Ch- Reproduction

Reproduction
• Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.
• Reproduction is essential for the survival of species on this earth.

Importance of variation:
• Variation helps organisms to adapt to the changes in environment.
• It contributes to evolution
• It is the basis of heredity.
• It helps species to be resistant to diseases.

Types of Reproduction:

1.Asexual Reproduction

• It involves only one parent.

• There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
• The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
• Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions and
when there is an abundance of food.
• It is a faster method of reproduction

2. Sexual reproduction: The process of production of new organism from two parents by using sex cells
(called gametes).

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

• Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
• Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new combination
of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
• Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.
• Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA matter to
half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA as the parents
it maintains DNA in a species.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

Fission: In this the parent cell divides into daughter cells.

• Binary fission: When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission. For example -
Amoeba and Paramecium.

Reproduction in amoeba:
• Multiple fission: When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple. For example -
Plasmodium.

Reproduction in plasmodium: During unfavourable condition a cyst or protective wall is formed

around the cell of plasmodium. Inside the cyst, the nucleus of cell splits several times to form many
daughter nuclei. Each daughter nuclei is surrounded by the cytoplasm collected inside a thin
membrane. Thus, a number of new daughter cells are formed within the cyst. When the favourable
conditions arrive the cyst breaks open and daughter cells are released each forming a new organism.

Fragmentation: In multi-cellular organisms, the organism breaks-up into smaller pieces upon
maturation, each piece develops into new individual. For example - Spirogyra.
Regeneration: In this, a few organisms may give rise to new individual organisms from their body parts. For
example - Hydra and Planaria

Budding: In some organisms, a bud is formed which develops into tiny individual. It detaches from
parent body upon maturation and develops into a new individual. For example: Hydra
Vegetative Propagation:
• plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as roots, stems and leaves.
It is of two types:

(a) Natural vegetative propagation:

Cutting: A small vegetative part of the plant removed by cutting with sharp knife is called cutting. It is
then planted in the soil to grow a new similar plant. For example - rose and sugarcane are grown by
cutting.
Layering: In this method, a branch of plant is pulled towards the ground and a part of it is covered
with moist soil leaving the tip of branch exposed above the ground. After some time, new roots
develop and then this branch is cut off from parent plant and it grows into a new plant. For example-
jasmine and strawberry are grown by layering.
Grafting: In this method, the stems of two different plant are cut, one with roots and other without
roots. Both are joined together and the part with roots is sown in the soil. This results into a new lant
that has the characteristics of both the plants.
The cut stem of plant having root is called stock and the cut stem of another plant is called scion. For
example- apple and pear are grown by grafting.

(b) Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture)

In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the growing tip of
a plant. The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide rapidly to form a small
group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth
and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow into mature plants

Importance of vegetative propagation:

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative
propagation.
• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
• Seedless varieties can be obtained.

Spore formation:
• In this method, the parent plant produces a number of microscopic reproductive units called spores
closed inside a spore case. When the spore case burst, the spores spread into air. When these air
borne spores land on food or soil, they begin to germinate under favourable conditions and produce
new plants. For example - Most of the fungi such as Rhizopus ( bread mould) and non-flowering
plants.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:
• Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
• It mainly consists of four parts - sepals, petals, stamen and pistil.

Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis
if they are green in colour.
Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.
Stamen is the male reproductive part and produces pollen grains that contain male
gametes. Each stamen has two parts - Filament and anther.
Pistil is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes. It has
three parts - Stigma, style and ovary.

There are two type of flowers:

• Unisexual: A flower that contains either male or female reproductive parts. For example
- Papaya and watermelon.
• Bisexual: A flower that contains both male and female reproductive parts. For example
- Hibiscus and mustard.

Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower is known as
pollination.
It is of two types:

• Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower
or another flower of the same plant.
• Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It is carried out with the help
of external agents like insects, birds, wind and water.
Fertilization:
Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual
reproduction.

• Pollen grains produced in the anther are transferred to the stigma of same flower or
stigma of another flower.
• A male gamete present in the pollen grains moves down the pollen tube.
• The pollen tube enters the ovule in the ovary where the male gamete combines with
the female gamete present in ovule to form a fertilized egg called zygote.
• Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
• After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts
wither away.

Seed and its parts:

The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo
• Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
• Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle
develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is
known as germination.
Reproduction in Human Being:

Male Reproductive System: consists of the following components

• 1 pair of testes
• A system of ducts
o Epididymis
o Vas deferens or the sperm duct
o Urethra
• A system of glands
o Seminal vesicles
o Prostrate gland
o Cowper’s gland
• A copulatory organ called a penis.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside the
abdominal cavity, because the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature
than the body in order to produce functional sperms.
Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are
stored here and they mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens
rises up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the
urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis
and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open and
pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Functions of testes:
• To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.
• To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for
producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.

Functions of the glands:

They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.
Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

• 1 pair of ovaries
• 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
• A uterus/womb
• A vagina/birth canal.

Functions of ovary:
• To produce and release ova
• To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

Function of the fallopian tubes:

It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes and formation of
the zygote early embryo.

Function of uterus and vagina:

• The uterus is the site of fetal development
• The vagina is a muscular tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of
nine months. And it also receives sperms from the male.

Menstruation:
It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells and
tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female when fertilization does not
happen.
It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from puberty).

Birth control measures:

i)Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms
(ii) Diaphragm
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop

ii)Chemical methods

• Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of
creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.
• Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

iii)Surgical methods
 • Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.
• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in
females.
• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the
developing embryo.

Advantages of Birth control measures: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted
diseases, prevent unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.