 4 Cyclic Process

xvii. Quasi Static process:Arbitrarily slow process such that system always
stays arbitrarily close to thermodynamic equilibrium is called quasi static
process. During a quick process there is an imbalance in the system and it

14
 undergoes non-equilibrium intermediate states. To define the intermediate
states in a process as equilibrium states infinite slowness is a necessity.
Infinite slowness is the characteristics of a quasi-static process. It is a
succession of equilibrium states and thus quasi-static process is also reversible
process.

Figure 5: Quasi static Process or Quasi static Equilibrium

xviii. State Postulate: The number of properties required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state postulate: The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
xix. Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects it is called simple
compressible system.
xx. Ideal Gas: Ideal gas is that gas which follows the ideal gas law; PV=mRT
under all conditions of temperature and pressure. Here P= Absolute Pressure
of the system. V = Volume of the system, m = mass of the system, R =
Universal Gas constant = 287J/kg/K for air, T = absolute temperature of the
system. For a closed system undergoing a transition from state 1 to state to
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
where the subscripts denote the respective states, = .
𝑇1 𝑇2

The ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of
state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of
many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was
first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the

15
 empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's
law. The ideal gas law is often written in an empirical form:
PV=nŔTor PV= mRT
where,
P= Pressure
V = Volume of the system
n = no. of moles
m = mass
Ŕ = universal gas constant
R = specific gas constant it is referenced as universal gas constant in our text
T= Absolute Temperature

xxi. Some types of Thermodynamic Processes:

a. Polytropic Process:Any ideal gas can be represented in the form of
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟, 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛 = ⋯ = 𝑃𝑡 𝑉𝑡 𝑛
Where, n = polytropic constant.
Hence, we can say that any real process is a polytropic process.
b. Isobaric Process:Isobaric, Iso= equal, Bar= pressure. It is a process in
which the pressure remains constant throughout the system throughout
the process, i.e. P = constant ; or V/T = constant
P1 =P2= ... = Pn
In a polytropic process PVn= constant, n = 0 for isobaric process.
c. Isochoric Process:(Iso= equal, chor = volume). It is a process in
which the volume remains constant throughout the system throughout
the process, i.e. V = constant ; or P/T=constant
V1 =V2= ... = Vn
In a polytropic process PVn= constant, n = ∞ for isochoric process
d. Isothermal Process:(Iso= equal, therm= temperature) It is a process
in which the temperature remains constant throughout the system
throughout the process, i.e. T = constant ;or PV = constant
T1 =T2= ... = Tn

16
 In a polytropic process PVn= constant, n = 1 for isothermal process
e. Isentropic and Adiabatic Processes: (Isentropic, Iso= equal,
entropy= randomness) It is a process in which the entropy remains
constant throughout the system throughout the process, In other words
if there is no heat transfer in and out of the system (Q =0) then it is
called adiabatic process. If the process is adiabatic and reversible it is
isentropic.i.e. S = constant ; Q = 0 or, S1 =S2= ... = Sn
In a polytropic process PVn= constant, n = γ for isentropic process,
where, γ = adiabatic constant
xxii. Path and Point Functions:Path is the locus of all points through which
the system passes in its change from one state to another. It is possible to go
from state 1 to state 2 along different paths as shown in the figure [i.e,
thorough A, B or C].
Properties like pressure, temperature, volume etc. does not depend on the path
followed in reaching the state, but only on the equilibrium state itself is called
point function.
Characteristics of a process which depends upon the path followed in going
from one state to another are referred to as path functions. Eg:- Work transfer,
heat transfer etc.
Path functions are not properties of system, while point functions are
properties of system.
The differentials of State functions or point functions are represented by exact
differentials. Work done and heat transfer on the other hand are path
dependent and their differentials are inexact.

17
 Figure 6: Path and Point Function

xxiii. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Statement, "If two bodies are in

thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other."
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact

Figure 7: Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

1.2. Energy and Energy Transfer

i. Energy: Energy can be defined as the capacity of a system to exert (provide)
force for a certain interval. Different forms of energiesareclassified
into two groups in thermodynamics: stored energy and transient energy.
ii. Stored energy and transient energy: Energy which remains within the
system as an inherent property of the system is called stored energy.Internal
energy, potential energy and kinetic energy are examples of stored energy.
Stored energies are thermodynamic properties.
Energy which can cross the boundary of the system during thermodynamic
processes is called transient energy. Work transfer and heat transferare

18
 examples of transient energy. Transient energy arenotthermodynamic
properties but related to the process and path.
iii. Internal energy, U: Internal energy is the sum of all the microscopic forms of
energy. Microscopic forms of energy are those which arerelated to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
iv. Total Energy: Total energy of a system is defined as the summation of its
internal energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.
v. Enthalpy: Enthalpy is the total heat content of the system. The expression
U+PV occurs so frequently in thermodynamics that it has been given a special
name and symbol; enthalpy and H. Hence, enthalpy is defined as the
summation of internal energy and the product of pressure and volume.
vi. Heat vs Work:

Similarities

a. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the

boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
b. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
c. Both are associated with a process, not a state.
d. Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
e. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
f. Properties are path functions and have exact differentials
2
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
1

whereas heat and work are path functions and have inexact
2
differentials. ∫1 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑊1−2 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ∆𝑊𝑜𝑟 𝑊2 − 𝑊1

Differences

Transfer of energy, without transfer of mass, because of temperature difference

between the system and the surroundings is called heat transfer. Heat transfer is
denoted by Q and expressed in J. In thermodynamics, heat transferred (supplied)

19
to the system is taken as positive heat transfer and heat transferred (lost) from the
system is taken as negative heat transfer.

Work transfer is the transfer of energy, without transfer of mass, because of any
property difference other than temperature. Work transfer is denoted by W and
expressed in J. In thermodynamics, work done by the system is taken as positive
work transfer and work done on the system is taken as negative work transfer.

vii. Displacement Work: Consider a piston cylinder device containing a gas.

During process 1-2, piston is displaced by ds from state 1 to state 2. Applying
mechanical definition, work transfer is evaluated as
2 2
𝑊 = ∫1 𝛿𝑊 = ∫1 𝐹𝑑𝑠̅
where F is the force provided by the
gas pressure, i.e., F = PA
Substituting F into above equation,
we get
2 𝑉1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑠̅ = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1 𝑉1

The above equation shows that the

work transferred during any process
can be determined by evaluating area
covered by the process on P- V
Figure 8: Mechanical Work Done diagram.

viii. Displacement Work Transfer for a constant Volume Process:

20
ix. Displacement Work For Constant Pressure:

x. Displacement Work For Constant Temperature Process:

Pressure volume relationship for an ideal gas undergoing a constant
1
temperature process is given as: 𝑃 ∝ 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Applying the Equation for initial, final and any intermediate states,
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃𝑉
Pressure at any intermediate state is given by ;
𝑃𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃= = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Then Work Transfer is given by
2 𝑉2 𝑣2 𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝛿𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ∫ = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( )
1 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉1
xi. Displacement Work for polytropic Process:

Pressure-volume relationship for initial, final and any intermediate state during a
polytropic process is given as

21
Pressure at any intermediate state is given as

Then work transfer is given as

22
 1.3. Properties of a Pure Substance

Q. What is a pure substance?

1.3.1. Pure substance:

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.
Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to be a pure substance. For most of
the thermodynamic analysis, we assume the working substance as a pure substance. A
system is said to be composed of pure substance if it is

a) homogeneous in composition
b) homogeneous in chemical aggregation, and
c) invariable in chemical aggregation
ii. Phase of a pure substance:The molecules in a solid are kept at their positions
by the large spring like inter-molecular forces. In a solid, the attractiveand
repulsiveforces betweenthe moleculestend to maintain them atrelatively
constant distancesfrom each other.

Figure 9: The arrangement of atoms in different phases. a) Molecules are relatively fixed positions in solids. b)
Molecules move about each other in liquid c) molecules move about random in gas phase

iii. Phase Change process and P-v /T-v diagram

Let us consider a closed system consisting of water at 1atm and 200C which is
gradually heated to arrive at following states.
a) At 1atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid phase (compressed
liquid).
b) At 1atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as a liquid that is ready to
vaporize (saturated liquid).

23
 c) As more heat is transferred, part of the saturated liquid vaporizes
(saturated liquid– vapor mixture).
d) At 1atm pressure, the temperature remains constant at 100°C until the
last drop of liquid is vaporized (saturated vapor).
e) As more heat is transferred, the temperature of the vapor starts to rise
(superheated vapor).

f)
If the entire process between state 1 and 5 described in the figure is reversed
by cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the same value, the
water will go back to state 1, retracing the same path, and in so doing, the
amount of heat released will exactly match the amount of heat added during
the heating process.

Figure 10: T-v diagram of phase change of water

24
On increasing the pressure the phase change curve shifts upward and on decreasing the
pressure the phase change lines shift downward as shown in the figure. Boiling point of
water increases at higher pressure and decreases at lower pressure.

On joining the saturated liquid points and the saturated vapour points we get a dome
shaped curve as shown in the figure given below.

25
iv. P-v diagram of phase change of water.
Let us consider water vapour at 100oC, and at a pressure of 0.01atm (point D)
. Keeping the temperature constant, the pressure is increased slowly. The
molecules of the gaseous state come closer together on increasing the
pressure. At 1atm (saturated vapour, point C) the water starts condensing at
constant temperature and pressure until each drop of water completely
converts to liquid (saturated liquid, point B). On further increasing the
pressure, the liquid becomes compressed liquid or subcooled liquid.

On increasing the temperature the phase change line/curve shifts upward and
on repeating the process at lower temperature the phase change curve shifts
downward as shown in the figure.

On joining all the saturate liquid and saturated vapour lines, we get a dome
shaped curve as shown in the figure below, with all the regions appropriately
labeled.

26
v. Some definitions
a) Saturation Temperature: For a given pressure, the temperature at
which phase change (liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid) occurs is called
a saturation temperature. For example, if we heat water at 1atm,
evaporation takes place at 100oC, i.e., saturation temperature for 1atm
is 1000C.
b) Saturation Pressure: For a given temperature, the pressure at which
phase change (liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid) occurs is called a
saturation pressure. For example, if we expand water at 1000C,
evaporation takes place 1atm, i.e., saturation pressure for 1000C is 1
atm.
c) Saturated Liquid: The state of a substance at which evaporation just
starts (during heating) or condensation just completes (during cooling)
is called the saturated liquid.
d) Saturated Vapor: The state of a substance at which evaporation just
completes (during heating) or condensation just starts (during cooling)
is called the saturated vapor.
e) Compressed Liquid or subcooled Liquid: When saturated liquid is
further cooled or compressed, it is called a compressed liquid or
subcooled liquid.
f) Superheated Vapor: When saturated vapor is further heated or
expanded, it is called a superheated vapor.

27
g) Degree of Superheat: The difference in temperatureof
a superheated vaporandthe corresponding saturation temperature is
called degree of superheat.

h) Critical Point: The state of a substance at which saturated liquid and

saturated vapor have identical properties is called a critical point. The
pressure and temperature corresponding to critical point are called
critical pressure and critical temperature respectively.
For H2O, critical pressure and critical temperature are 22.055MPa
and3730C. If we H2O at 22.055MPa it suddenly gets converted into
saturated vapor from saturated liquid when temperature reaches 3730C.
i) Quality: For two-phase mixture (saturation) region, pressure and
temperature are no more independent, and we cannot fix the state with
dependent pressure and temperature.
To fix the state within the saturation region, we have to use a new
property called quality. Quality is defined as the ratio of mass of
saturated vapor and the total mass of the two phase mixture. It is also
called dryness fraction and is denoted by x.

28
j) Specific Properties of two phase mixture: Specific properties of the
two-phase mixture can be expressed in term of quality. For example,
specific volume of a two phase mixture is given by the ratio of total
volume of two-phase mixture and the total mass of the two phase
mixture, i.e.

29
 Other specific properties of the two-phase mixture can be expressedin
the similar manner as

k) Development of Property Data: Properties of a substance at within

saturation region or near saturation region cannot be determined using
the mathematical equations (e.g. ideal gas equation). Hence, properties
under such conditions are determined experimentally and presented in
the form of tables or charts. Property tables can be used to determine
the property of a substance for a particular state. Property charts can be
used to determine the properties for a particular state as well as process
can also be plotted.

1.4. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Mass and Control Volume
Systems

First Law of Thermodynamics is analogous to law of conservation of energy which states

that 'Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be converted from one form
to another.' First law of thermodynamics is more specific form of law of conservation of
energy where one of the forms of energy being converted is heat energy.

First law of thermodynamics is based on the conservation principles.

It gives the mathematical expression for the effect of the interactions between the system
and surrounding on the stored energy (total energy) of the system.

In closed system (control mass), interactions can take place only in the form of energy
transfer (work transfer and heat transfer). There is no mass transfer in control mass.

30
Therefore first law of thermodynamics for a control mass can be explained with
referenced to conservation of energy only.

Whereas in an open system (control volume), interactions can take place both by the
mass transfer and energy transfer. Hence the first law of thermodynamics for a control
volume is explained with reference to both mass conservation and energy conservation
principles.

Figure 11 First Law of Thermodynamics for Control mass (Closed System)

Figure 12 First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volume (open System)

1.4.1. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Mass or closed

system

As discussed earlier, in a closed system (control mass), interactions can take place only in
the form of energy transfer (work transfer and heat transfer). There is no mass transfer in
control mass. Therefore first law of thermodynamics for a control mass can be explained

31
with referenced to conservation of energy only. Hence conservation of mass for a control
mass can be stated as

Total mass of a control mass always remains constant.

𝑑𝑚 = 0

For any process between state 1 and 2 if m1 be the mass at state 1 and m2 be the mass at
state 2 then ;

m2 - m1 = 0

or, m2 = m1
𝑑𝑚
In terms of rate; = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 =̇ 0
𝑑𝑡

In terms of Conservation of Energy ;

The change in total energy of a control mass is equal to the heat supplied to the control
mass minus the work produced by the control mass.

Figure 13 Illustration of first law of thermodynamics for Control Mass

𝑑𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊
𝑑𝐸
In terms of rate, = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
𝑑𝑡

For any process between state 1 and 2 where E1 is the total energy stored within the
system at state 1, E2 is the total energy stored within the system at state 2 Q12 and W12 are
the heat transfer and work done during the process 1-2. Then,

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12

Substituting the expression for the total energy, we get,

(U+KE+PE)2-(U+KE+PE)1 = Q12-W12

32
 1 1
or, (𝑈 + 2 𝑚𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧)2 − (𝑈 + 2 𝑚𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧)1 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12

Most common example of a control mass is a piston cylinder device and for a stationary
piston cylinder device the changes in potential energy and kinetic energy are negligible in
comparison to the change in internal energy. Therefore, for the piston cylinder devices,

U2-U1=Q12-W12

In general terms First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system states that, The
change in internal energy of a control mass is equal to the heat supplied to the control
mass minus the work produced by the control mass.'. Mathematically,

𝑑𝑈 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 where,

Q= Heat transferred to the system,

W= Work done by the system,

U = Internal energy of the system.

It can be rearranged for heat transfer as,

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝛿𝑊

1.4.2. First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volume or open

system

As discussed earlier, in an open system (control volume), interactions can take place both
in the form of mass transfer and energy transfer (transfer of energy with the mass, work
transfer and heat transfer). Therefore first law of thermodynamics for a control volume
has to be explained with reference to conservation of energy and conservation of mass
principles. Hence conservation of mass for a control volume can be stated as,

"The change in mass within a control volume is equal to the mass entering the control
volume minus the mass leaving the control volume."

Conservation of Mass for Control Volume

If mcv be the mass of the control volume then

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡

33
In terms of rate,

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Where, min and mout are the inlet mass and the exit mass respectively.

Figure 14; Conservation of Mass for multiple inlets and exits

For multiple inlets and exits,

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚̇ ,

𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∑ 𝑚̇
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡

The mass flow rate is expressed in terms of volume and density,

𝐴𝑉 ̅
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉̅ = 𝑣 where v= 1/ρ is the specific volume

where, ρ is the density of the flow and A is the cross sectional area of the control volume
and 𝑉̅ is the velocity.

Figure 15expression of mass flow rate for control volume

34
Conservation of Energy for Control Volume

Along with heat transfer and work transfer, mass transfer also affects the total energy of a
control volume. Mass entering into the control volume increases the total energy of the
system where as mass leaving from the control volume decreases the total energy of the
system. Hence conservation of energy for a control volume can be stated as:

"The change in total energy of a control volume is equal to the net energy transported by
the fluid into the control volume plus heat transferred to the control volume minus work
done by the control volume."

Mathematically ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 + 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

In terms of rate equation,

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣
= 𝐸̇𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣
or, = 𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
𝑑𝑡

The total energy of the flow is equal to the sum of its internal energy and external
energies. The other external forms of energies like nuclear, magnetic, surface tension etc.
are negligible in our general consideration so the total external energy considered are the
sum of kinetic and potential energies.Then,

1
𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑{𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑧)}
2
𝑖𝑛

1
𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∑{𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑧)}
2
𝑜𝑢𝑡

Heat transfer always occurs due to the difference in temperature between the system and
the surroundings whether it's a control mass or control volume, i.e.𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣

But the total work transfer such as flow work, shaft work, expansion/compression work,
etc, i.e.𝑊̇ = 𝑊̇𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

Energy( work required for the displacement of the fluid is given by

𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐹. ∆𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴. ∆𝐿 = 𝑃𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡

35
Specific flow work or flow work per unit mass of the flowing fluid 𝑤𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑃𝑣

Therefore, in terms of rate equation,𝑊̇𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑤𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣

Then general expression for the total work transfer is given by

𝑊̇ = − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣 + 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

where, 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

Derivation of expression for First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volume

Wx

Figure 16: First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volume

̇ ̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦,

Let, 𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑚

𝑃𝑖𝑛 , 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉

ℎ𝑖𝑛 , ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉

𝑢𝑖𝑛 , 𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉

𝑉̅𝑖𝑛 , 𝑉̅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.

𝑣𝑖𝑛 , 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉

𝑍𝑖𝑛 , 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

Applying conservation principle for the Control Volume, we get,

36
 ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 + 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where, ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.

Q= heat transferred to the Control Volume.

W= Work done by the control volume.

In terms of rate equation,

∆𝐸𝑐𝑣
= 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ + 𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡

where, Where,

1
𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑{𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑧)} 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
2
𝑖𝑛

1
𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∑ {𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑧)} 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
2
𝑜𝑢𝑡

Substituting we get,

Heat transfer always occurs due to the difference in temperature between the system and
the surroundings whether it's a control mass or control volume, i.e.𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣

But the total work transfer such as flow work, shaft work, expansion/compression work,
etc, i.e.𝑊̇ = 𝑊̇𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

Work required for the displacement of the fluid is given by

𝑊̇𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣

Then general expression for the total work transfer is given by

𝑊̇ = − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑃𝑣 + 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where, 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

Thus the general equation of control volume reduces to:

∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 1 1
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑢 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑐𝑣 − (𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑣)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

37
 ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 1 1
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Since ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣, the above equation reduces to,

∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 1 1
= 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑐𝑣
̇
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

which is the required equation of the first law of thermodynamics for control volume.

For multiple inlets and multiple exits;

∆𝐸𝑐𝑣 1 1
= ∑ 𝑚̇ (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) − ∑𝑚̇ (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛

in terms of specific properties,

1 2 1 2
∆𝑒𝑐𝑣 = (ℎ𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉̅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑔𝑍𝑖𝑛 ) − (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉̅𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + 𝑞 − 𝑤
2 2

Steady Flow Energy Equation(SFEE)

Since the steady flow process is that in which the condition of fluid flow within a control
volume does not vary with time, i.e. the mass flow rate, pressure, volume, work and rate
of heat transfer are not the function of time.

Assumptions:

For a flow to be steady Flow

i. The mass flow rate through the system remains constant.

ii.The rate of heat transfer is constant.
iii.
The rate of work transfer is constant
iv.The state of working substance at any point within the system is same at all
times.
v. There is no change in the chemical composition of the system.
In the absence of any mass getting stored within the system,
̅𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑖𝑛 𝑉 ̅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉
i.e. for steady flow 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟, = 𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑚/𝑑𝑡 = 0, This is also called
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡

continuity equation

For no energy to be stored within the system,

38
 ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣
=0
𝑑𝑡

Or, the First law of thermodynamics for control volume for Steady Flow reduces to,

1 1
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑐𝑣
̇ =0
2 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

or,

1 1
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) = 𝑊̇
2 𝑖𝑛 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

which is the required expression for Steady Flow Energy Equation for Control Volume.

For multiple inlet and exits,

1 1
∑ 𝑚̇ (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) + 𝑄̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇ (ℎ + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍) = 𝑊̇
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

In terms of specific properties,

1 2 1
ℎ𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉̅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑔𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞 = ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉̅ 2 + 𝑔𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊̇
2 2

1.5. Applications of Steady Flow/Steady flow devices

Steady flow work application devices are those devices which operate under steady
conditions and either produce or consume work. Some of the major steady flow work
application devices under our study are:

1.5.1. Turbine

Turbine is a device which produces power by consuming energy carried by a fluid. A

turbine has generally a single inlet and a single outlet, therefore energy equation for the
steady state operation of turbine is given as
1
𝑄̇𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 2 (𝑉̅22 − 𝑉̅12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )]

If turbine is insulated and heat transfer loss is negligible, it is called

an adiabatic turbine. Therefore for an adiabatic turbine energy

39
equation reduces to

1
𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + (𝑉̅22 − 𝑉̅12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )]
2

For an adiabatic steam turbine change in potential and kinetic energy is negligible, hence
the energy flow equation reduces to,

𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

1.5.2. Compressor, Pump and Fan

Compressor, pump and fan increase fluid energy by consuming mechanical work.

Compressor usually increases pressure energy of the gaseous substance (in the form of
enthalpy), pump increase the pressure or potential energy of the liquid substance and fan
increases kinetic energy by increasing velocity of the fluid. Hence energy equations for
these devices are also given by

1
𝑄̇𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + (𝑉̅22 − 𝑉̅12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )]
2

For adiabatic conditions

1
𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + (𝑉̅12 − 𝑉̅22 ) + 𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )]
2

For compressor change in kinetic energy and potential energy is negligible and hence
energy equation is given by

𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇[(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )]

For a fan the change in other forms of energy of flow is negligible in comparison to
Kinetic Energy and hence energy equation reduces to

1
𝑊̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [ (𝑉̅22 − 𝑉̅12 )]
2

1.5.3. Nozzle and Diffuser

These are devices which operate under steady state conditions and do not produce or
consume work and are called steady state flow applications.

40
Nozzle is a device with decreasing cross sectional area and is used to increase fluid
velocity where as diffuser is a device with increasing cross sectional area and is used to
decrease fluid velocity. These devices have a single inlet and single outlet generally at
same level (change in potential energy is negligible) and therefore general energy
equation for these devices is given as

1
𝑄̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + (𝑉̅22 − 𝑉̅12 )]
2

For adiabatic conditions

1 1
ℎ1 + 𝑉̅12 = ℎ2 + 𝑉̅22
2 2

1.5.4. Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is a steady flow application device used to

transfer heat from one fluid to another. The energy equation
for the control volume is given by

𝑄ℎ̇ = 𝑚̇ℎ (ℎ2ℎ − ℎ1ℎ ); 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑄̇𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑐 (ℎ1𝑐 − ℎ2𝑐 ); 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Since heat lost by hot fluid is absorbed by cold fluid;

𝑄̇ℎ = 𝑄̇𝑐

∴ 𝑚̇ℎ ℎ1ℎ + 𝑚̇𝑐 ℎ1𝑐 = 𝑚̇ℎ ℎ2ℎ + 𝑚̇𝑐 ℎ2𝑐

1.5.5. Evaporator and Condenser

Evaporator converts liquid into vapor by absorbing heat from the surroundings whereas
condenser converts vapor into liquid by rejecting the heat to the surroundings.

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

41
 1.5.6. Throttling Device

Throttling valve reduces pressure of the fluid without performing work. Heat transfer,
change in potential energy and kinetic energy are also negligible. Energy equation for the
throttling valve is given as

ℎ2 = ℎ1

1.6. Carnot Cycles

A Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine that converts heat energy into work done by a
series of processes. It operates in a cyclic process and the cycle is called Carnot cycle.
Carnot cycle is defined as an ideal reversible closed thermodynamic cycle. Four
successive operations are involved: isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion,
isothermal compression, and adiabatic compression. During these operations, the
expansion and compression of the substance can be done up to the desired point and back
to the initial state. (Refer to the video provided to understand the working of carnot
engine better)

Following are the four processes of the Carnot cycle:

• In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas expansion. In this process, the
amount of heat absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat source at a
temperature of TH. The gas expands and does work on the surroundings. In
isothermal process dU=0 so Q=W
The heat transfer which is equal to isothermal work done during this process is
given by
𝑉 𝑉
𝑄1 = 𝑊1 = 𝑃𝑉 ln 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝐻 ln 𝑉2 where T1=T2= TH, higher temperature
1 1

• In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas expansion. Here, the system is
thermally insulated, and the gas continues to expand and work is done on the
surroundings. Now the temperature is lower, TL.
Here adiabatic work done in process 2-3 is given by
(𝑃3 𝑉3 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 ) 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑇𝐻
𝑊2−3 = = 𝑚𝑅
1−𝑛 1−𝑛

42
• In (c), the process is reversible isothermal gas compression process. Here, the heat
loss qout occurs when the surroundings do the work at temperature TL.
Since the process is isothermal dU =0 and according to first law of
thermodynamics, Q=W. Hence the net heat transfer as in process 1-> 2 is given
by
𝑉
𝑄2−3 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln 𝑉3 Where, T3=T4=TL , Lower temperature
4

• In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas compression. Again the system is
thermally insulated. The temperature again rises back to TH as the surrounding
continue to do their work on the gas.
Here adiabatic work done in process 2-3 is given by
(𝑃1 𝑉1 −𝑃4 𝑉4 ) 𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿
𝑊4−1 = = 𝑚𝑅
1−𝑛 1−𝑛

Solving for efficiency, we get,

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜂= = = =1− =1−
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻

Figure 17: P-v Diagram of an ideal Carnot Cycle

43
 Figure 18: Schematic diagram of a Carnot cycle

1.7. Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump

1.7.1. Heat Engine:

Device like petrol engine, Diesel engine, steam engine or jet engine which operates on a
cyclic process and converts heat energy (by burning fuel) into mechanical work is called
heat engine.

Figure shows a schematic representation of a heat engine which takes QH amount of heat
from a high temperature reservoir at TH(source) and converts some part of it into work
(W) and rejects the remaining part QL to a low temperature reservoir at TL (sink).

Performance of a heat engine is measured by its efficiency, which is defined as the ration
𝑊
of work output and the heat supplied, 𝜂 = 𝑄
𝐻

Figure 19: Heat Engine

44
 1.7.2. Heat Pump

Heat pump is a device, operating on a cyclic process, which takes heat from a low
temperature reservoir at TL (surroundings) and delivers it to a high temperature TH
(desired space) with the help of external work. Heat pump maintains the temperature of a
desired space higher than that of the surroundings. At cold climates, it is necessary to
maintain the temperature of inside of buildings higher than that of surroundings. Heat
pumps derive the heat from the surrounding and deliver it to the higher temperature
system.

Performance of a heat pump is measured by its coefficient of performance, which is

defined as the ration of desired effect and the work supplied,
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = ,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

In case of heat pump, desired effect is the amount of heat supplied to the desired space
(QH), i.e.

𝑄𝐻
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐻𝑃 =
𝑊

Figure 20: Heat Pump and Refrigerator

45
 1.7.3. Refrigerator

Refrigerator is a device, operating on a cyclic process, which takes heat from a low
temperature reservoir;TL (desired space_ and delivers it to a high temperature TH
(surroundings) with the help of external work. Refrigerator maintains the temperature of
a desired space lower than that of the surroundings.

Performance of a refrigerator is also measured by its coefficient of performance, and in

case of refrigerator, desired effect is the amount of heat taken out from the desired space
(QL), i.e.

𝑄𝐿
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑅 =
𝑊

Under the same operating conditions

𝑄𝐻 𝑊 + 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 = = =1+ = 1 + 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊

i. Simple Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle ( In practical)

Reversing the Carnot cycle does reverse the directions of heat and work interactions. A
refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump. A carnot heat pump or a carnot refrigerator is an ideal
refrigeration cycle like a Carnot engine. The more general refrigeration cycle found in
everyday life is simple vapor compression refrigerator.

46
 Figure 21: ASchematic of a Refrigeration process and Ts diagram of a Reverse Carnot cycle.

The vapor-compression refrigeration is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators,
airconditioners, and heat pumps. The standard vapor compression refrigerator cycle
contains of four processes.

Process Description

1-2 Isobaric heat addition in the evaporator

2-3 Isentropic Compression

3-4 isobaric heat rejection in the condenser

4-1 isenthalpic Expansion (Throttling Process)

A refrigerant (say R134A) with a low boiling point is circulated through the capillary
while undergoing all the processes.

2-3 Isentropic Compression: In this process the refrigerant is compressed to a high

pressure under adiabatic condition. At high pressure the boiling point or condensing point
of the refrigerant increases. However during compression the energy of the refrigerant
increases and there is a significant rise of temperature.

Process 3-4 Isobaric Heat Rejection at condenser: The high pressure-high temperature
and high energy refrigerant loses the heat to the surrounding. Since the boiling point is

47
high at higher pressure the vapor refrigerant can condense to liquid refrigerant at high
temperature. The refrigerant condenses to liquid refrigerant at the condenser. As seen in
the figure the tubes at the back of the refrigerator reject the heat to the surrounding. We
can feel the heat being radiated from the backside of the refrigerator.

Figure 22: A typical Refrigerator

Process 4-1 isenthalpic expansion (Throttling Process): The major part of the ideal
vapor compression refrigerator cycle is a throttling valve. Throttling valve decreases the
pressure of the fluid keeping the energy constant. In this process the low energy high
pressure refrigerant becomes a low energy low pressure refrigerant. Boiling point of a
fluid (liquid refrigerant) decreases at high pressure. The capillary tube or perforated tubes
or throttling valves are responsible for this action.

Process 1-2 isobaric heat addition at the evaporator: In this process the low pressure
liquid refrigerant evaporates taking the heat from the inside of the refrigerator. The low
pressure fluid then converts into low pressure higher temperature vapor refrigerant.

48
 Figure 23: A schematic of an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle

Figure 24: A P-h diagram of an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle.

49
 1.8. Second Law of thermodynamics:

1.8.1. Limitations of First Law

First Law of thermodynamics is a general law. It holds true in all cases (except for the
cases of mass energy conversion of general relativity). Though so, it is not sufficient to
explain the following pheonomenon.

i. Possibility: First law does not say anything about whether the process is possible
or not. As in engines the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to mechanical
work. But we cannot convert this work to mechanical energy. First law of
thermodynamics does not explain such phenomenon.
ii. Spontaneity: First law of thermodynamics does not say whether the process will
occur on its own or not. For example if we put an ice on a table it melts on its own
but if we keep water on a table it does not convert to ice. First law of
thermodynamics does not say which process will occur.
iii. Sufficiency: First law does not provide any sufficient condition for a certain
process to take place. For example, we know that heat flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature. If we want to transfer heat from lower
temperature to higher temperature, first law cannot explain if it occurs on its own
or which conditions are sufficient for that to occur.

To address these limitations, second law of thermodynamics was formulated.

1.8.2. Second Law of Thermodynamics for Heat Engine (Kelvin Plank

Statement)

Kelvin Planck Statement deals with the operation of a heat engine. It states that, "It is
impossible to construct a heat engine (device operating on a cycle) that operates on a
single temperature source and converts all of its heat into work." The statement can
deduce that no engine has efficiency equal to or greater than 100%. For example, In an
ocean the temperature of the ocean is greater than that of the surrounding. It is impossible
for the boat in ocean to convert heat from the ocean to work done moving it without
losing a portion of energy. Or in simpler example, A petrol engine or diesel engine
cannot convert all of the energy obtained by burning fuel to move the vehicle.

50
 Figure 25: Illustration of Kelvin Planck Statement.

1.8.3. Second Law of Thermodynamics for Refrigerator and Heat

Pump (Clausisus Statement)

Clausius statement Second law of thermodynamics deals with the operation of

refrigerator and heat pump. It states that, "It is impossible for any system to operate in
such a way that the sole result would be an energy transfer by heat from a cooler to a
hotter body." In other words it is impossible to construct a device that can transfer heat
from lower temperature reservoir to higher temperature reservoir without an external
effort (External Work).

Figure 26: Illustration of Clausius Statement

51
 1.8.4. Isentropic efficiency of steady flow devices

The process occurring in any steady flow device will be isentropic if it does not involve
any kind of losses therefore isentropic process is an ideal process. But process in any real
device involves losses and the real process differs from the idealized isentropic condition.

The performance of the real device is compared with the idealized device:

1.8.4.1. Isentropic efficiency of a turbine

In case of work producing device real work is always less than the isentropic work output
because of losses.

Hence, the isentropic efficiency is defined as the ration of work output from a real turbine
and the work that would have been produced when the turbine operates under isentropic
condition:

𝜂 = 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 /𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

1.8.4.2. Isentropic efficiency of a Pump/Compressor

In case of work consuming device real work is always more than the isentropic work
input because we have to increase work input to overcome the losses to get the same
desired output effect.
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
Hence, 𝜂 = 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙

1.8.4.3. Isentropic efficiency of a Nozzle

Similarly isentropic efficiency of a nozzle is defined as the ration of kinetic energy of the
fluid at the real nozzle exit to the kinetic energy value at the exit of an isentropic nozzle
for the same inlet state and exit pressure, i.e.
2 2
𝜂 = (𝑉̅𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 /2)/(𝑉̅𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
2
/2) = 𝑉̅𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 /𝑉̅𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
2

52
2. CHAPTER TWO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.1. Introduction:

Heat engine is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy or more exactly
a system which operates continuously and only heat and work may across its
boundaries.Heat engines can generate heat inside the engine itself or it can absorb heat
from an external source. Heat engines can be open to the atmospheric air or sealed and
closed off to the outside (Open or closed cycle).

An Internal Combustion engine is a type of heat engine where the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine. There are basically two types of engines external
combustion and internal combustion engines. Steam engines operating in Rankine cycle
and jet engines operating in Brayton cycles are examples of external combustion engines.

53
 2.2. Classification of I.C. engines

IC engines are classified into different categories. Based on different basis of

classification they are classified as follows:

2.2.1. Basic Engine Design:

According to piston movement IC engines are classified into reciprocating and rotary
engines. According to cylinder layout IC engines are classified into inline, horizontally
opposed , V(Vee) and Radial engines

2.2.2. Mixture formation and Ignition:

According to mixture formation and ignition IC engines are classified into Spark Ignition
engines (Otto Cycles) and Compression Ignition engines (Diesel Cycles).

2.2.3. Working Cycle:

According to working cycle IC engines are classified into two stroke engines and four
stroke engines.

In this course we are concerned with the classification based on the last two categories.

2.3. Parts and Functions of IC Engines

The major parts of an IC engine along with their functions are descry bed below in short:

Cylinder Head: (Top part of the engine)

The cylinder head encloses one end of the engine cylinders and forms the upper end of
the combustion chambers. The piston head and piston rings form the lower end. Cylinder
heads are cast in one piece and act as a supporting case for the engine.

54
 Figure 27: Water Cooled Cylinder Head

Cylinder Block: (Middle Part of the engine)

It is the foundation of the engine. Everything is put inside or attached to it. They are also
cast in one piece. They also act as the supporting case for the engine parts.

Oil Pan: (Bottom part of the engine)

The pan is plastic or metal shaped to fit on the bottom of the block. It holds a reservoir of
lubricating oil to lubricate the engine.

Figure 28: Engine Block (Cylinder Block)

The other major parts of an internal combustion engine are described below:

55
i. Piston:It forms a movable seal between combustion chamber and crankcase. It
transmits the gas pressure to connecting rod and then to crankshaft during combustion. It
dissipates the heat to cylinder wall. It controls the mixture flow in 2-stroke engine.

ii.Piston Rings: Piston rings are the compression rings in the piston of the engine. They
are responsible for final sealing of the piston in the cylinder and dissipate heat from
piston to cylinder. The oil scraper rings remove surplus oil from the cylinder wall back to
oil pan.

iii. Piston Pin: Piston pin connect the piston with the connecting rod. It transmits the
force acting on the piston to connecting rod.

iv. Connecting Rod: Connecting rod connects the piston and crankshaft. It converts
linear motion of piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft. It transmits the linear force
of the piston into a rotary force or torque.

v. Crankshaft: Crankshaft converts the linear motion exerted by piston and transmitted
by connecting rods into rotary motion such that the force becomes a torque. Most of the
torque is passed on to clutch or transmission of the vehicle and small portion is needed to
drive valve grars, oil pump, distributor, fuel system and generator.

vi.Flywheel: A flywheel is capable of storing energy and delivering it later. It absorbs

energy during working stroke (power stroke) and delivers it during non-working strokes.
The rim of the flywheel carries the gear ring in which the starter motor pinion engages.
The clutch plate presses against a lined surface on the flywheel to transmit engine torque
to the gearbox.

vii. Bearings: Engine bearings locate and support the crankshaft. The crankshaft is
lubricated by the engine oil which is usually supplied to the main bearing by an oil pump.
The bearing shells are drilled through and often provided with a ring groove.

viii.Oil Seals: The crankshaft must be sealed where it passes through the crankcase to
prevent oil from escaping.

56
ix. Cylinders: It provides a platform for the occurrence of processes and reactions inside
and engine. The cylinders can be water cooled or air cooled. It is enclosed by a cylinder
head gasket which prevents water or oil from escaping out of the coolant passages.

x.Inlet and Exhaust Mainfolds: These are the sets of tubes those deliver intake air from
carburetor (in case of petrol engine) or air filter to the engine and exhaust gases from
cylinders to atmosphere.

xi.Valve and Valve trains: These allow fresh air/air-fuel mixture to enter into the
cylinder during intake stroke and exhaust gases to escape out of cylinder during exhaust
stroke.

xii. Cam Lobe: Cam Lobe contour is so designed that it controls various actions like
amount, duration, speed and time of valve opening. Follower rests directly on the cam
and transmits its rotating movement. Camshaft drive mechanism is achieved either by
gear drive, chain drive or belt drive.

2.4. Working Principle of Two stroke and Four Stroke Petrol Engine

2.4.1. Four Stroke Petrol Engine

Figure 29: Petrol Engine with main parts

57
In case of petrol engines, fuel is ignited by the electric spark produced by the spark plug.
Therefore, petrol engine is also called spark ignition (SI) engine. The movement of piston
from Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) is called a stroke. There are
four strokes in a four stroke engine.

Figure 30: TS diagram of an otto cycle

Figure 31: Pv diagram of an otto cycle

a. Intake or Suction Stroke (Process 0-1) :

In this stroke the piston moves from top dead center to

bottom dead center as shown in the figure. This
creates a low pressure inside the cylinder.The inlet
valve opens andair fuel mixture from the carburetor
enters the cylinder the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure. The distance between TDC and BDC is
fixed. The volume at TDC is called clearance volume.
The volume swept by the piston is called swept
colume or suction volume. In the graph in figure 27
V2= clearance volume, and the volume V1 -V2 =
Swept Volume.
𝑉 𝑉
The ratio 𝑉1 = 𝑉4 = 𝑟, 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Figure 32: Intake or Suction Stroke 2 3

58
 b. Compression Stroke (Process 1-2)

After the air enters the cylinder, the inlet valve closes and the
compression takes place adiabatically. For adiabatic process,

𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 = 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝑜𝑟

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑜𝑟, 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1

𝑃2 𝑣2 −𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )

Work done for process 1-2; 𝑊1−2 = =
1−𝛾 1−𝛾

In figure 27 the process 0-1 and 1-2 is combinely represented as a

same process occurring in a closed system 1-2 where the

Figure 33: Compression Stroke
compression takes place adiabatically.

c. Isochoric Heat addition (2-3) :

At the end of the compression stroke, spark plug provides an electric spark and petrol
gets burn instantaneously. Therefore, heat addition for an ideal Otto cycle is considered
as an isochoric process. During heat addition process, pressure-temperature and entropy
of the system increases. In this stroke the both the inlet valve and exhaust valve close.
The spark plug ignites and the fuel (petrol) burns in the presence of oxygen (air). The
process takes place at TDC (constant volume). The heat transfer occurring during this
𝑃 𝑃3
process is given by 𝑄2−3 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ). Since the process is constant volume 𝑇2 =
2 𝑇3

d. Power Stroke (Process3-4):

In this stroke the inlet and exhaust valve remain closed. The high
energy duringheat addition forces the piston from TDC towards
BDC. The power output during this process, which is also
transmitted to the flywheel and which regulates the flow of
energy,is responsible for all the other processes to occur. During
this process Work done occurs adiabatically. Mathematically,
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 𝑜𝑟 𝑇3 𝑉3 = 𝑇4 𝑉4 𝑜𝑟 𝑇3 = 𝑇4 𝑟 𝛾−1
Figure 34: Power stroke

59
 e. Exhaust Stroke (Process 4-1 and 1-0) and isochoric heat rejection

During this process the exhaust valve opens and the Piston moves
from BDC to TDC. The residual gases escape from the exhaust valve
to the atmosphere. During this process the heat rejection takes place.
In an ideal otto cycle the cycle is assumed to be operating as constant
volume heat rejection.Heat is rejected by the system to the
surroundings through theexhaust gas and this process is replaced by
an equivalent constantvolume heat rejection process to complete the
cycle. Hence, duringisochoric heat rejection process, temperature,
pressure and entropy ofthe system decrease.
Figure 35: Exhaust Stroke
Mathematically, the equivalent isochoric heat loss is given by,

𝑄4−1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

Efficiency of an Otto Cycle:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
The Efficiency of an ideal otto cycle is given as 𝜂 = 𝑄
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄2−3 − 𝑄4−1 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 − (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ))

𝑜𝑟, 𝜂 = = =
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑄2−3 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

1
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) (1 − ) 1
𝑟 𝛾−1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜂 = = 1− 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑟 𝛾−1

60
 2.5. Working Principle of Two stroke and Four Stroke Diesel Cycle

2.5.1. Four Stroke Diesel Engine

Figure 36: Diesel Engine

In case of diesel engines, fuel is ignited by high temperature and pressure reached in
cylinder. The main difference between a petrol engine and a diesel engine is the mode of
combustion. Petrol is a very volatile liquid and can ignite at low temperature. Hence the
compression ratio is low (7-12) and a spark plug is used to ignite the fuel. However in

Figure 37: Pv diagram of a diesel Cycle Figure 38: T s diagram of a diesel cycle

61
case of a diesel engine, air is compressed to high pressure (compression ratio 18-24) and
a fuel injector is used to spray the fuel at the specific range. The fuel ignition takes place
at constant pressure. The movement of piston from Top Dead Center(TDC) or clearance
volumeV2to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) V1 or V4 is called a stroke. The ignition of the
fuel cuts off at specific volume and occurs at an equivalent constant pressure. The
volume from the TDC where ignition gets cut off is called cut off volume (V3-V2). There
are four strokes in a four stroke engine. In case of diesel engine various ratios are defined.
𝑉
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑘 = 𝑉1 ;
2

𝑉
𝐶𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑉3;
2

𝑉4
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑟𝑒 =
𝑉3
𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑘
Since V1= V4, Solving above we get, 𝑟𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑘 = 𝑟𝑐 × 𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑐 =
𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑒

a. Intake or Suction Stroke (Process 0-1) :

In this stroke the piston moves from top dead center to bottom
dead center as shown in the figure. This creates a low pressure
inside the cylinder. The inlet valve opens and air from the
atmosphere enters the cylinder at atmospheric pressure. The
distance between TDC and BDC is fixed. The volume at TDC
is called clearance volume. The volume swept by the piston is
called swept volume or suction volume. In the graph in figure
33 V2= clearance volume, and the volume V1 -V2 = Swept
Volume.
𝑉 𝑉
The ratio 𝑉1 = 𝑉4 = 𝑟, 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Figure 39: Suction Stroke
2 3

62
 b. Compression Stroke (Process 1-2)
After the air enters the cylinder, the inlet valve closes and the
compression takes place adiabatically. For adiabatic process,
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 = 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝑜𝑟
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑜𝑟, 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑘 𝛾−1
𝑃2 𝑣2 −𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
Work done for process 1-2; 𝑊1−2 = =
1−𝛾 1−𝛾

In figure 27 the process 0-1 and 1-2 is combinely represented as

a same process occurring in a closed system 1-2 where the
compression takes place adiabatically. Figure 41: Compression Stroke

c. Isobaric Heat addition (2-3) :

At the end of the compression stroke, spray plug injects the atomized spray of fuel
(diesel) in the cylinderdiesel burn in the range of volume V2 to V3. The fuel injection
gets cut off at volume V3 which is also called cut off volume. The fuel ignition takes
place at constant pressure. During heat addition process, volume-temperature and entropy
of the system increases. In this stroke the both the inlet valve and exhaust valve close.
The heat transfer occurring during this process is given by
𝑉 𝑉 𝛾−1
𝑄2−3 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )At constant pressure 𝑇2 = 𝑇3 𝑜𝑟, 𝑇3 = 𝑟𝑐 × 𝑇2 = 𝑟𝑐 × 𝑟𝑘 × 𝑇1
2 3

d. Power Stroke (Process 3-4):

In this stroke the inlet and exhaust valve remain closed. The high
energy during heat addition forces the piston from TDC towards
BDC. The power output during this process, which is also
transmitted to the flywheel and which regulates the flow of
energy, is responsible for all the other processes to occur. During
this process Work done occurs adiabatically. Mathematically,
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 𝑜𝑟 𝑇3 𝑉3 = 𝑇4 𝑉4 𝑜𝑟 𝑇3 = 𝑇4 𝑟𝑒 𝛾−1
𝛾−1
𝑟𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 × 𝑟𝑐 × 𝛾−1
Figure 40: Power Stroke
𝑟𝑒

63
 e. Exhaust Stroke (Process 4-1 and 1-0) or isochoric heat rejection

During this process the exhaust valve opens and the Piston moves
from BDC to TDC. The residual gases escape from the exhaust
valve to the atmosphere. During this process the heat rejection takes
place. In an ideal diesel, cycle the cycle is assumed to be operating
as constant volume heat rejection. Heat is rejected by the system to
the surroundings through theexhaust gas and this process is
replaced by an equivalent constantvolume heat rejection process to
complete the cycle. Hence, duringisochoric heat rejection process,
temperature, pressure and entropy ofthe system decrease. Figure 42: Exhaust Stroke

Mathematically, the equivalent isochoric heat loss is given by,

𝑄4−1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

Efficiency of a Diesel Cycle:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
The Efficiency of an ideal otto cycle is given as 𝜂 = 𝑄
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄2−3 − 𝑄4−1 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

𝑜𝑟, 𝜂 = = =1−
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑄2−3 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1
𝑟𝑘
1 𝑟𝑐 ×
𝛾−1 − 1 𝛾−1
1 𝑟𝑐 × 𝑟𝑐 − 1
𝑟𝑒
𝑜𝑟, 𝜂 = 1 − × = 1 − × 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑟𝑐 × 𝑟𝑘𝛾−1 − 𝑟𝑘𝛾−1 𝛾 𝑟𝑘 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)

𝛾
1 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)
∴ 𝜂 = 1 − × 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑟𝑘 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

64
 2.5.2. Two Stroke Engines Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine

It works on same principle of four stroke engine. When the fuel burns inside the cylinder,
it creates a large pressure force which is further used to movement of piston hence
movement of crankshaft. It completes two piston strokes during one power stroke. It
completes all process like suction, compression, power and exhaust in just two piston
strokes.

Parts:

i. Piston: It moves from BDC to TDC. One stroke of piston is define as movement
of piston form one extreme (TDC or BDC) to other extreme (BDC to TDC).
ii. Cylinder: It is same as used in four stroke engine except it does not have valve
mechanism. It has two ports on side wall of cylinder.
iii. Crankshaft: It is used to convert reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion.
iv. Inlet and Exhaust Port: Two stroke engines contain ports except valves. These
ports open and closed due to piston movement. When the piston is moving
towards TDC inlet ports opens and when it moves toward BDC exhaust port
opens.
v. Transfer Port: These engines contain one extra port which is known as transfer
port. It is connected from crankcase to combustion chamber. Its main function is
to supply the charge from crankcase to combustion chamber when piston is
moving from TDC to BDC.
vi. Inlet and Exhaust Manifold: These are connected to inlet and exhaust port and
regulate the flow of charge and exhaust gases.
vii. Flywheel: It need smaller flywheel compare to four stroke engine because less
power fluctuation.
viii. Crankcase: This is the part where crankshaft situated. The inlet port is also
connected with crankcase. First charge enters into crankcase and sends to
combustion chamber through transfer port.

Two stroke engines have two types. First one is known as Spark ignition engine or better
known as petrol engine, which works on Otto Cycle and other one is compression
ignition engine or diesel engine, which works on diesel cycle. Both these engines workon
65
same principle with some fundamental differences. Its working can be summarized as
follow.

Figure 43: Working Mechanism of Two Stroke Engine

Suction Stroke and Compression Stroke (Upstroke):

Suction means charge drawn into engine cylinder or in case of two stroke engine in
crankcase and compression means compressed the previous drawn charge into engine
cylinder. In two strokes engines, both these process take place simultaneously. When the
piston moves from BDC to TDC, the inlet port opens and partially vacuum created into
crankcase which accelerates charge drawn into crankcase. Simultaneously the piston
compressed the charge available in engine cylinder or combustion chamber. The exhaust
port remains closed during this stroke.

Exhaust and Power Stroke (Down Stroke) :

In this stroke, piston moves from TDC to BDC. Inlet port remains open for first half of
this stroke and closed in other half. Simultaneously, exhaust port remains closed during
first half of this stroke and open into second half. Transfer port opens into second half of
this storke.

66
There is a deflector in engine cylinder which regulate the fresh charge does not exhausted
with exhaust gases.

During this piston stroke, in SI engines, spark plug produces sparks. This spark ignites
the charge which creates a high pressure force. This force moves piston form TDC to
BDC. When the piston reaches in middle, the exhaust port and transfer port opens
simultaneously. This exhausted burnt gases out from engine cylinder and transfer port
supplied fresh fuel-air mixture into engine cylinder from crankcase for further cycle.

In CI engines, injector injects fuel during this stroke. This fuel burns due to heat
produced by compression which creates a high pressure force. This force moves piston
form TDC to BDC. When the piston reaches in middle, the exhaust port and transfer port
opens simultaneously. This exhausted burnt gases out from engine cylinder and transfer
port supplied fresh air into engine cylinder from crankcase for further cycle.

2.6. Comparison between Engines

2.6.1. Difference Between Two stroke and Four Stroke Engines

Table 1: Difference Between two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

Two Stroke Engines Four Stroke Engines

It has one revolution of the crankshaft It has two revolutions of the crankshaft
during one power stroke during one power stroke
It generates high torque It generates less torque
Its uses port for fuel’s outlet and inlet It uses valves for outlet and inlet of a fuel
Its engines result in lesser thermal efficiency Its engines result in higher thermal
efficiency
It has a larger ratio in terms of power to It has a lesser ratio in terms of power to
weight weight
It generates more smoke and shows less It generates less smoke and shows more
efficiency efficiency
Requires more lubricating oil as some oil Requires less lubricating oil
burns with the fuel

67
Due to poor lubrication, more wear and tear Less wear and tear occurs
occurs
Engines are cheaper and are simple for Engines are expensive due to lubrication
manufacturing and valves and are tough to manufacture
Engines are basically lighter and are noisy Engines are basically heavier because its
flywheel is heavy and are less noisy

2.6.2. Difference between SI (Petrol) Engine and CI (Diesel) Engine

Table 2: Difference between Diesel Engine and Petrol Engine

Diesel Engine Petrol Engine

These engines work on the Diesel cycle Works on the Otto cycle
The fuel is mixed with air inside the Air and the fuel are mixed in a carburetor
cylinder
Ignition is achieved with the help of the Fuel is ignited with an electric spark
hot, compressed air.
-High compression ratio (17-24) Relatively low compression ratio (7-12)
High power production Relatively low amounts of power are
produced in a Petrol engine
These engines work with fuels that have Highly volatile fuels are used in these internal
low volatilities combustion engines
Generally used in heavy vehicles such as Used in light vehicles such as motorcycles
trucks and buses and cars.
Relatively low fuel consumption High fuel consumption.
High initial and maintenance costs Comparatively low initial cost and
maintenance cost
Heat addition takes place at constant Heat addition takes place at constant volume
pressure
It has fuel injector In has spark plug

68
 2.7. Cooling System of IC engines

A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will
produce 4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite
the fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these
explosions produce an enormous amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an
engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling these high temperatures is the job of the
cooling system.

The modern cooling system has not changed much from the cooling systems in the model
T back in the '20s. Oh sure, it has become infinitely more reliable and efficient at doing
it's job, but the basic cooling system still consists of liquid coolant being circulated
through the engine, then out to the radiator to be cooled by the air stream coming through
the front grill of the vehicle.

Today's cooling system must maintain the engine at a constant temperature whether the
outside air temperature is 110 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 below zero. If the engine
temperature is too low, fuel economy will suffer and emissions will rise. If the
temperature is allowed to get too hot for too long, the engine will self destruct. There are
basically two types of cooling Systems.

2.7.1. Air Cooling System

This type of cooling system is seen in

petrol engines. The engine is provided
with cooling fins as a means of
artificially enlarging their surface area
and thus improving the heat
dissipation effect. Cylinders of air-
cooled engines are cast from light
alloys individually.
Figure 44: Air Cooled Engine

69
 2.7.2. Water Cooling System

In this type of cooling system liners prevent direct contact of piston into cylinder walls.
Wet cylinder liners are in direct contact with the coolant inside the engine block, so that
the cooling effect is particularly good. However, they have to be most properly sealed at
their joints with crankcase. Dry cylinder liners are not in contact with the coolant. They
are pressured into the cylinder bore and may or may not have an upper shoulder.

Figure 45: Water Cooling System Wet Cylinder liner (left) Dry Cylinder liner (Right)

70
 3. CHAPTER THREE HEAT TRANSFER

3.1. Introduction

Heat is the transfer of energy because of temperature difference which flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature naturally. The science of thermodynamics deals with
the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another, and makes no reference to how long the process will take. But in engineering,
we are often interested in the rate of heat transfer and spatial variation of temperature
which is the topic of discussion in the chapter.

Heat transfer, in general, is three-dimensional and time dependent i.e., the temperature in
a medium varies with position as well as time. Heat transfer in a medium is said to be
steady if the temperature at any particular point does not vary with time, and unsteady
ortransient when it varies with time. Most of the engineering disciplines have application
of heat transferto design appropriate cooling systems such as transformer,
integratedcircuits etc. Mechanical engineers/Energy experts may find itsapplication for
the design of boilers, refrigerators or other types ofheat exchangers say, for the storage,
transfer and use of cryogenicsubstances/designing different types of collectors for solar
thermalapplications.

conduction heat transfer, fourier’s law of conduction, conduction heat transfer through
plane and composite wall, convection hest transfer, newton's law of cooling, free and
forced convection, radiation heat transfer, stefan-boltzman's law, radiation properties:
emissivity, absorptivity and reflectivity.

3.2. Modes of Heat Transfer

According to the physical mechanism and the governing law associated with them, heat
transfer is classified into three modes: Conduction, convection and radiation.

3.3. Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat by means of molecular excitement within
a material without bulk motion of the matter. Conduction heat transfer in gases and

71
liquids is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
On the other hand, heat transfer in solids is due to the combination of lattice vibrations of
the molecules and the energy transport by free electrons

Heat conduction is due to the property of matter which allows the passage for heat energy
even its parts are not in motion relative to one another. Magnitude of conduction heat
transfer is given by Fourier Equation;

3.4. Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction

Fourier's law of heat conduction states that, "the rate of heat flow in solid is directly
proportional to the cross-section area perpendicular to the flow axis and the negative of
temperature gradient over the length of the path of conduction." Mathematically,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄̇ = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)

𝑊
𝑘 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 ( . 𝐾)
𝑚

𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚2 )

𝑑𝑇 𝐾
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑚

Assumptions of Fourier's Law:

i. The thermal conductivity of the material is constant throughout the material.

ii. There is no internal heat generation that occurs in the body.
iii. The temperature gradient is considered as constant.
iv. The heat flow is unidirectional and takes place under steady-state conditions.
v. The surfaces are isothermal.

72
 3.5. Conduction Heat Transfer through plane and composite wall.

3.5.1. Conduction Heat Transfer through Plane Wall

Consider a plane wall of homogenous material through which heat is flowing only in x-
direction.

Figure 46: Conduction through a plane wall

Let, L= thickness of the plane wall

A = Cross-sectional area of the wall

k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material and

t1, t2 = Temperatures maintained at the two faces 1 and 2 of the wall respectively,

The general heat conduction equation for steady state, one dimensional,homogenous
temperature distribution and with no internal heat generation is given by

𝑑𝑡
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑄̇
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑇 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴
𝑡2 𝐿
𝑄̇
𝑜𝑟, ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝑡1 0 𝑘𝐴

𝑄̇ 𝐿
𝑜𝑟 , 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = −
𝑘𝐴
𝑘𝐴
𝑜𝑟 , 𝑄̇ = − × (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ,
𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙.

73
 3.5.2. Electrical Analogy

The electrical charge flow rate i.e. electric current through a conductor of resistance R
when a potential difference of V1-V2 is applied across it is given by Ohm's law as 𝐼 =
𝑉1 −𝑉2
𝑅

And the heat flow rate through a plane slab of thickness 'x' with thermal conductivity k
when there is temperature difference of t1-t2 across it is given by Fourier's law as:

𝑡1 − 𝑡2
𝑄̇ = 𝑥
𝑘𝐴

There is an analogy in the aboven equations in the sense that the LHS of these two
contain flow-rate terms whereas the numerator of RHS contains difference of driving
potential temperature. Both of these differences drive the corresponding flow. So, we can
conclude that the 3rd term must be analogous i.e. it must be thermal resistance similar as
electric resistance.
𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑡ℎ,𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 =
𝑘𝐴

3.5.3. Conduction Heat Transfer through composite Plane Slab

Let us consider a composite multilayer slab having three layers of different materials
tightly fitted to one another as shown in figure. The layers have thickness X1, X2 and X3
and their thermal conductivities are K1, K2, and K3respectively. The surface temperatures
of the slab are t1 and t4 whereas the temperatures at the interfaces are t2, and t3.

Figure 47: Conduction through a multilayer slab

74
If the heat flow is steady i.e.𝑄̇ is constant, we have from Fourier's law

𝑘1 𝐴 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) 𝑘2 𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡3 ) 𝑘3 𝐴(𝑡3 − 𝑡4 )

𝑄̇ = = =
𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3

𝑄̇ 𝑋1 𝑄̇ 𝑋2 𝑄̇ 𝑋3
⇒ 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 = ; 𝑡2 − 𝑡3 = ; 𝑡3 − 𝑡4 =
𝐾1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴

Summing the above equations we get;

𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3
𝑡1 − 𝑡4 = 𝑄̇ ( + + )
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴

(𝑡1 − 𝑡4 )
∴ 𝑄̇ = 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
(𝑘 1𝐴 + 𝑘 2𝐴 + 𝑘 3𝐴)
1 2 3

Thus we see that the equivalent thermal resistance for the multislab layers in series is

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

And the net heat flow-rate in the case of series combination can be obtained by

∆𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄̇ =
𝑅𝑒𝑞

3.5.4. Conduction Heat Transfer through Hollow Cylinder

Consider a hollow cylinder of homogenous material through which heat is flowing only
in radial-direction.

Figure 48: Conduction through a hollow cylinder

75
Let, L= length of the hollow cylinder

r1, r2 = inner and outer radius of the cylinder respectively

k = Thermal conductivity of the cylinder material and

t1, t2 = Temperatures maintained at the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder
respectively,

The general heat conduction equation for steady state, one dimensional, homogenous
temperature distribution and with no internal heat generation is given by

𝑑𝑡
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝑄̇
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴
𝑡2 𝑟2
𝑄̇
𝑜𝑟, ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑟
𝑡1 𝑟1 𝑘 × 2 𝜋𝑟𝐿

𝑄̇ 𝑟2
𝑜𝑟 , 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = − × ln ( )
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟1
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑜𝑟 , 𝑄̇ = 𝑟 × (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) ,
ln (𝑟2)
1

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.

Here,
𝑟
ln (𝑟2)
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

3.5.5. Conduction Heat Transfer through Multilayer Tube

Let us consider a composite multilayer tube having three layers of different materials
tightly fitted to one another as shown in figure. The layers have inner radii r1, r2 and r3
and their thermal conductivities are K1, K2, and K3 respectively. The surface temperatures
of the slab are t1 and t4 whereas the temperatures at the interfaces are t2, and t3. Let L be
the length of the tube.

76
 Figure 49: Conduction Through a Multilayer Tube

If the heat flow is steady i.e.𝑄̇ is constant, we have from Fourier's law

2𝜋𝑘1 𝐿 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) 2𝜋𝑘2 𝐿 (𝑡2 − 𝑡3 ) 2𝜋𝑘3 𝐿 (𝑡3 − 𝑡4 )

𝑄̇ = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = 𝑟
ln (𝑟 ) ln (𝑟 ) ln (𝑟4)
1 2 3

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄̇ ln (𝑟2) 𝑄̇ ln (𝑟3) 𝑄̇ ln (𝑟4)
1 2 3
⇒ 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 = ; 𝑡2 − 𝑡3 = ; 𝑡3 − 𝑡4 =
2𝜋𝑘1 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘2 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘3 𝐿

Summing the above equations we get;

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln (𝑟2) ln (𝑟3) ln (𝑟4)
𝑡1 − 𝑡4 = 𝑄̇ ( 1
+ 2
+ 3
)
2𝜋𝑘1 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘2 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘3 𝐿

(𝑡1 − 𝑡4 )
∴ 𝑄̇ = 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln(𝑟2 ) ln(𝑟3 ) ln( 4 )
1 2 𝑟
(2𝜋𝑘 + 2𝜋𝑘 + 2𝜋𝑘 3𝐿)
1𝐿 2𝐿 3

Thus we see that the equivalent thermal resistance for the multilayer tubes in series is

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

And the net heat flow-rate in the case of series combination can be obtained by

∆𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑄̇ =
𝑅𝑒𝑞

77
 3.6. Convection Heat Transfer:

Thermal Convection is a process of energy transportation affected by the circulation of

mixing of a fluid medium, (gas, liquid or powdery substance). Convection is possible
on/in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of medium itself.
Macroscopic particles of a fluid moving in a space cause the heat exchange, and thus
convection constitutes the macro form of the heat transfer. The effectiveness of heat
transfer by convection depends largely upon missing motion of the fluid.

3.7. Newton's law of Cooling

Convection heat transfer occurs in fluid medium and heat is transferred by the actual
movement of the molecules. Magnitude of convection heat transfer is given by Newton's
law of cooling. Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat transfer is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature between the surface and the surrounding
fluid temperature. Mathematically,

𝑄̇ = ℎ𝐴 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄̇ = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟,

𝑊
ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( . 𝐾) ,
𝑚2

𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚2 ) ,

𝑇𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑇∞ = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.

The heat transfer coefficient h depends upon the thermodynamic and transport properties
(e.g. density, viscosity, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the fluid), the geometry
of the surface, the nature of fluid flow, and the prevailing thermal conditions.

3.8. Free and Forced Convection:

With respect to origin, two types of convection are distinguished; Forced and Natural
(Free) Convection:

78
 3.8.1. Natural Convection (Free Convection)

In natural or free convection, the circulation of the fluid meduum is caused by the
buoyancy effects, i.e. by the difference in the densities of the cold and heated particles.
Consider heat flow from a hot plate to atmosphere. The stagnatnt layer of air in the
immediate vicinity of the plate gets thermal energy by conduction. The energy thus
transferred serves to increase the temperature and internal energy of the air particles.
Because of temperature rise these particles become less dense (and therefore lighter) than
the surrounding air. The lighter air particles move upwards to a region of low temperature
where they mix with and transfer a part of energy to the cold particles. Simultaneously,
the cold air particles descend downwards to fill the space vacated by the hot air particles.
The circulation patter, upward movement of the warm air and the downward movement
of the cold air is called the convection currents.

Some other examples of free convection are:

i. Chilling effects of cold wind on a warm body.

ii. Heat flow from hot pavement to surrounding atmosphere.
iii. Cooling of billets in the atmosphere.
iv. Heat exchange of the outside of cold and warm pipes.

3.8.2. Forced Convection:

In forced convection, the flow of fluid is caused by a pump, fan or by atmospheric winds.
These mechanical devices provide a definite circuit for the circulating currents and that
the speeds of the heat transfer rate. Examples of forced convection are:

i. Flow of water in condenser tubes.

ii. Fluid passing through the tubes of a heat exchanger.
iii. Cooling of internal combustion engine.
iv. Air conditioning installation and nuclear reactors.

3.9. Radiation Heat Transfer:

Thermal radiation is the transmission of heat in the form of electromagnetic wave from
one body to another. Unlike heat transfer by conduction and convection, transport of

79
thermal radiation does not necessarily affect the material medium between the heat
source and the receiver. An intervening is not even necessary and the radiation can be
affected through vacuum or a space devoid of any matter. Radiation exchange, infact,
occurs most effectively in vacuum. A material present between the heat source and the
receiver would either reduce or eliminate entirely the propagation of radiation energy.

3.10. Stefan Boltzmann's Law:

Radiation heat transfer can occur without any medium and heat is transferred in the form
of electromagnetic wave. Magnitude of radiation heat exchange between two practical
bodies at temperatures T1 and T2 is given by Stefan Boltzmann law,

𝑄̇ = 𝜖𝜎(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄̇ = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 (𝑊),

𝜖 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐴 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )

𝑊
𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (5.67 × 10−8 )
𝑚2 𝐾 4

3.11. Radiation properties: emissivity, absorptivity, transmissivity and

reflectivity

Radiation impinging on the surface of the body may be partly absorbed, partly reflected
or partly transmitted as shown in the figure:

Figure 50: Absorptivity, Reflectivity and transmissivity.

The fraction of the incident radiation energy absorbed is called absorptivity(𝛼). Similarly
the fraction of incident radiation reflected is called reflectivity (𝜌). and the fraction of

80
radiation transmitted through the body is called transmissivity(𝜏). If Q denotes the total
incident radiation per unit time per unit area of the surface. Let 𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝜏 represent
the total amount of radiation absorbed, reflected and transmitted, then

𝑄𝛼 𝑄𝜌 𝑄𝜏
𝛼= ;𝜌 = ;𝜏 =
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄

Also 𝑄 = 𝑄𝛼 + 𝑄𝜌 + 𝑄𝜏

Dividing by Q we get, 𝛼 + 𝜌 + 𝜏 = 1

3.11.1.Emissive Power and Emissivity:

The emissive power of a substance is defined by total radiant energy emitted by the
surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit surface area per time.

The emissivity, 𝜖, of a surface is defined as the ration of the emissive power of the
surface to the emissive power of a hypothetical black body at the same temperature. It
depends on the nature or characteristics of the surface and is independent of wavelength
𝐸
of radiation.𝜖 = 𝐸
𝑏

So emissive power of a real body is 𝐸 = 𝜖𝜎𝑇 4

Energy radiated per unit time is given by; 𝑄̇ = 𝜖 𝐴 𝜎𝑇 4

81
Figure 51: Modes of heat conduction depicted in picture: 1) Radiation 2) coduction and 3) Convection

82
 4. CHAPTER FOUR ELEMENTS OF MACHINES

A machine is a complex structure that transmits force and motion. The general
components of a machine are categorized into four parts:

• Structural Components: frame members, splines, axles, fasteners and seals

• Mechanisms that control movement or Drives: Gear, Cam follower, Crank shafts,
Belt, chains, sprockets, including brakes and clutches

• Bearings and Lubricants: solid and liquids, Bearings

• Control Units: Switches, sensors and actuators

In our text we concentrate on the drives and bearings-lubricants.

4.1. Transmission of Power:

The transmission of Power is also called Mechanism. The power/motion from

engine/motor is transferred to the working components through a series of structures
called mechanisms. Before the invention of electricity, all the forms of power were
transmitted through mechanical means. Nowadays electrical transmission is used in all
butshort range power transmission. There are basically five types of power transmission:

i. Gear and gear trains: In this type of mechanism one end is fixed and a rotary
motion is converted to rocker motion or vice versa. Eg. engines, Pumps, Movie
line mechanisms in industries, Operation of a shaper. The shaft mechanism is
used to control the orientation of the power transmission. Eg. Vehicles.
ii. Belts and Chain Drives:
iii. Cams and Followers: A cam follower system is a mechanism in which a cam
profile sets the motion of follower. This is used to transmit rotational motion into
linear motion. This mechanism works as an actuator as seen in the opening of
intake and exhaust valves in engine.
iv. Linkages and shafts
v. Brakes and clutches: Brakes and Clutches are Friction Devices which transmit
power on the basis of friction alone.

83
 4.1.1. Gear and Gear Trains

Gears are toothed, mechanical transmission elements used to transfer motion and power
between machine components. A gear train is a mechanical system formed by
mounting gears on a frame so the teeth of the gears engage. Gear teeth are designed to
ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll on each other without slipping, providing a
smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.

They operate in mated pairs, gears mesh their teeth with the teeth of another
corresponding gear or toothed component which prevents slippage during the
transmission process.Each gear or toothed component is attached to a machine shaft or
base component, therefore when the driving gear (i.e., the gear that provides the initial
rotational input) rotates along with its shaft component, the driven gear (i.e., the gear or
toothed component which is impacted by the driving gear and exhibits the final output)
rotates or translates its shaft component. Additionally, if the gears are not of equal sizes,
the machine or system experiences a mechanical advantage which allows for a change in
the output speed and torque.

Comparison with other drives

The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives (such
as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an
exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are proximal, gears also have an
advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required. The downside is that
gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose
a higher operating cost per hour.

4.1.2. Chain Drives:

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is
often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycle and
motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.

Advantages:

i. Low maintenance.

84
ii. Greater efficiency up to 97 percent.
iii. Slipping is negligible
iv. Chain drive can operate in wet conditions too.
v. It can withstand abrasive conditions.
vi. The chain drive is easy to install.
vii. Initial tension is not required in chain drive.
viii. Even in fire hazards it does not faces any bad problem.

Disavantages:

i. The major disadvantages are here it requires more and frequent lubrication
otherwise rust problem comes.
ii. It cannot be used where there is a requirement of slips.
iii. We can’t keep chain drive-in open. It needs housing or covering.
iv. It cannot be used for précised motion requirements.
v. It is noisy and therefore there is a problem of vibration too.
vi. The installation or initial cost is more.
vii. The velocity fluctuation is more.

4.1.3. Belt Drives:

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically,
most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit
power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may
have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.

Advantages of Belt Drive:

i. Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned shafts.
ii. They help protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and isolate noise
and vibration.
iii. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned).
iv. They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency
(90–98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are of relatively
low cost if the shafts are far apart.

85
 v. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension.
vi. Different speeds can be obtained by stepped or tapered pulleys

Disadvantages:

i. The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley
diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem can be largely solved by
the use of toothed belts.
ii. Working temperatures range from −35 to 85 °C (−31 to 185 °F).
iii. Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to
compensate for wear and stretch.

Belt Drive Types:

i. Flat Belt: Earlier types used in Large pulleys and require high tension.
ii. V Belts: Replaced flat Belts. t is now the basic belt for power transmission. They
provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the
bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general
cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal. The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a
mating groove in the pulley.
iii. Multi Groove Belts: Consists of Multiple V Belts. It consists of 3 to 24 V belts
aligned against each other.

4.1.4. Rope Drives:

They are type of Belt Drives consisting of ropes instead of belts. They were found to be
more efficient that flat belts. For long distance power transmission rope drives are used.
Most common types are the ones where the ropes are used as a medium of transportation.
Eg. Cable cars.Over long distances, intermediate sheaves are used to support the "flying
rope", and in the late 19th century, this was considered quite efficient.

86
 4.2. Bearings and Lubrication:

4.2.1. Bearings:

Bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion,
and reduces friction between moving parts.

Types of Bearings:

1. Plain bearing, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole. There are several specific
styles: bushing, journal bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing, composite bearing;

2. Rolling-element bearing, in which rolling elements placed between the turning

and stationary races prevent sliding friction. There are two main types:

– Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls;

– Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical
rollers;

3. Jewel bearing, a plain bearing in which one of the bearing surfaces is made of an
ultra hard glassy jewel material such as sapphire to reduce friction and wear;

4. Fluid bearing, a noncontact bearing in which the load is supported by a gas or

liquid (i.e. air bearing);

5. Magnetic bearing, in which the load is supported by a magnetic field;

6. Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.

Applications of Bearings:

1. Reducing friction: in any applications, will have one prime objective and that is to
reduce the friction between moving components. Let us think the case of
movement of shaft within bearing housing, bearing will reduce the required effort

2. Supporting the load: Load will be dependent over the direction and weight,
bearings are used for supporting the loads in each and every engineering
application. Shaft will always try to push the bearing in a direction in which load
will move. They support Radial, axial, Thrust or angular loads

87
 3. Providing the guide for moving components such as shafts or wheels: Providing
the guide for moving components is also a very important function of bearing as
without application of bearing, we could not secure smooth and continuous
operation of our rotating components.

4.2.2. Lubrications:

A lubricant is a substance that helps to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual

contact, which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also
have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles, or heating or
cooling the surfaces. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity. The major
types of lubricants are Oil, Grease, penetrating lubricant and dry lubricants. we
concentrate on lubrication oils in this text.

Types of Lubrication Oil :

Lubrication oil can be

i. Mineral Oil: They are obtained from petroleum ores and distilled and refined.
ii. Synthetic Oil: They are manufactured chemically in industries.
iii. Vegetable Oil: They are obtained from organic sources with hydrolysis of fatty
acids.

The lubrication oil contains Base oil and additives. Additives are added to base oils to
alter the properties and enhance functionality.

Functions of Lubricating Oil:

The automobile industry is the major user of lubricants. Engine designs have been
continually improved to reduce weight, increase fuel economy, increase power output,
and at the same time meet environmental emission guidelines. Research is ongoing to
formulate lubricants to meet the demands of the redesigned engines. In general, a
lubricant must perform nine functions for the efficient operation of the engine.

i. Permit Easy starting:

ii. Lubricate and prevent wear
iii. Reduce Friction

88
 iv. Protect against rust and corrosion
v. Keep engine parts clean.
vi. Minimize combustion chamber deposits.
vii. Cool Engine parts.
viii. Seal Combustion Pressure.
ix. Engine Oil must be non Foaming.

The major functions of lubrication oil can be summarized as :

• Friction Control -- Separates moving surfaces

• Wear Control -- Reduces abrasive wear

• Corrosion Control -- Protects surfaces from corrosive substances

• Temperature Control -- Absorbs and transfers heat

• Contamination Control -- Transports particles and other contaminants to filters /

separators

Grading of Lubrication Oil:

Engine oils are graded in terms of their viscosity index. The Lubrication oil are graded in
two types based on their performance range.

i. Single Grade Lubrication Oil: They offer the performance at single range of
temperature. It other words their viscosity remains consistent at either high or low
temperatures.
ii. Multi Grade Engine Oils: They offer the performance at multiple range of
temperatures.

Advantages of Multi Grade Engine Oils over Single Grade Engine Oils:

i. Multi-Grades in Heavy-Duty Engines—Multi-grade oils also provide important

benefits in heavy-duty diesel engines in over-the-road trucks and buses. Most
manufacturers of these engines approve the use of multi-grade oils. This is
because multi-grade oils offer significant advantages in improved oil consumption
and fuel economy, faster cold-starting and reduced bearing wear.

89
ii. Improved Oil Consumption—A multi-grade oil can provide lower oil
consumption than a single-grade oil in heavy-duty diesel engines. This is because
the higher viscosity of a multi-grade at the high ring-zone temperatures in diesel
engines reduces the tendency of the oil to leak past the piston rings and into the
combustion chamber, where it would be burned. Figure 1 depicts the slower
decrease in viscosity with temperature for a multi-grade oil compared with a
single grade.
iii. Fuel Economy—A multi-grade oil offers fuel economy benefits due to its
superior low-temperature fluidity, which reduces energy-robbing fluid friction.
For example, while an SAE 10W-30 multi-grade oil and an SAE 30 single-grade
oil both act like an SAE 30 grade at high temperatures, the multi-grade also
exhibits the fluidity of an SAE 10W oil at low temperatures. Additional fuel
economy benefits derive from a multi-grade oil’s superior ability to reduce oil
shear friction losses over a broad temperature range, due to the presence of the VI
improver.

iv. Easier Cold Starting—A multi-grade oil can provide easier cold starting than a
single-grade oil because the multi-grade is thinner at cold temperatures and flows
more quickly to engine parts. For example, it has been demonstrated in cold room
tests that an SAE 15W-40 oil can lower the minimum starting temperature of an
engine by as much as 3-4°C (5-7°F), compared with an SAE 30 grade oil.

v. Reduced Bearing Wear—In many cases, a multi-grade oil may reduce bearing
wear. This was demonstrated in a field test using trucks equipped with Cummins
diesel engines. The test extended over summer and winter operations. After
100,000 miles, the lower connecting rod bearings had 80% less wear with an SAE
10W-30 oil versus a straight SAE 30-grade, and 50% less wear after 200,000
miles.

90
 5. CHAPTER FIVE WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

Workshop technology is the type of technology which deals with different processes by
which component of a machine or equipment are made. Its purpose is that the module
unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable to
perform basic workshop tasks.

5.1. Introduction to Safety Measures and First Aid

5.1.1. Safety Measures in Workshop

Safety is an essential aspect of Workshop and machining. There are basically three
categories of Safety:

i. Safety of Job Piece:

For the safety of the job piece or work piece, the user must know the proper operating
conditions. The knowledge of proper speed feed and materials is a must for proper
output. There is lots of trash generation of the operation is carried without proper design.

ii. Safety of Machines:

• The user should be properly aware about the working principles of the machine.

• Frequent lubrications are to be carried out.

• Maintenance schedule and log chart should be well equipped.

• Operating manuals must be reachable.

• Emergency brakes and stops should be well acquainted with.

iii. Safety of the Operator:

The basic guidelines for the safety of operator are listed below:

• Keep all tools and service equipment in good condition.

• Always use the appropriate personal protective equipment for operations such as
welding and grinding.

• Keep floors and benches clean to reduce fire and tripping hazards.

91
 • Clean the area completely after a job is finished.

• Empty trash containers regularly. Never store oily, greasy rags in closed
containers – this practice has been responsible for numerous fires due to
spontaneous combustion.

• Lighting, wiring, heating, and ventilation systems should be properly maintained.

• Do not allow unauthorized use of tools, service equipment and supplies.

• Don’t allow anyone to use tools or service equipment without proper instruction.

• Keep guards and safety devices on power tools in place and functional.

• Use tools and service equipment only for their designed purpose.

• Service fire extinguishers on a regular schedule.

• Keep the first aid kit fully stocked.

5.1.2. First Aid in Workshops

Workshops are workplaces full of risk and no matter how hard you may try to maintain a
safe working environment, it is inevitable that from time to time accidents will happen.

These may range from slips, trips and falls as a result of spilt oils and fluids, unsecured
electrical wires or uneven floor surfaces to cuts and injuries from tools commonly found
in a workshop environment. Tool-related accidents can cause puncture wounds, cuts,
abrasions, eye injuries and burns. Hazardous substances such as chemicals, solvents or
paints can cause burns or damage to eyes if they accidentally get near the face.

All employers must of course take all the obvious precautions to minimise risks as much
as possible by ensuring that staff work safely with the correct health and safety
procedures and wear the appropriate PPE for the job. But in the event of an emergency, it
is essential to have a good first aid kit in an easily accessible place where it can be
quickly grabbed to give an injured individual immediate and appropriate attention.
Prompt First aid can prevent minor injuries becoming major ones and can even save
lives.

92
A First Aid Box, though it can differ from workplace to workplace, should include:
wrapped sterile adhesive dressings in assorted sizes, sterile eye pads, individually
wrapped bandages, safety pins, individually wrapped sterile unmedicated wound
dressings and disposable gloves. In an automotive environment saline eyewash would
also be a highly recommended addition.

Workshop Plus stocks a variety of portable first aid kits ideal for the workshop as well as
for carrying in large commercial vehicles, light goods service vehicles and public
carrying vehicles. Ensure your workplace and fleet adheres to Health and safety
regulations and that you provide adequate first aid materials to be administered if one of
your employees or colleagues suffers an accident or injury at work. Visit Workshop Plus.

5.2. Introduction to Machine:

A machine is a physical system using power to apply forces and control movement to
perform an action. The term is commonly applied to artificial devices, such those
employing engines or motors, but also to natural biological macromolecules, such as
molecular machines. Machines can be driven by animals and people, by natural forces
such as wind and water, and by chemical, thermal, or electrical power, and include a
system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of
output forces and movement. They can also include computers and sensors that monitor
performance and plan movement, often called mechanical systems.

5.3. Drilling Machine:

A drill is a tool used for making round holes or driving fasteners. It is fitted with a bit,
either a drill or driverchuck.Hand-operated types of drill machines are dramatically
decreasing in popularity and cordless battery-powered ones proliferating. Here we
discuss a typical hand operated type drill machine.

i. Column:

The column is a major component of the drilling machine. We can say that it supports the
drill machine and all other its parts such as table, arm, spindle, Electric motor for power
transmission etc.

93
A column consists of a long rod generally made up of steel. The column and the table are
perpendicular to each other. That means the column on the table makes a 90º angle with
the table on which it is kept.

ii. Spindle

The spindle is another important part of the drilling machine. The spindle is used for
holding the tool and it also helps us to rotate the tool. At the bottom of the spindle, a
chuck is located. An arm is placed which holds the spindle in its position. These are
connected to the column.

We can use the spindle return spring for moving the spindle up and down easily. For the
better functioning of the drill press, weight of spindle matters a lot.

iii. Base:

The base is used for supporting the column and making it stable. Generally, the base is
made up of steel or iron.

iv. Drill Jigs:

They are mainly used in multi-tasking. For making many holes in one direction, drill jigs
are used. Drill jigs keepthe drill bits firm and they help them in going in a straight
direction along with the drill bushings,

v. Work Table:

It is used to hold the workpieces to be drilled. The worktable can be moved up or down
depending on the application. If you want to drill at some higher positions then, simply
move your work table up.

Worktable also has T slots, holes and other useful structures that can be used for holding
workpieces in any application related to the drill machine.

vi. Power transmission:

In the drilling machine, power is supplied from the electric motor. The v-belt and the pair
of spulley stacks help in the power transmission. Pulley stacks are used for monitoring
the speed of the spindle.

94
Figure 52: Main parts of a drilling machine

5.4. Grinding Machine

A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is one of power tools or machine tools
used for grinding. It is a type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool.
Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the workpiece via
shear deformation.Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface
quality (e.g., low surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension.

Figure 53: Parts of Grinding Machine

95
 i. Base:

The base is under the majority of the grinding machine. It is usually made of cast iron.
This aids the rest of the grinding machine.

ii. Table:

The table is relaxed at the base. This is where the workpiece is placed and properly
placed for grinding. It can move horizontally left and right using a traversing wheel
known as a hand traversing wheel.

iii. Column:

The column is a vertical column where the abrasive wheel, wheel head, and wheel guard
are placed.

iv. Abrasive Wheel :

Abrasive wheel is the main wheel that rotates and removes the material from the surface
of the workpiece and makes it smooth. This wheel is coated with abrasion and allows the
material to be removed easily from the surface of the workpiece.

v. Wheel Guard:

Wheel Guard is a cover of an abrasive wheel or grinding wheel which protects the worker
in any type of accident—grinding machine parts and functions.

vi. Abrasive Wheel Head:

Wheel Head is a compartment that is moved up or down using a traversing wheel called a
vertical feed handwheel. We push this wheel head forward so that the grinding wheel
touches the workpiece.

vii. Coolant Supply Nozzle:

The coolant supply nozzle is used to insert the nozzle into the grinding machine, which
cools the work area so that heat is not decomposed into the workpiece and the abrasive
wheel.

96
 5.5. Lathe Machine and Shaping machine,

5.5.1. Lathe Machine:

A lathe is a machine tool which is used to rotate a workpiece to perform various

operations such as turning, facing, knurling, grooving etc., with the help of tools that are
applied to the workpiece. Lathe machine are of different types according the types of
work performed. This includes – speed lathe, engine lathe, tool-room lathe, special-
purpose lathe, CNC lathe etc.

Figure 54: Specification of a Lathe Machine

The function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it a desired shape
and size. In a lathe machine, the workpiece rotates against the tool. The tool is used to
remove material from the workpiece. The direction of the motion of the tool is called a
feed. The major parts of Lathe machine are:

i. Headstock

It is present on the left-hand side of the lathe. It holds the gear train, main spindle, chuck,
gear speed control levers, and feed controllers. It is aligned with the tailstock. The
headstock is made up of cast iron.

97
 a. Chuck:

It is that part of the lathe machine which is used to hold the workpiece. It is attached to
the main spindle of the headstock. It rotates with the spindle and also rotates the
workpiece. In the lathe machine, we generally use three-jaw or four-jaw check. The three
jaw of the three jaw chuck is made to move simultaneously but the jaws of the four jaw
chuck moves independently.

b. Main Spindle:

This part of the lathe machine is used to hold cylindrical work piece within it. It is a
hollow shaft on which the chuck is mounted.

c. Feed Selector :

It is used to select the direction of the feed i.e. whether we want to move the tool from
left to right or right to left. Feed selector is present on the headstock.

ii. Tailstock:

It is present at the right-hand side of the lathe. It is used to provide supports to the
workpiece. It supports the workpiece from one end i.e. right end.

iii. Bed:

It is the main part of the lathe. All the parts of the lathe are bolted on the bed. It
comprises of headstock, tailstock, carriage guideways and other parts. It is made of cast
iron.

a. Guideways:

Guideways are present on the bed. As its name indicates it is used to guide the tailstock
and carriage. The tailstock and carriage slide over the guideways. It is an inverted V

iv. Carriage:

he carriage is present in between the headstock and tailstock. It carries apron, saddle,
compound rest, cross slide and tool post.

98
 a. Tool Post:

It is used to hold the tool. It has T-slot for holding the tool. The tool post is bolted on the
carriage.

b. Compound Rest:

It is used to set the tool at a desired angle for taper turning and other operations.

c. Cross Slide:

The cross slide is used to move the tool perpendicular to the axis of the lathe.

d. Saddle:

The top portion of the carriage is called the saddle. Cross slide is mounted on the saddle.

e. Apron:

The front portion of the carriage is called apron. It contains all the moving and control
mechanism of the carriage.

v. Lead Screw :

The front portion of the carriage is called apron. It contains all the moving and control
mechanism of the carriage.

vi. Feed Rod:

It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.

vii. Chip Pan:

It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.

viii. Hand Wheel :

It is the wheel that is operated by hand to move the cross slide, carriage, tailstock and
other parts that have handwheel.

99
 5.5.2. Lathe operations
• Turning
• Taper turning
• Facing
• Thread cutting
• Knurling
Turning
• It is an operation in which the workpiece is
reduced to the cylindrical section of required
diameter.
• Operation is carried out with a single point cutting
tool.
• Work piece is supported between the two centers
permit rotation of workpiece.
• Tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of workpiece
to a known depth and then moved parallel to axis
of work.

100
Facing
• An operation performed on lathe to generate flat
surface.
• Direction of feed is perpendicular to the axis of
the lathe.
• Length of the work should not be extended more
than 1.5 times the diameter of the work piece.

Knurling
• Operation performed on lathe to generate serrated surface.
• Tool used is called as “knurling tool”.
• Tool consist of one upper roller and one lower roller which contains the impression.
• Tool is set in such a way that both rollers touch the work.
• Low speed of about 60 to 80 rpm and feed is 0.38 to 0.78mm/revolution.

Taper Turning

• It is the operation of reducing the diameter of the workpiece gradually along its
length.
• Axis of the tool is moved inclined to produce the required taper.
• Compound rest which supports tool post is swiveled at required taper angle and
locked.
•

101
 Thread cutting

• A thread is a helical shaped groove formed on cylindrical surface of workpiece.

• Thread cutting is an operation performed on lathe to produce threads by using a tool
whose shape will be same as that of thread.
Drilling
• Drilling is an operation to produce a cylindrical hole in workpiece.
• Tool used is called as “drill bit”.
• Tool is held on the tailstock and stationary.
• Work is held in chuck.
• Tool is fed against the revolving work by rotating hand wheel.

102
•

5.5.3. Shaping Machine:

A shaper machine is one of the most common machine tools that is seen in the
mechanical workshops and in the manufacturing industries. It always plays a very crucial
role in manufacturing parts, different jobs, etc.

Figure 55: Major PArts of a Shaping Machine

The major parts of a shaper/shaping machine are:

i. Base:

The base is the most important part of the shaper. The base provides support for all other
machining tools.The base is also hollow and made up of cast iron. Its hollow shape also
helps in minimizing the vibration.It is made in such a way that it can take the entire load
of the machine.
103
 ii. Column:

A column is mounted on the base and it is made from the cast iron.Two guideways are
provided on the column on which the ram reciprocates. The column supports the
reciprocating ram and worktable.

iii. Table:

Swiveling of the table at any required angle can take place.The table is clamped to make
it rigid for heavy applications.The table is the core of the shaper machine.T type bolts are
used for the clamping on both sides; top as well as the bottom.

iv. Ram:

The guideways are present on the column Ram reciprocates along the guideways of the
column and carries the head of the tool with the single point cutting tool.Cutting action in
the forward stroke of the ram is caused by the tool head present in the clapper box.The
depth of the cut is given by the down feed screw.

v. Cross-rail:

The cross rail is mounted on the surface of the table on which saddle is present. With the
help of the elevating screw and the cross-rail, the vertical motion of the table is
achieved.The horizontal motion is given to the table by moving the saddle with the help
of the cross-feed screw.

Various applications of shaping machine

It is already mentioned that shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile.
However, its limited applications include:

1. Machining flat surfaces in different planes. Figure below shows how flat surfaces
are produced in shaping machines by single point cutting tools in (a) horizontal,
(b)
2. vertical and (c) inclined planes.
3. Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat surfaces.
Figure below visualizes the methods of machining (a) slot, (b) pocket (c) T-slot
and (d) Vee-block in shaping machine by single point tools.

104
Fig. Machining of flat surfaces in shaping machines

4. Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces by using single point
but form tools.
5. Some other machining applicationsof shaping machines are cutting external
keyway and splines, smooth slitting or parting, cutting teeth of rack for repair etc.
using simple or form type single point cutting tools.

Some unusual work can also be done, if needed, bydeveloping and using special
attachments.

However, due to very low productivity, less versatility and poor process capability,
shaping machines are not employed for lot and even batch production. Such low cost
primitive machine tools may be reasonably used only for little or few machining work on
one or few pieces required for repair and maintenance work in small machine shops

105
 5.6. Welding, Soldering and Brazing:

Basically, brazing, welding, soldering all are quite similar metal joining processes. There
are some little bit differences which compel us to give different names to this metal
joining processes.

5.6.1. Brazing:

Brazing is a technique in which two or more similar or dissimilar metals are joined with
the help of filler material. The filler metal that we use in brazing is first melted and then
allowed to flow into the joint. The main point to note here is that this filler metal always
has lower melting point than that of base metals. The melting temperature of filler
material is above 450 oC in brazing.

In brazing there is no melting of base metals where in case of welding this melting takes
place. In brazing, melting of filler metal takes place but not of the parent metal. And if we
talk about soldering, then definitely brazing gives us much stronger joints than soldering.
Also, the temperature conditions requirement is also high in brazing compare to that of
soldering.

In brazing, the filler metal has a lower melting point than the parent metal. So first of all,
this filler metal is heated and as a consequence of this heating, this filler metal starts to
melt. This filler metal then allowed to flow into the joint formed by the workpieces. At
the same time this filler metal is protected by a flux. As this filler metal is in liquid form
starts to flow over parent metals (wetting takes place) and it is then slightly cooled to
form the solid and clear joint.

5.6.2. Soldering

Soldering is a process of joining two or more metal pieces by melting and then filling the
joint by a solder. Solder and a flux are the two important things required during
soldering.

Soldering has a wide range of application in different industries. It is used in plumbing

industries for joining copper pipes, in electrical and electronic industries for joining wires

106
etc. Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent joint between metal
workpieces.

Application of Soldering:

i. Soldering provides most efficient and permanent connections between copper

pipes in plumbing and joints in sheets of metal.
ii. Soldering is also used in electronics and metalwork.
iii. In stained glass work, soldering is used to connect copper foil and lead came.
iv. Soldering joins electrical wiring to printed circuit boards with the help of solder.
v. Electronic industry including radio, TV and computers uses the soldering in
massive amount.
vi. Use of soldering in Vacuum tubes: Inexpensive vacuum tubes are soldered to
form a sealant and to insulate housing parts in metal.

5.6.3. Welding:

It is a joining process of metals and thermoplastics with the help of high heat that melts
the metals and fuse them together to form a strong weld joint on cooling. Pressure is also
applied in some cases to make the metals to fuse together during the cooling of the weld.
In some cases, Filler metal is used for joining the metals pieces together. Unlike brazing
and soldering in which the base metal is not melted, the base metal melts in the welding
process.Welding can be classified mainly into 5 types and these are:

i. Arc: The process of joining two or more metal pieces together with the help
electric arc is called arc welding. The arc is produced by electrical power
supply.Direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) can be used in arc welding
to produce an arc. The electrode used in these welding types may consumable or
non-consumable. Shield gas is used to protect the welding region from
contamination from the atmosphere. The type of shielding gas used may be inert
or semi inert. A filler material is also used some time for welding two pieces
together.

107
 ii. Gas: It is the oldest welding process in which acetylene gas is burnt in the
presence of oxygen to give a flame that can produce a welding temperature of
about 3100 degrees Celsius. It is also called oxyacetylene welding.
iii. Resistance: It is a welding technique in which electric current is used to join two
metal pieces together.The Resistance of material is used to generate heat at the
joints to be weld.A current value ranging from 100A to 100,000A is passed
through the metals that are to be joined.In this compressive force is also used to
join the pieces during the welding process.
iv. Energy Beam: In this welding method, a high energy beam is used to strike on the
region to be weld. This welding method includes laser beam welding and electron
beam welding.
v. Solid State: In solid-state welding, the two metal or plastic pieces that are joined
together without melting i.e. the joint are formed in solid-state. for example,
Ultrasonic welding in which the two metal pieces are welded together by using
very high-frequency vibration under high pressure.

5.6.4. COMPARISON OF SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING

The three processes soldering, brazing and welding have similarity that these are bonding
processes. All the three uses filler metal, flux and application of heat. These processes
also are dissimilar regarding the cost involved, performance, application area, etc. This
comparison is tabulated below.

Table 1: Comparison between Welding, Soldering and Brazing

S.N. Welding Soldering Brazing

1. These are the strongest joints These are weakest joint out These are stronger than
used to bear the load. of three. Not meant to bear soldering but weaker than
the load. Use to make welding. These can be used to
Strength of a welded joint may
electrical contacts bear the load up to some
be more than the strength of base
generally. extent.
metal.

108
2. Temperature required is up to Temperature requirement is It may go to 6000C in
38000C of welding zone. up to 4500C. brazing.

3. Work piece to be joined need to No need to heat the work Work pieces are heated but
be heated till their melting point. pieces. below their melting point.

4. Mechanical properties of base No change in mechanical May change in mechanical

metal may change at the joint properties after joining. properties of joint but it is
due to heating and cooling. almost negligible.

5. Heat cost is involved and high Cost involved and skill Cost involved and sill
skill level is required. requirements are very low. required are in between
others two.

6. Heat treatment is generally No heat treatment is No heat treatment is required

required to eliminate undesirable required. after brazing.
effects of welding.

7. No preheating of work piece is Preheating of work pieces Preheating is desirable to

required before welding as it is before soldering is good for make strong joint as brazing
carried out at high temperature. making good quality joint. is carried out at relatively low
temperature.

SUMMARY

Soldering and brazing are the two allied processes of welding. The major difference
between them is huge amount of heat is required in case of welding, low amount of heat
is needed in case of brazing and very low amount of heat is consumed in case of
soldering. Welding gives the high strength joints which are capable to hear the heavy
load. Joints made by brazing are relatively weak and soldering joints are very weak to
bear the load. Generally, soldering is used to make electrical contacts.

109
 Important Questions

Introduction

1. What is Thermodynamics? What are the scopes of Thermodynamics/Thermal

Science in Civil Engineering/Engineering?

Hints: Thermodynamics: Study of Heat energy and energy inter-convertible.

Scopes: Transportation: Study of materials and expansion during flow of traffic (eg. tars)

Building and structures: Expansion of composite materials (RCC) Air Conditioning,

Refrigeration. Heat transfer and passive heating

Swimming Pool design: Maintaining the temperature

Fluid Hydraulics: Sewage treatment (Second law /entropy),

Hydropower: Engine and first law.

2. Define Heat/Temperature? What are their units?

3. Difference between heat and temperature?

4. What is pressure? Define absolute pressure, relative pressure, vacuum pressure

and gage pressure?

5. What is the formula for the pressure exerted by a fluid with density ρ at a depth of
z.

6. What is energy? (Ability to exert force for a certain time interval). Unit of Energy,
types of energy( Internal/external or static/dynamics, stored/transient)

7. Other things remaining same, what happens in a volume/Pressure/temperature of

a system if you increase/decrease the other property?

8. Why is model needed in Thermodynamics?

Some basic Terms

9. Differentiate between Classical/Macroscopic Approach and Statistical /

Microscopic Approach in Thermodynamics?

110
 10. Define System, Surrounding, Boundary, Universe, State, Path, Process, Cycle,
Thermo-dynamic Property, Property Diagram

11. What is equilibrium? Describe thermodynamic Equilibrium. How is it different

from thermal equilibrium?

Hints: Equilibrium is a condition in which the property of the system does not change.

12. What are path function and Point Function? (Note that point function can be
represented by exact differential and path function can be represented by inexact
differential).

13. What is the significance of continuum in Thermodynamics?

14. What is quasi equilibrium Process/Quasi static equilibrium/Quasi static Process?

Describe its significance.

15. What are the different types of interactions a system undergoes with the
surrounding? Based on those how many types of systems are there?( mass
interaction, energy interaction and both, open system closed system and isolated
system)

16. What is control Mass and Control Volume?

17. What do you mean by extensive properties and intensive properties? What do you
mean by specific properties? How do you convert extensive property into
intensive properties? Give examples

18. Distinguish following properties into extensive and intensive. If extensive,

convert those properties into intensive properties: Pressure, Temperature, Total
Energy, Mass, Volume, Molar mass, Molar Volume, Enthalpy, Specific enthalpy,
specific volume, Density, Molar mass, quality( will study about quality in later
chapters),

19. Why Zeroth law is named so? Write a short note on Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics. What is the significance of Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics?(Answer: Measurement and calibration of Temperature)

20. Describe State Postulate.

111
 21. Describe Reversible Process and irreversible process. How do we represent them
in property diagram? ( In property diagram by dotted and dashed lines
respectively)

Heat and Work

22. What is steady flow process? Give example.

23. Define Isobaric Process, Isothermal Process, Isochoric Process, and Isentropic
Process (with) the help of simple P-v, T-v, T-s, P-h diagrams for ideal gas.

24. What are the similarities and differences between heat and work? What are the
sign conventions used for heat and work in thermodynamics?

25. What is and ideal gas? How does it differ from real gas? When does a real gas
behave like an ideal gas.

26. Differentiate between:

a. Heat and Work

b. Stored Energy and Transient Energy

c. Internal Energy and External Energy

d. Static form of energy and Dynamic Form of Energy

e. Ideal Gas and Real Gas

27. What do you mean by mechanical energy? Derive/State the expression for
displacement work transfer for an isothermal process, isochoric process, isobaric
process, an adiabatic and a polytropic process.

28. What do you mean by polytropic process? What are the values of polytropic index
for an Isothermal, Isobaric, Isochoric and an adiabatic process? Write the
equations of a polytropic/ adiabatic process using PV, PT and TV terms only.

Pure Substance

29. What is a simple compressible Substance/System. Describe the anomaly of the

two phase substance(In two phase region)

112
30. What is a pure substance? What are the conditions that a system can be called that
it is composed of a pure substance.

31. What is the boiling point of water.(tricky question, depends on pressure)

32. Define saturated liquid, compressed liquid, sub cooled liquid, Super
heatedvapour, saturated mixture, saturated vapour, superheated vapour, quality,
moisture content, dryness factor, critical point, degree of super heat, saturation
pressure, saturation temperature

33. What happens when your increase/decrease the pressure/temperature keeping the
temperature/pressure constant for a compressed liquid/saturate liquid/saturated
mixture/saturated vapour/superheated vapour.

34. Define critical point, Critical Pressure, Critical Temperature, triple line, triple
point.(value for water)

35. Explain the P-v diagram and T-v diagram of a phase change process of water.

36. What happens when a liquid is compressed beyond Critical Pressure or heated
above critical temperature.

113