Unit –III

Combinatorics and Recurrence relations

Combonatorics:
Basics of Counting:
Counting has many applications in computer science and mathematics.
Forexample,
•Counting the number of operations used by an algorithm to study its time
complexity
•Counting the successful outcomes of experiments
•Counting all the possible outcomes of experiments.
Basics of Counting
•If ‘X ‘is a set, let us use |X| to denote the number of elements in X.
•There are two elementary principles can act as “building blocks “for
all counting problems.
•Those are: SUM rule & PRODUCT rule.

SUMRULE:
If E1, E2, ………, En(a sequence of tasks) are mutually exclusive events, and
E1 can happen in e1 ways, E2 can happen in e2 ways, ……., En can happen in en
ways (no tasks can be performed simultaneously), thenthe
number of ways to do one of these events(tasks)E1 or E2or…. or En)
can happen in (e1 + e2 + …. + en) ways.
If we consider two tasks A and B which are disjoint (i.e. A ∩ B =
∅), then mathematically |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|
Example1: A man can spend his evening in one of the following ways. He can
do shopping or he can go to a Cinema Hallor he can go to arestaurant. If there
are 6 shopping complexes, 8 cinema halls and 9 restaurants then, how many
different ways he can spend his evening?
Solution: By Sum rule, he can spend his evening in 6 + 8 + 9 = 23 differentways.
Example2:If two indistinguishable dice are rolled, then
a) How many ways can we get a sum of 4 or of 8.
b) How many ways we get an even sum?
Solution: a) If the dice are identical, the outcomes (a,b) and (b,a) cannot be
differentiated. Now, there are only 2 ways to get a sum of 4 i.e., {(1, 3), (2, 2)}
Likewise, there are only 3 ways to get a sum of 8. i.e., {(2, 6), (3, 5),(4 ,4)}.
The number of ways to get a sum of 4 or 8 = 2 +3 = 5
b) Likewise, the number of ways we get an even sum =
The number of ways to get a sum of 2 or 4 or 6 or 8 or 10 or 12 =
1 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 12ways.
PRODUCT RULE:
If events E1, E2, ………, En(a sequence of tasks) can happen in
e1, e2, …, en ways respectively, then the sequence of
events(E1first, followed by E2, ……, followed by En ) can happen
( one after the other) in (e1 . e2. …. en) ways.
Mathematically, if atask B arrives after a task A, then |A×B| = |
A|×|B|
Example1: a) If 2 distinguishable dice are rolled, in how many
ways
Canthey fall?
b) If 5 distinguishable dice are rolled, how many possible
outcomes are
there?
Solution: a) The first die can fall in 6 ways and the second can
fall in
6 ways. By product rule, the number of possible outcomes = 6.
6 = 36.
Example2: A boy lives at X and wants to go to School at Z.
From his home X he has to first reach Y and then Y to Z. He may
go X to Y by either 3 bus routes or 2 train routes. From there,
he can either choose 4 bus routes or 5 train routes to reach Z.
How many ways are there to go from X to Z?
Solution − From X to Y, he can go in 3+2 = 5 ways (Rule of
Sum). Thereafter, he can go Y to Z in 4+5 = 9 ways (Rule of
Sum). Hence from X to Z he can go in 5×9 = 45 ways (Rule of
product).
b) Similarly, the number of possible outcomes when 5
distinguishable dice are rolled = 6.6.6.6.6 = 6 5.
Problem 1:How many 3-digit numbers can be formed using
the digits
1,3,4,5,6,8 and 9?
b) How many 3-digit numbers can be formed if no digit can be
repeated?
Solution: a) Here, each of the 3 digits can be filled in 7 ways.
By product rule,The required number of 3-digit
numbers that can be formed = 7.7.7 = 343.
b) If the repetitions are not allowed,
The required number of 3-digit numbers that can be formed =
7.6.5 = 210.
Problem2:How many three digit even numbers are there
which are even and have no repeated digits? (Here we are
using all digits 0 through 9)
Solution: An even number must end with 0,2,4,6,or 8.
Case1 x x 0
9 8 -
The number of 3- digit even numbers ending with 0 = 9. 8 = 72
Case2 x xx
8 8 4
The number of 3-digit even numbers not ending with 0 = 8. 8.
4 = 256.
Since, these two cases are mutually exclusive, By sum rule
The required number of 3-digit even numbers = 72 + 256 =
328.
Problem3:How many different license plates are there that
involve1,2,or 3
letters followed by 4 digits.
Solution: By product rule, we have
The number of plates with 1 letter followed by 4 digits = 26.
(10)4
The number of plates with 2 letters followed by 4 digits = (26)2.
(10)4
The number of plates with 3 letters followed by 4 digits = (26)3.
(10)4
Since, these 3 cases are mutually exclusive, By sum rule, we
have
The required number of license plates = 26. (10)4 + (26)2. (10)4
+ (26)3. (10)4 = {26 + (26)2 + (26)3}.(10)4

Permutations:A permutation is an arrangement of some elements in which

order matters. In other words, a Permutation is an ordered arrangement of
objects from a set of distinct objects is called a permutation.
Example1: From a set S = {x, y, z} by taking two at a time, all permutations are
xy, yx, xz, zx, yz, zy.
Example 2: We have to form a permutation of three-digit numbers from a set
of numbers S = {1, 2, 3}. Different three-digit numbers will be formed when we
arrange the digits. The permutation will be = 123,132,213,231,312,321.
Number of Permutations:
The number of permutations of ‘n’ different things taken ‘r’ objects at a
time(also called an r-permutation of n objects) is denoted by nPr(without any
n!
repetitions) and is defined as nPr= (n−r )! ,where n! =1.2.3 ...... (n−1). n

Some important formulas of permutation

• If there are n elements of which a1 are alike of some kind, a2 are alike of
another kind; a3 are alike of third kind and so on and ar are of rth kind, where
(a1+a2+ ...ar)=n.
 n!
Then, number of permutations of these n objects is = ( a ) ! ( a ) ! ( a ) ! … ( a ) ! .
[ 1 2 3 r ]

• Number of permutations of n distinct elements taking n elements at a time =

nPn=n!
• The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements taking r elements at a
time, when x particular things always occupy definite places = n−xPr−x
 P (n, 1) = n.
P(n, 2) = n.(n – 1).
P(n, 3) = n.(n – 1).(n – 2).
…………….
P(n, r) = n.(n - 1)(n - 2)…….{n – (r –1)} = n! / (n – r)!
P(n, n) = n! i.e.., there aren! Permutations of n objects.
 There are (n – 1)! permutations of n distinct objects around a circle.
The number of r-permutations of n objects with unlimited repetitions = n r.
 The number of ways to arrange ‘n’ different pearls in a necklaceis
(n – 1)! / 2.
• The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements when r specified things
always come together is: r!(n−r+1)!
• The number of permutations of n dissimilar elements when r specified things
never come together is: n! − [r! (n−r+1)!]
PROBLEM 1: In how many ways can the letters of the word 'READER' be
arranged?
Solution − There are 6 letters (2 E, 1 A, 1D and 2R.) in the word 'READER'.
6!
The permutation will be = [(2 !)(1 !)(1! )(2!)] =180.

Problem 2: In how ways can the letters of the word 'ORANGE' be arranged so
that the consonants occupy only the even positions?
Solution − There are 3 vowels and 3 consonants in the word 'ORANGE'. Number
of ways of arranging the consonants among themselves = 3P3=3!=6.
The remaining 3 vacant places will be filled up by 3 vowels in 3P3=3!=6ways.
Hence, the total number of permutations is 6×6=36.
Problem 3: How many different license plates are available if each plate
contains a sequence of two letters followed by four digits?
Solution: There are 10 choices for each of the four digits and 26 choices for
each of the two letters. Hence, by the product rule, the number of different
license plates are 26 x 26 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 262 x 104.
Problem 4: (i) In how many ways can six men and four women sit in a row?
(ii) In how many ways can they sit in a row if all the men sit together and all
the women sit together?
(iii) In how many ways can they sit in a row if just the women sit together?
(iv) In how many ways can they sit in a row if just the men sit together?
(v) In how many ways can women alone sit together?
Solution: (i) Total no. of persons = 6 + 4 = 10. Number of ways of arranging six
men and four women in a row = 10!
(ii) Let us assume that all the men together can be considered as one unit and
all the women together can be considered as the second unit. These two units
can be arranged in 2! = 2 ways. Corresponding to any one of these two ways,
the men can be arranged among themselves in 6! Ways and the women can be
arranged among themselves in 4! Ways. Hence, the required number of ways =
2! X 6! X 4! = 34,560.
(iii) By considering all the women together as a single unit, we have seven
objects. These seven objects can be arranged in a row in 7! Ways.
Corresponding to any one of these ways, the four women can be arranged
among themselves in 4! Ways. Hence, the required number of ways = 7! X 4!
Ways.
(iv) By considering all the men together as a single unit, we have 5 objects.
These five objects can be arranged in a row in 5! Ways. Corresponding to any
one of these ways, the six men can be arranged among themselves in 6! Ways.
Hence, the required number of ways = 5! X 6! Ways.
(v) Number of ways in which women alone sit together = (Number of ways in
which women sit together) – (Number of ways in which women sit together
and men sit together) = 7! X 4! –2! X 6! X 4! = 1, 20, 960 – 34, 560.
Problem 5: In how many ways can four mathematics books, three history
books, three chemistry books and two sociology books on a shelf so that all
books of the same subject come together? Answer: 4! X 4! X 3! X 3! X 2! Ways.

Combinations:
A combination is selection of some given elements in which order does not
matter.The number of all combinations of n things, taken r at a time(called an r-
combination of n objects) isdenoted by nCr(without repetitions) and is defined
n!
as nCr= r ! (n−r )! .

Note: 1) P(n, r) = r! .C(n, r)

2) C(n, 0) = 1
3) C(n, 1) = n
n .(n – 1)
4) C(n, 2) =
1.2
n .(n – 1) .(n – 2)
5) C(n, 3) =
1 .2.3

6) C(n, n) = 1
7) C(n, r) = C(n, n – r)
Problem 1:Find the number of subsets of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} having 3
elements.
Solution:The cardinality of the set is 6 and we have to choose 3 elements from
the set. Here, the orderingdoes not matter. Hence, the number of subsets will
be 6C3=20.
Problem 2:There are 6 men and 5 women in a room. In how many ways we can
choose 3 men and 2 womenfrom the room?
Solution:The number of ways to choose 3 men from 6 men is 6C3
and the number of ways to choose 2 women from 5 women is 5C2
Hence, the total number of ways is 6C3×5C2=20×10=200.
Problem 3:How many ways can you choose 3 distinct groups of 3 students from
total 9 students?
Solution:Let us number the groups as 1, 2 and 3
For choosing 3 students for 1st group, the number of ways − 9C3
The number of ways for choosing 3 students for 2nd group after choosing 1st
group − 6C3
The number of ways for choosing 3 students for 3rd group after choosing 1st
and 2nd group − 6C3
Hence, the total number of ways = 9C3×6C3×3C3=84×20×1=1680.
Problem 4:Suppose a department consists of eight men and nine women. In
how many ways can we select a committee of
(i) Three men and four women?
(ii) Four persons that has at least one woman?
(iii) Four persons that has at most one man?
(iv) Four persons that has persons of both sexes?
(v) Four persons so that two specific members are not included?
Solution: (i) The committee of three men and four women can be selected
in 8c3 x 9c4 ways = 56 x 126 ways.
(ii) The committee must have at least one woman. Therefore, we have the
following possibilities:
a) Three men and one woman i.e., 8c3 x 9c1 (or)
b) Two men and two women i.e., 8c2 x 9c2(or)
c) One man and three women i.e., 8c1 x 9c3(or)
d) Four women i.e., 9c4
Hence, the required no. of possibilities are 8c3 x 9c1 + 8c2 x 9c2 + 8c1 x 9c3 + 9c4
ways.
(iii) The committee must have at most one man. Therefore, we have the
following possibilities:
a) Four women and no men i.e., 9c4 (or)
b) Three women and one man i.e., 9c3 x 8c1
Hence the required no. of possibilities is 9c4 + 9c3 x 8c1
(iv) The required committee must have both sexes. The possibilities are
a) Three men and one woman i.e., 8c3 x 9c1 (or)
b) Two men and two women i.e., 8c2 x 9c2 (or)
c) One man and three women i.e., 8c1 x 9c3
d) Hence, the required no. of possibilities is 8c3 x 9c1 + 8c2 x 9c2 + 8c1 x 9c3
ways.
(vi) First, let us find the no. of selections that contain the two specific
members. After removing the specific two members, the number of
members remaining in the department is 15. Thus, the remaining two
members can be selected in 15c2 ways. In each of these selections, if
we include those two specific members removed, we get 15c2
selections consisting of the two members. Therefore, number of
selections not including these two members = 17c4 – 15c2 ways.

Permutations with repetition:

The number of permutations of ‘n’ different things taken ‘r’ objects at a time
with repetition of objects allowed is nr.
Problem1:How many 11-permutations can be formed from the word
‘TALLAHASSEE’. How many of these permutations begin with T and end
with E.
11!
Solution: Required number of 11-permutations = 3! .2 ! . 2 ! .2!

9!
The number of permutations which begin with T and end with E = 3! .2 ! .2 !

Combinations with repetition:

The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time with
unlimited repetitions is C (n –1 + r, r)
C(n –1 + r, r) = C(n –1 + r, n - 1)
The number of ways distributing ‘r’ similar balls into ‘n’ numbered boxes is
C (n –1 + r, r)
The number of non-negative integral solutions to the equation
x1 + x2 + …+ xn = r is C (n –1 + r, r)
The number of binary sequences with ‘n – 1’ ones and ‘r’ zerosis
C (n –1 + r, r)
Problem 1: A multiple-choice test has 15questions and 4 choices for each
answer.
a) How many ways can the 15 questions be answered?
b) How many ways the 15 questions be answered so that exactly 3
answers are correct?
c) How many ways the 15 questions be answered so that at least 3
answers are correct?
Solution: a) Since, each question can be answered in 4 ways, By product rule,
the 15 questions can be answered in 415 ways.
b) The 3 correct answers can be chosen in C (15, 3) ways. Each of the remaining
questions can be wrongly answered in 3 ways. The required number of ways

= C (15, 3). 312.

c) The 15 questions can be answered in 415 ways. Number of ways in which
at most 2 answers are correct = 315 + C(15, 1).314 + C(15, 2).313
The number of ways the 15 questions be answered so that at least 3
answers are correct = 415 – {315 + C(15, 1).314 + C(15, 2).313}
Problem2:How many ways can 10 similar balls be placed in six numbered
boxes?
Solution: The number of ways distributing ‘r’ similar balls into ‘n’
numbered boxes = C(n –1 + r, r). Here, n = 6 and r = 10
The required number of ways = C (n –1 + r, r)
= C(15, 10)
= C(15, 5)
 = 3003.
Problem3: How many non-negative integral solutions are there to the equation
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 50.
Solution: The number of non-negative integral solutions to theequation
x1 + x2 + x3 +… + xn = r = C(n –1 + r, r). Here, n = 5 and r = 50
Therefore,the required number of solutions = C(54, 50) =C(54, 4) = 3,16,251.
Problem 4: How many binary sequences are possible with ten one’s and five
zeros.
Solution: The number of binary sequences with ‘n – 1’ ones and ‘r’ zeros =
C (n –1 + r, r). Here, n – 1 = 10 and r = 5.
Therefore, Required number of binary sequences = C (15, 5) = 3003.
Problem5: How many non-negative integral solutions are there to
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 20 where x1≥ 3, x2≥ 2, x3≥ 4, x4≥ 6 and x5≥ 0?
Solution: This problem is similar to, placing 20 similar balls in 5
numbered boxes so that, first box contains at least 3 balls, second
box contains at least 2balls, third box contains at least 4 balls and
fourth box contains at least 6 balls.
First, let us place 3 balls in the first box, 2 balls in the second, 4 balls
in the third and 6 balls in the fourth box.
Now, let us count the number of ways of distributing the remaining 5
balls in boxes.
Therefore, the required number of solutions = C (9, 5) = C (9, 4) = 126.