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MATLAB®
Programming Fundamentals

R2022b
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MATLAB Programming Fundamentals
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Revision History
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 Contents

Language

Syntax Basics
1
Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Name=Value in Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Ignore Function Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

Variable Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Valid Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Conflicts with Function Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Case and Space Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

Command Syntax and Function Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Avoid Common Syntax Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
How MATLAB Recognizes Command Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Program Components
2
MATLAB Operators and Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
String and Character Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16

Array vs. Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22

v
 Compatible Array Sizes for Basic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Inputs with Compatible Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Inputs with Incompatible Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-27

Array Comparison with Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30

Array Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Logic Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32

Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

Precedence of AND and OR Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Overriding Default Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

Average Similar Data Points Using a Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35

Group Scattered Data Using a Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37

Bit-Wise Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Perform Cyclic Redundancy Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45

Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48

Loop Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50

Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52

What Is a Regular Expression? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52
Steps for Building Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-53
Operators and Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56

Lookahead Assertions in Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64

Lookahead Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Overlapping Matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Logical AND Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65

Tokens in Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
Multiple Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
Unmatched Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Tokens in Replacement Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Named Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71

Dynamic Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73
Dynamic Match Expressions — (??expr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-74
Commands That Modify the Match Expression — (??@cmd) . . . . . . 2-74
Commands That Serve a Functional Purpose — (?@cmd) . . . . . . . . 2-75
Commands in Replacement Expressions — ${cmd} . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-77

Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80

What Is a Comma-Separated List? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80
Generating a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-80
Assigning Output from a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
Assigning to a Comma-Separated List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
How to Use Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-83

vi Contents
 Fast Fourier Transform Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86
Troubleshooting Operations with Comma-Separated Lists . . . . . . . . 2-86

Alternatives to the eval Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91

Why Avoid the eval Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91
Variables with Sequential Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-91
Files with Sequential Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-92
Function Names in Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-92
Field Names in Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-93
Error Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-93

Classes (Data Types)

Overview of MATLAB Classes

3
Fundamental MATLAB Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Detect States of Variables Using is* Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

Numeric Classes
4
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Creating Integer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Arithmetic Operations on Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Largest and Smallest Values for Integer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

Floating-Point Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

Double-Precision Floating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Single-Precision Floating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Creating Floating-Point Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Arithmetic Operations on Floating-Point Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Largest and Smallest Values for Floating-Point Classes . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Accuracy of Floating-Point Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Avoiding Common Problems with Floating-Point Arithmetic . . . . . . 4-11

Create Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14

Infinity and NaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
NaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

Identifying Numeric Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17

vii
 Display Format for Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18

Integer Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20

Single Precision Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27

The Logical Class

5
Find Array Elements That Meet a Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

Reduce Logical Arrays to Single Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

Characters and Strings

6
Text in String and Character Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

Create String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

Cell Arrays of Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12

Create Cell Array of Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Access Character Vectors in Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Convert Cell Arrays to String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13

Analyze Text Data with String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15

Test for Empty Strings and Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20

Formatting Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24

Fields of the Formatting Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
Setting Field Width and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28
Restrictions on Using Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30

Compare Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32

Search and Replace Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37

Build Pattern Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-40

Convert Numeric Values to Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45

Convert Text to Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48

Unicode and ASCII Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52

Hexadecimal and Binary Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-54

viii Contents
 Frequently Asked Questions About String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-58
Why Does Using Command Form With Strings Return An Error? . . 6-58
Why Do Strings in Cell Arrays Return an Error? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59
Why Does length() of String Return 1? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59
Why Does isempty("") Return 0? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60
Why Does Appending Strings Using Square Brackets Return Multiple
Strings? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-61

Update Your Code to Accept Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63

What Are String Arrays? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63
Recommended Approaches for String Adoption in Old APIs . . . . . . 6-63
How to Adopt String Arrays in Old APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-65
Recommended Approaches for String Adoption in New Code . . . . . 6-65
How to Maintain Compatibility in New Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-66
How to Manually Convert Input Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
How to Check Argument Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
Terminology for Character and String Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-69

Dates and Time

7
Represent Dates and Times in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Specify Time Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5

Convert Date and Time to Julian Date or POSIX Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

Set Date and Time Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

Formats for Individual Date and Duration Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
datetime Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
duration Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
calendarDuration Display Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
Default datetime Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12

Generate Sequence of Dates and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14

Sequence of Datetime or Duration Values Between Endpoints with
Step Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14
Add Duration or Calendar Duration to Create Sequence of Dates . . 7-16
Specify Length and Endpoints of Date or Duration Sequence . . . . . 7-17
Sequence of Datetime Values Using Calendar Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17

Share Code and Data Across Locales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20

Write Locale-Independent Date and Time Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20
Write Dates in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21
Read Dates in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

Extract or Assign Date and Time Components of Datetime Array . . 7-23

Combine Date and Time from Separate Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26

Date and Time Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

ix
 Compare Dates and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-33

Plot Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-36

Core Functions Supporting Date and Time Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-47

Convert Between Text and datetime or duration Values . . . . . . . . . 7-48

Replace Discouraged Instances of Serial Date Numbers and Date

Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-57
Convert Serial Date Numbers and Date Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-57
Replace Functions That Use Date Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-57
Discouraged Syntaxes for Date and Time Components . . . . . . . . . . 7-61
Guidelines for Updating Your Own Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-62

Carryover in Date Vectors and Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-64

Converting Date Vector Returns Unexpected Output . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-66

Categorical Arrays
8
Create Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

Convert Text in Table Variables to Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

Plot Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10

Compare Categorical Array Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16

Combine Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19

Combine Categorical Arrays Using Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22

Access Data Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24

Select Data By Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24
Common Ways to Access Data Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . 8-24

Work with Protected Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-30

Advantages of Using Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34

Natural Representation of Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
Mathematical Ordering for Character Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
Reduce Memory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34

Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36

Order of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36
How to Create Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36
Working with Ordinal Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38

Core Functions Supporting Categorical Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-39

x Contents
 Tables
9
Create Tables and Assign Data to Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2

Add and Delete Table Rows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9

Add, Delete, and Rearrange Table Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12

Clean Messy and Missing Data in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-18

Modify Units, Descriptions, and Table Variable Names . . . . . . . . . . 9-24

Add Custom Properties to Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-27

Access Data in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32

Summary of Table Indexing Syntaxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32
Table Indexing with Specified Rows and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-37
Find Rows Where Values Meet Logical Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-41
Dot Notation with Any Variable Name or Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-44
Extract Data from Specified Rows and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-46

Calculations on Data in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-48

Split Data into Groups and Calculate Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-56

Perform Calculations by Group in Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-59

Advantages of Using Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-71

Grouping Variables To Split Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-76

Grouping Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-76
Group Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-76
The Split-Apply-Combine Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-77
Missing Group Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-77

Changes to DimensionNames Property in R2016b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-79

Data Cleaning and Calculations in Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-81

Grouped Calculations in Tables and Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-99

Timetables
10
Create Timetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2

Resample and Aggregate Data in Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5

Combine Timetables and Synchronize Their Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

xi
 Retime and Synchronize Timetable Variables Using Different
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14

Select Times in Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19

Clean Timetable with Missing, Duplicate, or Nonuniform Times

.................................................... 10-27

Using Row Labels in Table and Timetable Operations . . . . . . . . . . 10-36

Loma Prieta Earthquake Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-41

Preprocess and Explore Time-Stamped Data Using timetable . . . 10-51

Add Events from External Data to Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-71

Find Events in Timestamped Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-83

Structures
11
Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Create Scalar Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Access Values in Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Index into Nonscalar Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4

Concatenate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8

Generate Field Names from Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10

Access Data in Nested Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11

Access Elements of a Nonscalar Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13

Ways to Organize Data in Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15

Plane Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15
Element-by-Element Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16

Memory Requirements for Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18

Cell Arrays
12
What Is a Cell Array? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2

Create Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3

Access Data in Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5

xii Contents
 Add Cells to Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8

Delete Data from Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10

Combine Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11

Pass Contents of Cell Arrays to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12

Preallocate Memory for Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16

Cell vs. Structure Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17

Multilevel Indexing to Access Parts of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-21

Function Handles
13
Create Function Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
What Is a Function Handle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Creating Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Arrays of Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
Saving and Loading Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4

Pass Function to Another Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5

Call Local Functions Using Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6

Compare Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8

Dictionaries
14
Map Data with Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2

Dictionaries and Custom Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6

Hash Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
Overload keyHash and keyMatch for Custom Classes . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6

Map Containers
15
Overview of Map Data Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2

xiii
 Description of Map Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
Properties of Map Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
Methods of Map Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4

Create Map Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6

Construct Empty Map Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
Construct Initialized Map Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
Combine Map Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7

Examine Contents of Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8

Read and Write Using Key Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9

Read From Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9
Add Key/Value Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
Build Map with Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10

Modify Keys and Values in Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-13

Remove Keys and Values from Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-13
Modify Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-13
Modify Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-14
Modify Copy of Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-14

Map to Different Value Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15

Map to Structure Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
Map to Cell Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-16

Combining Unlike Classes

16
Valid Combinations of Unlike Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2

Combining Unlike Integer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
Example of Combining Unlike Integer Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
Example of Combining Signed with Unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4

Combining Integer and Noninteger Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5

Combining Cell Arrays with Non-Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6

Empty Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-7

Concatenation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8

Combining Single and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8
Combining Integer and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8
Combining Character and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8
Combining Logical and Double Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8

xiv Contents
 Using Objects
17
Copying Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
Two Copy Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
Handle Object Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
Value Object Copy Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
Handle Object Copy Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
Testing for Handle or Value Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5

Defining Your Own Classes

18

Scripts and Functions

Scripts
19
Create Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2

Add Comments to Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3

Create and Run Sections in Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5

Divide Your File into Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5
Run Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6
Navigate Between Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7
Behavior of Sections in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-8
Behavior of Sections in Loops and Conditional Statements . . . . . . . 19-8

Scripts vs. Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-10

Add Functions to Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12

Create a Script with Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12
Run Scripts with Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12
Restrictions for Local Functions and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-13
Access Help for Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-13

Live Scripts and Functions

20
What Is a Live Script or Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Differences with Plain Code Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3

xv
 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4
Unsupported Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5

Create Live Scripts in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-6

Create Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-6
Add Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-6
Run Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Display Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Change View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-8
Format Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10
Save Live Scripts as Plain Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-11

Modify Figures in Live Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12

Explore Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12
Add Formatting and Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-13
Update Code with Figure Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-15
Save and Print Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-16

Format Text in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-18

Change Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-20
Autoformatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21

Insert Equations into the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-24

Insert Equation Interactively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-24
Insert LaTeX Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-26
Supported LaTeX Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-27

Add Interactive Controls to a Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-34

Insert Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-34
Modify Control Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-35
Link Variables to Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-36
Specify Default Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-37
Modify Control Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-37
Create Live Script with Multiple Interactive Controls . . . . . . . . . . 20-38
Share Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-41

Add Interactive Tasks to a Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-43

What Are Live Editor Tasks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-43
Insert Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-43
Run Tasks and Surrounding Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-46
Modify Output Argument Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-47
View and Edit Generated Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-47
Custom Live Editor Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-48

Create Live Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-49

Create Live Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-49
Add Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-49
Add Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-50
Run Live Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-50
Save Live Functions as Plain Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-51

Add Help for Live Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-52

Share Live Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-56

Hide Code Before Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-57

xvi Contents
 Live Code File Format (.mlx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-58
Benefits of Live Code File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-58
Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-58

Introduction to the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-59

Accelerate Exploratory Programming Using the Live Editor . . . . . 20-64

Create an Interactive Narrative with the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . 20-69

Create Interactive Course Materials Using the Live Editor . . . . . . 20-77

Create Examples Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-83

Create an Interactive Form Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-84

Create a Real-Time Dashboard Using the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . 20-87

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-89

Function Basics
21
Create Functions in Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Syntax for Function Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Contents of Functions and Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-3
End Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4

Add Help for Your Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5

Configure the Run Button for Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7

Base and Function Workspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-9

Share Data Between Workspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
Best Practice: Passing Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
Persistent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-11
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-12
Evaluating in Another Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-12

Check Variable Scope in Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-14

Use Automatic Function and Variable Highlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-14
Example of Using Automatic Function and Variable Highlighting . 21-14

Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17

Local and Nested Functions in a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17
Private Functions in a Subfolder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18
Anonymous Functions Without a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18

xvii
 Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-20
What Are Anonymous Functions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-20
Variables in the Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-21
Multiple Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-21
Functions with No Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-22
Functions with Multiple Inputs or Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-22
Arrays of Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-23

Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-25

Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-27

What Are Nested Functions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-27
Requirements for Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-27
Sharing Variables Between Parent and Nested Functions . . . . . . . 21-27
Using Handles to Store Function Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-29
Visibility of Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-31

Resolve Error: Attempt to Add Variable to a Static Workspace. . . 21-33

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-33
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-33

Private Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-36

Function Precedence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-37

Change in Rules For Function Precedence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-38

Update Code for R2019b Changes to Function Precedence Order

.................................................... 21-40
Identifiers cannot be used for two purposes inside a function . . . . 21-40
Identifiers without explicit declarations might not be treated as
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-40
Variables cannot be implicitly shared between parent and nested
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-41
Change in precedence of wildcard-based imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42
Fully qualified import functions cannot have the same name as nested
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42
Fully qualified imports shadow outer scope definitions of the same
name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-43
Error handling when import not found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-43
Nested functions inherit import statements from parent functions
................................................ 21-44
Change in precedence of compound name resolution . . . . . . . . . . 21-44
Anonymous functions can include resolved and unresolved identifiers
................................................ 21-45

Indexing into Function Call Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-46

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-46
Supported Syntaxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-46

xviii Contents
 Function Arguments
22
Find Number of Function Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2

Support Variable Number of Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-4

Support Variable Number of Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5

Validate Number of Function Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-6

Checking Number of Arguments in Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 22-8

Ignore Inputs in Function Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-10

Check Function Inputs with validateattributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11

Parse Function Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-13

Input Parser Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17

Debugging MATLAB Code

23
Debug MATLAB Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Display Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Debug Using Run to Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-3
View Variable Value While Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
Pause a Running File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
Step Into Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
Add Breakpoints and Run Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6
End Debugging Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-7
Debug by Using Keyboard Shortcuts or Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-8

Set Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9

Standard Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
Conditional Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-10
Error Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-11
Breakpoints in Anonymous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-11
Invalid Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
Disable Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
Clear Breakpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-13

Examine Values While Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14

View Variable Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14
View Variable Value Outside Current Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-15

xix
 Presenting MATLAB Code
24
Publish and Share MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Create and Share Live Scripts in the Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Publish MATLAB Code Files (.m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
Add Help and Create Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4

Publishing Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-6

Markup Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-6
Sections and Section Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-8
Text Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
Bulleted and Numbered Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-10
Text and Code Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-10
External File Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-11
External Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12
Image Snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-14
LaTeX Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-14
Hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-16
HTML Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-18
LaTeX Markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19

Output Preferences for Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-21

How to Edit Publishing Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-21
Specify Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-22
Run Code During Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-23
Manipulate Graphics in Publishing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-24
Save a Publish Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-28
Manage a Publish Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-29

Coding and Productivity Tips

25
Save and Back Up Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Save Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Back Up Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
Recommendations on Saving Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-3
File Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-3

Check Code for Errors and Warnings Using the Code Analyzer . . . 25-5
Enable Continuous Code Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
View Code Analyzer Status for File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
View Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-6
Fix Problems in Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7
Create a Code Analyzer Message Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-8
Adjust Code Analyzer Message Indicators and Messages . . . . . . . . 25-9
Understand Code Containing Suppressed Messages . . . . . . . . . . . 25-11
Understand the Limitations of Code Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-12
Enable MATLAB Compiler Deployment Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-14

xx Contents
 Edit and Format Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16
Column Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16
Change Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16
Automatically Complete Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16
Refactor Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-17
Indent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-17
Fold Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-18
Change the Right-Side Text Limit Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-19

Find and Replace Text in Files and Go to Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-21

Find and Replace Any Text in Current File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-21
Find and Replace Functions or Variables in Current File . . . . . . . . 25-21
Automatically Rename All Variables or Functions in a File . . . . . . 25-22
Find Text in Multiple File Names or Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-23
Go To Location in File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-24

Add Reminders to Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-27

Working with TODO/FIXME Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-27

MATLAB Code Analyzer Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-29

Run the Code Analyzer Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-29
Change Code Based on Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30
Other Ways to Access Code Analyzer Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30

MATLAB Code Compatibility Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-32

Open the Code Compatibility Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-32
Programmatic Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-34
Unsupported Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-34

Code Generation Readiness Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-35

Issues Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-35
Files Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-36

Programming Utilities
26
Identify Program Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Simple Display of Program File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Detailed Display of Program File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
Dependencies Within a Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2

Security Considerations to Protect Your Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . 26-6

Create P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-6
Build Standalone Executables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-6
Use Model Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7
Convert Code to Native Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7
Host Compiled Application on Remote Protected Server . . . . . . . . . 26-7
Utilize Secure OS Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-7

Create a Content-Obscured File with P-Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9

Create P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9
Invoke P-Code Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9

xxi
 Run Older P-Code Files on Later Versions of MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9

Create Hyperlinks that Run Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11

Run a Single Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-11
Run Multiple Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12
Provide Command Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12
Include Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12

Create and Share Toolboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-14

Create Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-14
Share Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-18

Run Parallel Language in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-20

Run Parallel Language in Serial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-20
Use Parallel Language Without a Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-21

Function Argument Validation

27
Function Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Introduction to Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Where to Use Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
arguments Block Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
Examples of Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-5
Kinds of Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-7
Required and Optional Positional Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-7
Repeating Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9
Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-11
Robust Handling of Name-Value Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-14
Name-Value Arguments from Class Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-15
Order of Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-17
Avoiding Class and Size Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-17
nargin in Argument Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19
Restrictions on Variable and Function Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
Debugging Arguments Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-21

Argument Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-23

Numeric Value Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-23
Comparison with Other Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-24
Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-24
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-24
Membership and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-25
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-25
Define Validation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-25

Transparency in MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-27

Writing Transparent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-27

xxii Contents
Software Development

Error Handling
28
Exception Handling in a MATLAB Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
Getting an Exception at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
Getting an Exception in Your Program Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-3
Generating a New Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-3

Throw an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4

Suggestions on How to Throw an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4

Respond to an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-6

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-6
The try/catch Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-6
Suggestions on How to Handle an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-7

Clean Up When Functions Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-9

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-9
Examples of Cleaning Up a Program Upon Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-10
Retrieving Information About the Cleanup Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-11
Using onCleanup Versus try/catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-12
onCleanup in Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-12

Issue Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-14

Issue Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-14
Throw Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-14
Add Run-Time Parameters to Your Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . 28-15
Add Identifiers to Warnings and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-15

Suppress Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-17

Turn Warnings On and Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-18

Restore Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-20

Disable and Restore a Particular Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-20
Disable and Restore Multiple Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-21

Change How Warnings Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-22

Enable Verbose Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-22
Display a Stack Trace on a Specific Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-22

Use try/catch to Handle Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-23

xxiii
 Program Scheduling
29
Schedule Command Execution Using Timer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
Example: Displaying a Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2

Timer Callback Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4

Associating Commands with Timer Object Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4
Creating Callback Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-5
Specifying the Value of Callback Function Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 29-6

Handling Timer Queuing Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-8

Drop Mode (Default) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-8
Error Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-9
Queue Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-10

Performance
30
Measure the Performance of Your Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Overview of Performance Timing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Time Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Time Portions of Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
The cputime Function vs. tic/toc and timeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
Tips for Measuring Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-3

Profile Your Code to Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4

What Is Profiling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4
Profile Your Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4
Profile Multiple Statements in Command Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-10
Profile an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-11

Techniques to Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-12

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-12
Code Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-12
Programming Practices for Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-12
Tips on Specific MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-13

Preallocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-14
Preallocating a Nondouble Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-14

Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-16
Using Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-16
Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-17
Logical Array Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-18
Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-19
Ordering, Setting, and Counting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-20
Functions Commonly Used in Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-21

xxiv Contents
 Background Processing
31
Asynchronous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
Asynchronous Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
Background Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4

Run MATLAB Functions in Thread-Based Environment . . . . . . . . . 31-6

Run Functions in the Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6
Run Functions on a Thread Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6
Automatically Scale Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6
Check Thread Supported Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6

Create Responsive Apps by Running Calculations in the Background

..................................................... 31-8
Open App Designer App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8
Add a Future Array to the Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8
Create y-axis Data in the Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-9
Automatically Update Plot After Data Is Calculated in the Background
................................................. 31-9
Make Your App More Responsive by Canceling the Future Array . 31-10
Responsive App That Calculates and Plots Simple Curves . . . . . . . 31-11

Run Functions in Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-13

Update Wait Bar While Functions Run in the Background . . . . . . 31-14

Memory Usage
32
Strategies for Efficient Use of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-2
Use Appropriate Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-2
Avoid Temporary Copies of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-3
Reclaim Used Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4

Resolve “Out of Memory” Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-6

Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-6
Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-6

How MATLAB Allocates Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-12

Avoid Unnecessary Copies of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-16

Passing Values to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-16
Why Pass-by-Value Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-19
Handle Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-19

xxv
 Custom Help and Documentation
33
Create Help for Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
Help Text from the doc Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
Custom Help Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3

Check Which Programs Have Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8

Create Help Summary Files — Contents.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10

What Is a Contents.m File? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10
Create a Contents.m File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10
Check an Existing Contents.m File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-11

Customize Code Suggestions and Completions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12

Function Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-13
Signature Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-13
Argument Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-14
Create Function Signature File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-17
How Function Signature Information is Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-18
Multiple Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-19

Display Custom Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21
Create HTML Help Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-22
Create info.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-23
Create helptoc.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-24
Build a Search Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-26
Address Validation Errors for info.xml Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-27

Display Custom Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-29

How to Display Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-29
Elements of the demos.xml File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-30

Projects
34
Create Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
What Are Projects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
Create Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
Open Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
Set up Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-3
Add Files to Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5
Other Ways to Create Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-6

Automate Startup and Shutdown Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8

Specify Project Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8
Set Startup Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8
Specify Startup and Shutdown Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8

Set MATLAB Projects Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-10

xxvi Contents
Determine Order for Resolving Conflicts Using Dependency Analyzer
.................................................... 34-13

Manage Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-15

Automatic Updates When Renaming, Deleting, or Removing Files
................................................ 34-16

Find Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17

Group and Sort Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17
Search for and Filter Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17
Search the Content in Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17

Create Shortcuts to Frequent Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-19

Run Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-19
Create Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-19
Organize Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-19

Add Labels to Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-21

Add Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-21
View and Edit Label Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-21
Create Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-22

Create Custom Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-23

Create a Custom Task Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-23
Run a Custom Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-23
Save Custom Task Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-24

Componentize Large Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-25

Add or Remove Reference to a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-25
View, Edit, or Run Referenced Project Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-25
Extract Folder to Create a Referenced Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-26
Manage Changes in Referenced Project Using Checkpoints . . . . . 34-26

Share Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-28

Create an Export Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-31

Upgrade Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-32

Run Upgrade Project Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-32
Examine Upgrade Project Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-33

Analyze Project Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-35

Run a Dependency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-35
Explore the Dependency Graph, Views, and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-37
Investigate and Resolve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-43
Find Required Products and Add-Ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-46
Find File Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-47
Export Dependency Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-49

Clone Remote Git Repository into New Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-51

Use Source Control with Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-52

Setup Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-52
Perform Source Control Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-54
Work with Derived Files in Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-60
Find Project Files With Unsaved Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-61

xxvii
 Manage Open Files When Closing a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-61

Create and Edit Projects Programmatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-62

Explore an Example Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-69

Source Control Interface

35
Source Control Integration in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-2
Classic and Distributed Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-2

Set Source Control Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-4

Set Git Preferences in MATLAB Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-4

Use Git in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-5

Clone Remote Git Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-5
Mark Files for Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-6
Review Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-6
Commit Modified Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-7
Push Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-8
Resolve Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-9
Manage Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-10
Create Local Git Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-10
Store Uncommitted Changes Using Git Stashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-11

Set Up Git Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-12

Register Binary Files with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-12
Configure MATLAB for Git on Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-12
Configure MATLAB to Use Git SSH Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-13
Install Git Credential Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17
Disable Compression for Simulink Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17
Configure Git to Use Git LFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17
Configure Git to use MATLAB for Diff and Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17
Install Command-Line Git Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-18

Branch and Merge with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-19

Create Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-19
Switch Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-20
Compare Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-21
Merge Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-21
Revert to Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-21
Delete Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-22

Add Git Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-23

Update Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-23
Use Fetch and Merge with Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-23
Use Push to Send Changes to the Submodule Repository . . . . . . . 35-23

Review Changes in SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-25

Mark Files for Addition to SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-26

xxviii Contents
Move, Rename, or Delete Files Under SVN Source Control . . . . . . 35-27

Resolve SVN Source Control Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28

Examining and Resolving Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28
Resolve Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28
Merge Text Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-28
Extract Conflict Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-29

Commit Modified Files to SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-31

Revert Changes in SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-32

Revert Local Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-32
Revert a File to a Specified Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-32

Set Up SVN Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-33

SVN Source Control Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-33
Register Binary Files with SVN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-33
Standard Repository Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-36
Tag Versions of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-36
Enforce Locking Files Before Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-36
Share a Subversion Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-37

Check Out from SVN Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-38

Retrieve Tagged Version of Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-38

Update SVN File Status and Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-40

Refresh Status of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-40
Update Revisions of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-40

Get SVN File Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-41

Manage SVN Repository Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-41

Continuous Integration Using MATLAB Projects and Jenkins . . . 35-42

Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
Set Up MATLAB Project for Continuous Integration in Jenkins . . . 35-42
Reduce Test Runtime Using Dependency Cache and Impact Analysis
................................................ 35-43
Enhance Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44

Customize External Source Control to Use MATLAB for Diff and

Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-46
Finding the Full Paths for MATLAB Diff, Merge, and AutoMerge . . 35-46
Integration with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-47
Integration with SVN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-48
Integration with Other Source Control Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-49

MSSCCI Source Control Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-51

Set Up MSSCCI Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-52

Create Projects in Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-52
Specify Source Control System with MATLAB Software . . . . . . . . 35-53
Register Source Control Project with MATLAB Software . . . . . . . . 35-54
Add Files to Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-56

xxix
 Check Files In and Out from MSSCCI Source Control . . . . . . . . . . 35-57
Check Files Into Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-57
Check Files Out of Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-57
Undoing the Checkout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-58

Additional MSSCCI Source Control Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-59

Getting the Latest Version of Files for Viewing or Compiling . . . . . 35-59
Removing Files from the Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-60
Showing File History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-60
Comparing the Working Copy of a File to the Latest Version in Source
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-61
Viewing Source Control Properties of a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-62
Starting the Source Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-63

Access MSSCCI Source Control from Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-65

Troubleshoot MSSCCI Source Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-66

Source Control Error: Provider Not Present or Not Installed Properly
................................................ 35-66
Restriction Against @ Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-67
Add to Source Control Is the Only Action Available . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-67
More Solutions for Source Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-67

Unit Testing
36
Write Test Using Live Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-3

Write Script-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6

Write Script-Based Test Using Local Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-11

Extend Script-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-14

Test Suite Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-14
Test Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-14
Programmatic Access of Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-15
Test Runner Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-15

Run Tests in Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-17

Write Function-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-20

Create Test Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-20
Run the Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-22
Analyze the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-23

Write Simple Test Case Using Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-24

Write Test Using Setup and Teardown Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-27

Extend Function-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-32

Fixtures for Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-32
Test Logging and Verbosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-33

xxx Contents
 Test Suite Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-33
Test Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-33
Test Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-34
Programmatic Access of Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-34
Test Runner Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-35

Author Class-Based Unit Tests in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-36

The Test Class Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-36
The Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-36
Additional Features for Advanced Test Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-37

Write Simple Test Case Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-39

Write Setup and Teardown Code Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-42

Test Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-42
Test Case with Method-Level Setup Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-42
Test Case with Class-Level Setup Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-43

Table of Verifications, Assertions, and Other Qualifications . . . . . 36-45

Tag Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-48

Tag Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-48
Select and Run Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-49

Write Tests Using Shared Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-52

Create Basic Custom Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-55

Create Advanced Custom Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-57

Use Parameters in Class-Based Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-62

How to Write Parameterized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-62
How to Initialize Parameterization Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-63
Specify Parameterization Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-64
Specify How Parameters Are Combined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-65
Use External Parameters in Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-67

Create Basic Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-68

Create Advanced Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-73

Use External Parameters in Parameterized Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-80

Define Parameters at Suite Creation Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-84

Create Simple Test Suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-91

Run Tests for Various Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-93

Set Up Example Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-93
Run All Tests in Class or Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-93
Run Single Test in Class or Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-93
Run Test Suites by Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-94
Run Test Suites from Test Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-94
Run Tests with Customized Test Runner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-95

xxxi
 Programmatically Access Test Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-96

Add Plugin to Test Runner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-97

Write Plugins to Extend TestRunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-100

Custom Plugins Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-100
Extending Test Session Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-100
Extending Test Suite Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-101
Extending Test Class Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-101
Extending Test Level Plugin Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-102

Create Custom Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-103

Run Tests in Parallel with Custom Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-108

Write Plugin to Add Data to Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-116

Write Plugin to Save Diagnostic Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-121

Plugin to Generate Custom Test Output Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-125

Analyze Test Case Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-128

Analyze Failed Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-131

Rerun Failed Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-133

Dynamically Filtered Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-136

Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-136
Method Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-138
Class Setup and Teardown Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-139

Create Custom Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-142

Create Custom Boolean Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-145

Overview of App Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-149

App Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-149
Gesture Support of UI Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-149
Write a Test for an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-151

Write Tests for an App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-154

Write Tests That Use App Testing and Mocking Frameworks . . . 36-158
Create App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-158
Test App With Manual Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-159
Create Fully Automated Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-160

Overview of Performance Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-163

Determine Bounds of Measured Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-163
Types of Time Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-164
Write Performance Tests with Measurement Boundaries . . . . . . . 36-164
Run Performance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-165
Understand Invalid Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-165

xxxii Contents
Test Performance Using Scripts or Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-167

Test Performance Using Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-171

Measure Fast Executing Test Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-177

Create Mock Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-180

Specify Mock Object Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-187

Define Mock Method Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-187
Define Mock Property Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-188
Define Repeating and Subsequent Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-189
Summary of Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-191

Qualify Mock Object Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-192

Qualify Mock Method Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-192
Qualify Mock Property Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-193
Use Mock Object Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-194
Summary of Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-196

Ways to Write Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-198

Script-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-198
Function-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-199
Class-Based Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-199
Extend Unit Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-200

Compile MATLAB Unit Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-201

Run Tests with Standalone Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-201
Run Tests in Parallel with Standalone Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 36-202
TestRand Class Definition Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-202

Generate Code Coverage Report in HTML Format . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-204

Statement Coverage for MATLAB Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-204
Function Coverage for MATLAB Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-204
Generate and Analyze HTML Coverage Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-205
QuadraticPolynomial Class Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-207

Insert Test Code Using Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-209

Create Test Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-209
Add Parameters and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-209
Run Tests in Test Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-212

Develop and Integrate Software with Continuous Integration . . 36-213

Continuous Integration Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-213
Continuous Integration with MathWorks Products . . . . . . . . . . . 36-215

Generate Artifacts Using MATLAB Unit Test Plugins . . . . . . . . . . 36-217

Continuous Integration with MATLAB on CI Platforms . . . . . . . . 36-221

Azure DevOps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-221
Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-221
CircleCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-221
GitHub Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-221
GitLab CI/CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-222
Jenkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-222

xxxiii
 Travis CI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-222
Other Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-222

Build Automation
37
Overview of MATLAB Build Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-2
Create Plan with Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-2
Run Tasks in Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3

Create and Run Tasks Using Build Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-4

Create Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-4
Summary of Build File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
Visualize Task Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-6
Run Tasks in Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-6

System object Usage and Authoring

38
What Are System Objects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-2
Running a System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-3
System Object Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-3

System Objects vs MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-5

System Objects vs. MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-5
Process Audio Data Using Only MATLAB Functions Code . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-5
Process Audio Data Using System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6

System Design in MATLAB Using System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-7

System Design and Simulation in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-7
Create Individual Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-7
Configure Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-8
Create and Configure Components at the Same Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-8
Assemble Components Into System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-9
Run Your System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-9
Reconfiguring Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-10

Define Basic System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-11

Create System Object Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-11
Define Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-11

Change the Number of Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-13

Validate Property and Input Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-16

Validate a Single Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-16
Validate Interdependent Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-16
Validate Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-16
Complete Class Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-16

xxxiv Contents
Initialize Properties and Setup One-Time Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-18

Set Property Values at Construction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-20

Reset Algorithm and Release Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-22

Reset Algorithm State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-22
Release System Object Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-22

Define Property Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-24

Specify Property as Nontunable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-24
Specify Property as DiscreteState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-24
Example Class with Various Property Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-24

Hide Inactive Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-26

Specify Inactive Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-26
Complete Class Definition File with Inactive Properties Method . . . . . . 38-26

Limit Property Values to Finite List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-28

Property Validation with mustBeMember . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-28
Enumeration Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-28
Create a Whiteboard System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-29

Process Tuned Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-32

Define Composite System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-34

Define Finite Source Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-36

Use the FiniteSource Class and Specify End of the Source . . . . . . . . . . 38-36
Complete Class Definition File with Finite Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-36

Save and Load System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-38

Save System Object and Child Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-38
Load System Object and Child Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-38
Complete Class Definition Files with Save and Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-38

Define System Object Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-41

Handle Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-43

React to Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-43
Restrict Input Specification Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-43

Summary of Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-45

Setup Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-45
Running the Object or Step Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-45
Reset Method Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-46
Release Method Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-47

Detailed Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-48

setup Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-48
Running the Object or step Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-48
reset Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-49
release Call Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-49

Tips for Defining System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-50

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-50

xxxv
 Inputs and Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-50
Using ~ as an Input Argument in Method Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-50
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-50
Text Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-51
Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-51
Code Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-52

Insert System Object Code Using MATLAB Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-53

Define System Objects with Code Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-53
Create a Temperature Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-55
Create Custom Property for Freezing Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-56
Add Method to Validate Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-57

Analyze System Object Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-58

Use Global Variables in System Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-61

System Object Global Variables in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-61
System Object Global Variables in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-61

Create Moving Average System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-65

Create New System Objects for File Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-70

Create Composite System Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-76

xxxvi Contents
Language

37
 1

Syntax Basics

• “Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines” on page 1-2

• “Name=Value in Function Calls” on page 1-3
• “Ignore Function Outputs” on page 1-4
• “Variable Names” on page 1-5
• “Case and Space Sensitivity” on page 1-7
• “Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax” on page 1-8
• “Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable” on page 1-11
1 Syntax Basics

Continue Long Statements on Multiple Lines

This example shows how to continue a statement to the next line using ellipsis (...).

s = 1 - 1/2 + 1/3 - 1/4 + 1/5 ...

- 1/6 + 1/7 - 1/8 + 1/9;

Build a long character vector by concatenating shorter vectors together:

mytext = ['Accelerating the pace of ' ...

'engineering and science'];

The start and end quotation marks for a character vector must appear on the same line. For example,
this code returns an error, because each line contains only one quotation mark:

mytext = 'Accelerating the pace of ...

engineering and science'

An ellipsis outside a quoted text is equivalent to a space. For example,

x = [1.23...
4.56];

is the same as

x = [1.23 4.56];

1-2
 Name=Value in Function Calls

Name=Value in Function Calls

Since R2021a

MATLAB supports two syntaxes for passing name-value arguments.

plot(x,y,LineWidth=2) name=value syntax

plot(x,y,"LineWidth",2) comma-separated syntax

Use the name=value syntax to help identify name-value arguments for functions and to clearly
distinguish names from values in lists of name-value arguments.

Most functions and methods support both syntaxes, but there are some limitations on where and how
the name=value syntax can be used:

Mixing name,value and name=value syntaxes: The recommended practice is to use only one
syntax in any given function call. However, if you do mix name=value and name,value syntaxes
in a single call, all name=value arguments must appear after the name,value arguments. For
example, plot(x,y,"Color","red",LineWidth=2) is a valid combination, but
plot(x,y,Color="red","LineWidth",2) errors.
• Using positional arguments after name-value arguments: Some functions have positional
arguments that appear after name-value arguments. For example, this call to the verifyEqual
method uses the RelTol name-value argument, followed by a string input:

verifyEqual(testCase,1.5,2,"RelTol",0.1,...
"Difference exceeds relative tolerance.")

Using the name=value syntax (RelTol=0.1) causes the statement to error. In cases where a
positional argument follows name-value arguments, use the name,value syntax.
• Names that are invalid variable names: Name-value arguments with names that are invalid
MATLAB variable names cannot be used with the name=value syntax. See “Variable Names” on
page 1-5 for more info. For example, a name-value argument like "allow-empty",true errors
if passed as allow-empty=true. Use the name,value syntax in these cases.

Function authors do not need to code differently to support both the name,value and name=value
syntaxes. For information on authoring functions that accept name-value arguments, see “Name-Value
Arguments” on page 27-11.

1-3
1 Syntax Basics

Ignore Function Outputs

This example shows how to ignore specific outputs from a function using the tilde (~) operator.

Request all three possible outputs from the fileparts function.

helpFile = which('help');
[helpPath,name,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

The current workspace now contains three variables from fileparts: helpPath, name, and ext. In
this case, the variables are small. However, some functions return results that use much more
memory. If you do not need those variables, they waste space on your system.

If you do not use the tilde operator, you can request only the first N outputs of a function (where N is
less than or equal to the number of possible outputs) and ignore any remaining outputs. For example,
request only the first output, ignoring the second and third.

helpPath = fileparts(helpFile);

If you request more than one output, enclose the variable names in square brackets, []. The
following code ignores the output argument ext.

[helpPath,name] = fileparts(helpFile);

To ignore function outputs in any position in the argument list, use the tilde operator. For example,
ignore the first output using a tilde.

[~,name,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

You can ignore any number of function outputs using the tilde operator. Separate consecutive tildes
with a comma. For example, this code ignores the first two output arguments.

[~,~,ext] = fileparts(helpFile);

See Also

More About
• “Ignore Inputs in Function Definitions” on page 22-10

1-4
 Variable Names

Variable Names

In this section...
“Valid Names” on page 1-5
“Conflicts with Function Names” on page 1-5

Valid Names
A valid variable name starts with a letter, followed by letters, digits, or underscores. MATLAB is case
sensitive, so A and a are not the same variable. The maximum length of a variable name is the value
that the namelengthmax command returns.

You cannot define variables with the same names as MATLAB keywords, such as if or end. For a
complete list, run the iskeyword command.

Examples of valid names: Examples of invalid names:

x6 6x
lastValue end
n_factorial n!

Conflicts with Function Names

Avoid creating variables with the same name as a function (such as i, j, mode, char, size, and
path). In general, variable names take precedence over function names. If you create a variable that
uses the name of a function, you sometimes get unexpected results.

Check whether a proposed name is already in use with the exist or which function. exist returns
0 if there are no existing variables, functions, or other artifacts with the proposed name. For example:

exist checkname

ans =
0

If you inadvertently create a variable with a name conflict, remove the variable from memory with the
clear function.

Another potential source of name conflicts occurs when you define a function that calls load or eval
(or similar functions) to add variables to the workspace. In some cases, load or eval add variables
that have the same names as functions. Unless these variables are in the function workspace before
the call to load or eval, the MATLAB parser interprets the variable names as function names. For
more information, see:

• “Unexpected Results When Loading Variables Within a Function”

• “Alternatives to the eval Function” on page 2-91

1-5
1 Syntax Basics

See Also
clear | exist | iskeyword | namelengthmax | which | isvarname

1-6
 Case and Space Sensitivity

Case and Space Sensitivity

MATLAB code is sensitive to casing, and insensitive to blank spaces except when defining arrays.

Uppercase and Lowercase

In MATLAB code, use an exact match with regard to case for variables, files, and functions. For
example, if you have a variable, a, you cannot refer to that variable as A. It is a best practice to use
lowercase only when naming functions. This is especially useful when you use both Microsoft®
Windows® and UNIX®1 platforms because their file systems behave differently with regard to case.

When you use the help function, the help displays some function names in all uppercase, for
example, PLOT, solely to distinguish the function name from the rest of the text. Some functions for
interfacing to Oracle® Java® software do use mixed case and the command-line help and the
documentation accurately reflect that.

Spaces

Blank spaces around operators such as -, :, and ( ), are optional, but they can improve readability.
For example, MATLAB interprets the following statements the same way.

y = sin (3 * pi) / 2
y=sin(3*pi)/2

However, blank spaces act as delimiters in horizontal concatenation. When defining row vectors, you
can use spaces and commas interchangeably to separate elements:

A = [1, 0 2, 3 3]

A =

1 0 2 3 3

Because of this flexibility, check to ensure that MATLAB stores the correct values. For example, the
statement [1 sin (pi) 3] produces a much different result than [1 sin(pi) 3] does.

[1 sin (pi) 3]

Error using sin

Not enough input arguments.

[1 sin(pi) 3]

ans =

1.0000 0.0000 3.0000

1 UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the United States and other countries.

1-7
1 Syntax Basics

Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax

MATLAB has two ways of calling functions, called function syntax and command syntax. This page
discusses the differences between these syntax formats and how to avoid common mistakes
associated with command syntax.

For introductory information on calling functions, see “Calling Functions”. For information related to
defining functions, see “Create Functions in Files” on page 21-2.

Command Syntax and Function Syntax

In MATLAB, these statements are equivalent:

load durer.mat % Command syntax

load('durer.mat') % Function syntax

This equivalence is sometimes referred to as command-function duality.

All functions support this standard function syntax:

[output1, ..., outputM] = functionName(input1, ..., inputN)

In function syntax, inputs can be data, variables, and even MATLAB expressions. If an input is data,
such as the numeric value 2 or the string array ["a" "b" "c"], MATLAB passes it to the function
as-is. If an input is a variable MATLAB will pass the value assigned to it. If an input is an expression,
like 2+2 or sin(2*pi), MATLAB evaluates it first, and passes the result to the function. If the
functions has outputs, you can assign them to variables as shown in the example syntax above.

Command syntax is simpler but more limited. To use it, separate inputs with spaces rather than
commas, and do not enclose them in parentheses.

functionName input1 ... inputN

With command syntax, MATLAB passes all inputs as character vectors (that is, as if they were
enclosed in single quotation marks) and does not assign outputs to variables. To pass a data type
other than a character vector, use the function syntax. To pass a value that contains a space, you have
two options. One is to use function syntax. The other is to put single quotes around the value.
Otherwise, MATLAB treats the space as splitting your value into multiple inputs.

If a value is assigned to a variable, you must use function syntax to pass the value to the function.
Command syntax always passes inputs as character vectors and cannot pass variable values. For
example, create a variable and call the disp function with function syntax to pass the value of the
variable:

A = 123;
disp(A)

This code returns the expected result,

123

You cannot use command syntax to pass the value of A, because this call

disp A

1-8
 Choose Command Syntax or Function Syntax

is equivalent to

disp('A')

and returns

Avoid Common Syntax Mistakes

Suppose that your workspace contains these variables:

filename = 'accounts.txt';
A = int8(1:8);
B = A;

The following table illustrates common misapplications of command syntax.

This Command... Is Equivalent to... Correct Syntax for Passing Value

open filename open('filename') open(filename)
isequal A B isequal('A','B') isequal(A,B)
strcmp class(A) int8 strcmp('class(A)','int8') strcmp(class(A),'int8')
cd tempdir cd('tempdir') cd(tempdir)
isnumeric 500 isnumeric('500') isnumeric(500)
round 3.499 round('3.499'), which is round(3.499)
equivalent to round([51 46 52
57 57])
disp hello world disp('hello','world') disp('hello world')

or

disp 'hello world'

disp "string" disp('"string"') disp("string")

Passing Variable Names

Some functions expect character vectors for variable names, such as save, load, clear, and whos.
For example,

whos -file durer.mat X

requests information about variable X in the example file durer.mat. This command is equivalent to

whos('-file','durer.mat','X')

How MATLAB Recognizes Command Syntax

Consider the potentially ambiguous statement

ls ./d

1-9
1 Syntax Basics

This could be a call to the ls function with './d' as its argument. It also could represent element-
wise division on the array ls, using the variable d as the divisor.

If you issue this statement at the command line, MATLAB can access the current workspace and path
to determine whether ls and d are functions or variables. However, some components, such as the
Code Analyzer and the Editor/Debugger, operate without reference to the path or workspace. When
you are using those components, MATLAB uses syntactic rules to determine whether an expression is
a function call using command syntax.

In general, when MATLAB recognizes an identifier (which might name a function or a variable), it
analyzes the characters that follow the identifier to determine the type of expression, as follows:

• An equal sign (=) implies assignment. For example:

ls =d
• An open parenthesis after an identifier implies a function call. For example:

ls('./d')
• Space after an identifier, but not after a potential operator, implies a function call using command
syntax. For example:

ls ./d
• Spaces on both sides of a potential operator, or no spaces on either side of the operator, imply an
operation on variables. For example, these statements are equivalent:

ls ./ d

ls./d

Therefore, MATLAB treats the potentially ambiguous statement ls ./d as a call to the ls function
using command syntax.

The best practice is to avoid defining variable names that conflict with common functions, to prevent
any ambiguity.

See Also
“Calling Functions” | “Create Functions in Files” on page 21-2

1-10
 Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable

Resolve Error: Undefined Function or Variable

Issue
You may encounter the following error message, or something similar, while working with functions
or variables in MATLAB:

Undefined function or variable 'x'.

These errors usually indicate that MATLAB cannot find a particular variable or MATLAB program file
in the current directory or on the search path.

Possible Solutions
Verify Spelling of Function or Variable Name

One of the most common causes is misspelling the function or variable name. Especially with longer
names or names containing similar characters (such as the letter l and numeral one), it is easy to
make mistakes and hard to detect them.

Often, when you misspell a MATLAB function, a suggested function name appears in the Command
Window. For example, this command fails because it includes an uppercase letter in the function
name:

accumArray

Undefined function or variable 'accumArray'.

Did you mean:

>> accumarray

When this happens, press Enter to execute the suggested command or Esc to dismiss it.

Verify Inputs Correspond to the Function Syntax

Object methods are typically called using function syntax: for instance method(object,inputs).
Alternatively, they can be called using dot notation: for instance object.method(inputs). One
common error is to mix these syntaxes. For instance, you might call the method using function syntax,
but to provide inputs following dot notation syntax and leave out the object as an input: for instance,
method(inputs). To avoid this, when calling an object method, make sure you specify the object
first, either through the first input of function syntax or through the first identifier of dot notation.

Make Sure Function Name Matches File Name

When you write a function, you establish its name when you write its function definition line. This
name should always match the name of the file you save it to. For example, if you create a function
named curveplot,

function curveplot(xVal, yVal)

- program code -

then you should name the file containing that function curveplot.m. If you create a pcode file for
the function, then name that file curveplot.p. In the case of conflicting function and file names, the
file name overrides the name given to the function. In this example, if you save the curveplot

1-11
1 Syntax Basics

function to a file named curveplotfunction.m, then attempts to invoke the function using the
function name will fail:
curveplot
Undefined function or variable 'curveplot'.

If you encounter this problem, change either the function name or file name so that they are the
same.

To Locate the file that defines this function, use the MATLAB Find Files utility as follows:
1
On the Home tab, in the File section, click Find Files.
2 Under Find files named, enter *.m
3 Under Find files containing text, enter the function name.
4 Click the Find button

Make Sure Necessary Toolbox Is Installed and Correct Version

If you are unable to use a built-in function from MATLAB or its toolboxes, make sure that the function
is installed and is the correct version.

If you do not know which toolbox contains the function you need, search for the function
documentation at https://www.mathworks.com/help. The toolbox name appears at the top of the
function reference page. Alternatively, for steps to identify toolboxes that a function depends on, see
“Identify Program Dependencies” on page 26-2.

Once you know which toolbox the function belongs to, use the ver function to see which toolboxes
are installed on the system from which you run MATLAB. The ver function displays a list of all
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1-12
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midway between the top and the flat rice fields below us, and is one
of the most peaceful habitations it is possible to imagine. The priest
seems to spend all his time, clad like one of the poorest peasants,
working in the gardens, which are very well kept, and which, like all
true old Japanese gardens, suggest that the little details had been
planned to please a child. On tiny islands are perched minute
lanterns, and across streams over which one could step are bridges
or stepping-stones.
There are such hundreds of frogs just at present, as he walks one
would think the priest was spilling his basket of plants into the water,
there are so many splashes where he passes, but it is only the
countless frogs hopping out of his way into their native element.
After a rather meagre supper of eggs and rice (it is quite surprising
how tired one gets of eggs and rice, even in one meal) I wandered
round the garden, tottering along with great circumspection, for I
was mounted on geta (the wooden clog-like things I have previously
mentioned). The stillness was complete, as the temple was closed to
visitors and the old priest and his wife were in the house. Range
after range of hills stood back from the sea towards Fuji mountain,
whose position I knew, but who was hidden in the clouds. In the
valley the ripe barley glowed golden, and between its little fields
were the bare wet patches waiting for the rice to be planted out,
and reflecting now the clouds that hung low in the sky. Brilliant
emerald squares marked the nurseries of the tiny rice plants,
growing in neat little oblongs by themselves, and still less than 6
inches high. Suddenly I felt an electric presence, and looked behind
me at a cleft in the hill to see the slimmest silver curve of a new
moon that I had ever seen. She rode in the sky so swiftly that, as I
watched, I could fancy the waves of blue ether tossed from the prow
of the little boat, and while I gazed she passed again behind the hill.
So delicate a moon, a silver thread curved on a bow, but its fairy
light was more bewitching than many a great round moon’s
brilliance.
In the night the priest woke, and gave a cry to his wife, and I looked
out, but the night was black, the fleet moon had lured every star
away.
June 2.—Early they rose, and though I took about an hour leisurely
eating my breakfast, it was finished before half-past eight. I went to
the cycad trees for a while and worked at them. How huge they are!
The one on which I am now sitting, eight feet or so above the
ground, spreads all round me like a grove of trees, but is only one
much-branched individual. At my feet, in the main trunk of the tree,
is a minute temple, but I think the gods have deserted it, for within
is only one image half a foot high, from which the paint has worn
away.
 THE CURIOUS BENT CYCAD IN THE TEMPLE GROUNDS.
Opposite me is a funny old cycad, not branched at all but bent. It
grows on a slope, and is propped up with legs here and there. In the
morning I saw Mount Fuji quite magnificently. She stands alone in
the sky, three times higher in appearance (and more in fact) than
any hill near, with a coronet of snow, and a cloak of clouds round
her shoulders, which cut her off from the earth. Immensely more
impressive than when seen from Tokio.
What a peaceful day! I stop in the midst of my examination of the
cycads to fall into an aimless reverie, and am waked up by a frog
croaking from a porcelain-green throat at my side. Big black
butterflies come lumbering along, and one thinks they are stupid
birds till they settle on a crimson azalea flower, and coming up from
the rice fields is a low-toned rattling chorus of frogs and semi. Just
before supper I went up the next little hill to see the temple of
Kwannon on its top. There are 270 solid stone steps up to the
temple, all neatly squared and nearly 8 feet wide—but the temple
itself is built of mouldering wood. It commands a splendid view of
the rice and barley fields, and then the sea, which lies but a mile
away. Behind the temple is a hilly country with many trees and little
cultivated patches here and there. There are lots of white
Canterbury bells among the tall grasses, and the wild Fuji wistaria
branches climb round many a trunk.
After supper the moon rode high in the pale grey sky—but it is so
small even now, only what I would have thought was a first day
moon in England. Perhaps the brilliantly clear air of Japan last night
allowed me to see the crescent before it was really a moon at all,
but was the soul of a moon before it was born.
June 3.—To get me to the station by 8.30 the good people started
getting up at 5, and talked so that I could hear every word,
repeating again and again the time that they must wake me. But
once they had “waked” me, not a word did they say, and crept about
like mice. The contrariness of the Japanese is incomprehensible. The
kuruma came an hour before I ordered it—and I kept him waiting
more than an hour by their clock, and then got to the station sixty-
five minutes too soon for the train!
After a few stations, I was struck by a pretty beach, and hopped off
the train, determined to have a bathe and go on by the next,
whenever it might be, to-day or to-morrow. The station-master was
very nice, and took charge of my luggage, from which I extracted a
towel. The village—Kanbara by name—was very small, and there
were a good many fishing-boats at intervals along the shore, but
they were nearly deserted. The water was just delicious, so warm
that one could not feel it at all, I never bathed in such a perfect
temperature, but I expect our creeping cold water is more bracing. I
sunned on the beach for a while, and found a train at midday that
will take me a good deal quicker than the one I left, as it is a semi-
express.
I had to wait about twenty minutes on the platform for it, and was
of course gazed at solemnly by a number of small children who did
not offer a remark, they were so young that very likely I was the
first foreigner they had really seen at close quarters. There was a
good deal of difference of opinion as to my sex. My panama hat
always bewilders them, as only men wear them here.
The station-master came up and had a little chat, and took me to his
room, because there was a chair there, which was very nice of him;
though the chair was no more comfortable really than the bench, the
quiet and coolness of his room was pleasant.
When I got off the train I had not told him that it was my intention
simply to get a bathe, but had diplomatically said I wished to see his
neighbourhood, which had evidently pleased him. I told him about
the bathe afterwards, which seemed also to please him, for I had
enjoyed it very much. I got to Tokio quite uneventfully before night.
June 8.—Fossil-cutting all day. In the afternoon there was a quite
terrific thunder-storm, one peal seemed to break inside the very
house. Then hail! The largest known for forty years, and really the
hailstones were as large as eggs, some were measured by Professor
P——, and were 2½ inches in diameter!
By a really quaint coincidence it was the Festival of the God of
Thunder, and the storm took place in the middle of the temple
festival. There seems some justification for a folk-belief in mythology.
When the worshippers prayed for mercy from the fearful hail, the
sun soon shone.
June 9.—Professor F—— came to tea in my house, which he now
saw for the first time—and when I think how he had to arrange
everything with my landlady in the last one, I feel quite proud of my
progress. He is still ill, though a little better, and to-morrow goes
away to some celebrated hot springs.
June 11.—Working at fossils all day: I developed some photos of
cycads I took at Yejiri, but the weather is so hot the gelatine
dissolves!
The air is now filled with mosquitoes and minute biting flies, and I
would like to be a hedgehog. They sing so loudly outside the net
that I can’t sleep, and though they don’t get inside the net much
they are so vexed about it, and I am “so sweet to eat,” as my little
maid says, they just howl on the top note of rage.
June 12.—A working day, in which the only attempt at excitement
was the lunch at the Goten, but as Professor S—— was away it was
a little like flat soda-water.
June 13.—I went to see the Agricultural University; it is at the end
of the Aoyama tram, and quite away into the country. It possesses a
very impressively beautiful stretch of ground, over which the
different Institute Buildings are dotted. Dr. M—— met me and took
me over. The botanical department is not very big, but those who do
research there get every convenience. The only noteworthy thing
was the curious arrangement of the paraffin oven, stuck right down
in the ground like the hut of a cave-dweller, with steep steps into it
and a metal entrance door. This is an old arrangement as a
precaution against fire, for, of course, all the buildings are of wood.
Of the other departments, I was principally interested in the silk-
worm houses, where huge numbers of worms were reared. A
scientist was there doing experiments with hybrids, and working at
Mendel’s laws and the commercial value of different crosses. More
convenient creatures for such a purpose one could hardly imagine.
They need no cages, for they can neither fly nor run! When the
moths hatch out you can pick them up, pop them down beside any
other one you like, and they stay where you put them and mate, and
you get a new generation in about thirty days. They are kind enough
to fasten their eggs themselves in series on numbered cards, and
are, in fact, as well behaved as any scientifically constructed animal
could ever be imagined to be.
It was very wet, so the picnic planned for the afternoon did not
come off, and I stayed a long time. It was interesting to notice some
native Indians studying here, and to find that they, and one or two
others who could not speak Japanese, had special classes held in
English and given by a Japanese teacher for the various subjects.
Who needs to learn any “world language” but English?
June 15.—An uneventful working day, but in the evening there was
the Debate. We are going to have alternately afternoon and evening
meetings, so as to try to please all varieties of people.
Miss B——’s paper was very amusing, as we all expected it would
be, but very superficial also, so that I felt she had been convinced
on the side of Hearn, for she brought no real serious argument
against him. Miss G—— opposed her well, and brought far more
solid reasons in favour of Hearn’s view of Japan; the two supporters
were good, particularly “the Poetess,” who supported Hearn. Many of
the audience spoke very well, but when it came to voting so many
refrained that the votes were level, and I had to give the casting
vote, of course in favour of Hearn.
June 19.—All yesterday the Institute had been undergoing
extensive cleaning, and this morning was spent in expectation and
preparation of exhibits—the great Dr. Koch, the world-famed German
bacteriologist, was coming to see the Institute. Professor F—— was
brought back from the mountain before his cure was finished to be
on duty; my fossil slides were borrowed and put under microscope,
and the spermatozoids of ginkgo were on show. He came, after the
whole Institute and Baron H—— had waited in a flutter of
excitement for nearly an hour; he is a big stout man, not very
intellectual-looking. Though interested he had evidently been trotted
round a great deal. He seemed to like the fossils, and asked me to
show him a section of a leaf, as well as those I had under the
microscope.
Then he was trotted off to a purely masculine dinner at the garden
house. The newspapers have been full of his coming, his doings, and
sayings. They say they are going to put a telephone up Mount Fuji,
so as to be able to interview him from the top!
June 22 and 23.—Uneventful working days, with a little reading of
Matthew Arnold’s Essays in Criticism in the evening. I am reading
aloud to Mrs. St——, who lives next door but one, and who must not
use her eyes at present. We are doing Arnold pretty thoroughly, life,
poems, and essays, and patted ourselves on the back when we
found in an essay on his work that he “appeals exclusively to the
cultured section of the educated classes!”
June 24.—At work all day; in the evening I gave a farewell party for
the P——s (who leave on Friday), and invited about 30 people, of
whom 26 or so accepted. It would have been preposterously
ambitious in England, but here my little house, with the rooms
thrown into one, and the garden lit with Chinese lanterns, made it a
pleasure to play at entertaining. The room lit with lanterns looked
very pretty; chairs and lemonade glasses I borrowed from next door,
and all went merry as a marriage bell. Though it was the rainy
season, the night was gloriously fine. The Dean and one or two
Professors of the University, two clergymen and some minor folk
from the Embassy disported themselves like children. Even the
Poetess came, and entered into the games. We had a collection of
20 sen toys for Professor P——, and some of the things people
brought were charming. By 11.30 all but a select few departed, but
it was after 12 before these went. What a simple happy thing life in
a Japanese house can be!
June 25.—Fossil-cutting all day. Miss M——, Mrs. H——, and
President N—— came to see the fossil cutting-machine at work, and
also some of the slides under the microscope. They were interested,
but of course did not fully realise their significance, for fossils are
principally for specialists.
June 26.—At 6.30 this afternoon Professor and Mrs. P—— left.
What a crowd there was to see them off! By the same train the wife
and daughter of the Austrian Ambassador were leaving, and that
brought all the Legations’ representatives. Really the platform was
so packed we could hardly move—and if there had been tea going
round it would have seemed like a garden party. The train looked
comfortable, with wagons-lit—and every one was entertained by the
huge “send-off,” so that few tears were shed—but I am deeply sorry
to lose the friends that train carries away.
June 30.—A good day’s work. In the evening there was a dinner
where met all the botanists of Tokio. One or two could not come, but
there were 18 men there. Seemingly foreign food is greatly
appreciated—certainly there were more courses than the laws of
health allow. It was amusing to note knives slipped furtively down
after they had touched asparagus when their owners noted me
holding a spike aloft in bare fingers—but otherwise the company
behaved and looked much as a similar set of people would look
anywhere. The sky, seen out of the windows, was the most
astonishingly blue I have ever seen. The soft velvety depth of it
suggested the impossibility of stars gleaming on its surface (as they
usually do at night), they would have been drowned. The brilliant
blueness like that of a cornflower or a solid mass of cornflowers that
had flung off their colour into the surrounding air, till every particle
for miles, each separate and distinct, was blue. Usually the sky
seems a flat or a dome-shaped sheet of colour over us, to-night it
was a solid vapoury mass of quivering blue particles—indescribable,
but thrilling as an electric shock, and as unforgettable. After we had
dined we talked, until I suggested Dr. H—— should give us a piece
of Nō recitation; he studies its peculiar singing-like declamation and
renders it well. Then others sang, and I was convulsed by “Home,
Sweet Home,” sung by one of the young lecturers, “to prevent me
feeling home-sick.” His rendering of it was intensely funny, but his
voice was pretty good. Afterwards he sang a long Japanese battle
song. We left at 9.45, and some of us, I fear, will be ill after that
dinner.
July 1.—An uneventful and solitary day’s work. Professor F—— too
ill to come. I only suffered spasmodic anger from an outraged
digestive mechanism, and continued my usual occupations, and
dined with the Sh——s in the evening. The little Japanese girl I have
mentioned as staying with her is pretty nice. Alas, to-morrow she is
going to be put into foreign dress! She is going to marry Prince
S——, however, who is very pro-English, and as she will be much
about the court, is compelled to wear it by that sad decree of the
Empress.
I heard one good story of a little English girl who went home after
having spent all her early years in Japan. In the train between
Southampton and London she was much interested with the outlook,
the sheep particularly fascinating her, and she called on her mother
to admire them: “Look, what a lot!” “Why, here is another!” “There,
mother, look, look!” she kept exclaiming, when a benevolent old
gentleman said, “Why are the sheep so interesting, little girl?
Haven’t you seen a sheep before?”
“Of course I have,” she answered, drawing herself up; “of course—
we have two in the Zoo in Tokio.”
July 2.—Fossil-cutting all morning—I seem to be followed by
misfortune, for the boy who works the engine has been away all this
week, and my scientific colleague here only one afternoon! However,
I keep at it, and slides are slowly accumulating, with a few nice
things in them.
July 3.—Fossils in the morning and lunch at the Goten; Professor
S—— jolly and talkative, and a great pleasure to meet. Professor
F—— came in the afternoon, and we did a lot of looking through
slides. There are a number of pretty little things among the fossils
that puzzle us completely.
July 5.—There was a luncheon party with some nice neighbours to-
day, and while we were there some strolling Japanese singers came
to the door, and we gave them a few sen and watched them. There
were an old woman and a young woman, both good-looking, and
with the quaint huge round hats of their class, the young man wore
a battered European-style hat—a jarring note, that was repeated in
the little girl’s hat, red stockings, and European shoes. It is always
the men and the children who wear the horrors of civilisation.
The child danced, clumsily and heavily with her feet, but moving her
little body in all kinds of ways with wonderful grace and agility, and a
strength in holding difficult curves; her hands too, so prettily shaped,
were carefully posed and moved, now rigid, almost bending back,
and now swiftly fluttering; she had an old gilt fan, which she opened
and manœuvred, but her round pretty face was absolutely set.
There was a haunting suggestion of bedraggled beauty in it all,
beauty that had once adorned a noble’s palace and had been cast
into the streets, and from soft white tabi and silk robes had taken to
tight cotton gowns and old red stockings, with a hole showing above
the down-trodden heel of a shoe.
Yesterday the Ministry resigned—and the commercial people are on
the verge of revolt against the fearful expenditure on army and navy,
while the country is so poverty-stricken. I could weep with Hearn
over this country, and the hats they wear are enough to start me off!
I have read every word of the cross-examination and trial of Bethell
over the Korean matters; you have probably heard of it at home; in
many ways I feel that the Japanese use their catch phrases, “love of
country”—“love of Emperor,” as cloaks for unscrupulous behaviour
public and private, just as our county councillors seem to lose
private honesty in dealing with public affairs. The Japanese have
20,000 troops active in Korea, and cannot keep order—my only
surprise is that any Koreans submit at all without decent open
warfare; they were not conquered, but tricked and coerced into
having their Government absolutely controlled by the Japanese
Government. Were I a Korean I should at least demand to be
properly conquered. Yet, of course, from the point of view of world
politics Japan must control Korea, only—God pity the Koreans who
have themselves a spark of “love of country” or “love of Emperor.”
July 6.—A solitary day’s work—on the way home I called to inquire
after Mrs. M——, who has been in bed for about a month, and I
noticed that the ceiling of their big drawing-room is all of satin,
embroidered with huge flowers and life-size peacocks and other
birds. One can only think of the cost of it, and deplore that it was
not put as hangings where one could admire the work.
I had to go by tram to-day, as the bicycle is in hospital, and noticed
such a quaint sign over a shop. Most of the very funny ones have
been gradually weeded out by thoughtless people informing the
owners of their eccentricity, so that the streets are not nearly so
entertaining as they were years ago.
This I saw, however:—
“Au Klnds wool are sell in her.”
I also noticed “Fruit’s Shops.”
How lazy a bicycle makes one, it feels a serious imposition to have to
walk 2 miles of city road, though the Tokio streets do not seem to
get any less entertaining because I am accustomed to them.
July 7.—We had a fine afternoon, so I did a little tidying up in my
garden. During these many days of heavy rain the leaves have
grown luxuriantly, but the flowers have quite ceased to come out in
a world where they are only drenched with unkind torrents instead
of being kissed by the warm sun they will get if they wait a few
weeks longer. My four little lawns, altogether no bigger than a
billiard table, are now like a jungle, and I planted them so few
weeks ago. It is very pretty to watch the little side paths, where the
moss and lichens and liverworts seem to grow every day; the small
paths where O Fuji-san (my maid) does not walk are now quite
green—more aged-looking than paths a hundred years old with us.
The little stone lantern I bought the day of the paeony flowers, is
also green, with a faint haze of centuries over it! It is the lovely
greenness of Tokio that marks it out from every city I have seen
before. To-day, bicycling along the road above the moat, I could well
have believed myself far in the country, with the high green grass on
the steep banks of the moat and the grey-green pines growing
above and shading it. The green and the grey and the blue that lies
in and over this city, blue in the sky and blue in the gowns of every
one; grey on the tree trunks, the moats, and the houses; green
everywhere there is foot-hold for a moss plant, are a harmony that
thrills one’s very soul.
July 9.—Work till 5.30, and then dinner at 6, with Professor S——.
This was arranged to suit Professor B——, from New Zealand, who
goes to bed at 8.30 or so. Professor O——, the seismologist, and
Professor T——, the anthropologist, were also there. It was, of
course, a “foreign style” dinner, and was done with great
magnificence. Professor B—— talked with almost no comments from
any one, but the conversation was never dull.
Professor S——’s garden was more of a dream than ever,—lit with
stone lanterns and with a few red roses among the green, the moon
being in a watery mist, and we turned the light down, and listened
to the bell-like tones of a little “Bell insect,” hanging in a 2-inch cage
in the garden. The note was slightly muffled, but musical,
penetrating, and sad—one of those notes that act as an “Open
Sesame” to the gate of emotions—that is, I should say, to some
people’s emotions. Professor B—— had the insect under a “scientific
scrutiny” for a whole minute, and then produced his note-book, and
the light was turned up while he wrote down his observation that
the noise is made by the rubbing of the wings where they slightly
overlap.
July 10.—The last day’s lunch at the Goten, and a lot of work of
one sort and another got out of hand. Collecting plant-material, etc.,
takes more time than one would think. The fossil lab.-boy is ill again,
and fossils are hanging fire a little, for I can’t do more than three
things at once.
July 12.—Writing all morning; the weather is glorious, and the rainy
season seems to be pretty well over, and has been a record one. The
rain came at the right time, lasted the right length of time, and was
cool instead of “steamy hot,” as it often is—we cannot be too
thankful for these mercies. Even as it is, the inside of my writing
case and the whole of my shoes and straps are covered with blue
mould.
I paid several calls in the afternoon—my neighbours are off to the
mountains first thing to-morrow morning—lucky people! How I wish
I could feel free to do the same, instead of grinding over these old
fossils. Soon Tokio will be empty of all the sane people who inhabit it
in the winter.
As I am writing I hear the tune of “Auld Lang Syne” set to Japanese
and sung lustily. It is one of the favourite foreign tunes among the
Japanese, and many sing it without knowing it isn’t Japanese, I
believe.
July 13.—I was in the garden with Professor F—— for the first time
this year. We were getting some gymnosperm material, and found a
brilliant green frog sitting in the sunshine on a brilliant green leaf. He
told me he would be brown on a barky branch, so I picked the frog
up and put him on the curve of a broad brown branch, and, sure
enough, the webs of his feet went quite brown in a minute, and his
back went a much darker, duller green, but we couldn’t wait to see
him all turn brown, it took too long.
July 14.—Absolutely alone all day. The engine and fossil boy and
Professor F—— are all ill again, and the other people not visible. I
felt more than a little ill myself, and my bicycle was so bad it had to
go into hospital. A very grey day—and in the evening torrents of rain
fell from the heavens, and I began to feel inclined to weep also,
when Mrs. F——’s little daughter came round to ask me to go in to
dinner, as the weather was so depressing. Eastern life has its share
of compensations.
July 15.—At 11 I started my work, and took some micro-photos,
and I am also seeing about chemical analysis of nodules, covering
glasses of great size for fossil slides, printing of photos, artificial
cultivation of ginkgo prothallia (and the wretches insist on going
mouldy, like my boots), collecting of gymnosperm material, and half
a hundred other things that are pulling me in as many directions as
the points of a compass for a universe of six dimensions. Why I was
such an ass as to undertake both fossil and recent work, I can’t
imagine—one must go to the wall.
Coming home late to-day (Professor F—— turned up about 3.30), I
passed through the road to a temple where there was a children’s
festival, along whose sides were rows of gay little stalls with all
manner of bright things to tempt the children, who throng in holiday
attire. I never saw more children and fewer elders, and all the
children were so bright, and, excepting for the crude, almost savage
decorations in their hair, so prettily dressed. The various toys and
eatables are indescribable, all brilliant and all ridiculously cheap,
from half of a farthing up to a penny or so being the normal prices.
Among the eatables were little brown germinating beans, with long
white rootlets sticking out, then there was a special stall for a kind of
clear seaweed jelly, which was squeezed into a glass cup through a
bamboo squirt.
Very decorative little stalls were arranged with brilliant seaweed and
shells, and one man did quite a lively trade cutting up small
wriggling living fish. That is one thing about eating raw fish, it
should be alive to be really good. As you may imagine, I have not
yet tested it. Then there is the man that “pops” sugary beans over a
charcoal fire, and makes a delicious noise with his shaking grid-like
box. The dealer of live red crabs attracts a crowd, and the crabs
crawl up the sides of his cage as he pours water down on their
backs. Though why any one should buy the crabs, I don’t know, for
they are less than 2 inches from toe to toe. One boy I met had a
lovely toy—a great dragon-fly, 6 inches across the wings, eagerly
flying attached to a red thread—but alas! I soon saw it was real.
All the sentimental nonsense that is written about Japanese love of
animals is simply not worth the paper it is written on, and as for
their treatment of horses! In England I would go up and beat a man
myself that I only pass quickly here, with a prayer for his horse.
There was inevitably among the stalls one for second-hand odds and
ends. These I examined carefully, for it is just at such times one can
get lovely curios very cheaply. This time I got a tiny double figure,
most delicately carved, and an old carved horn comb.
July 16.—My “At Home” day—and therefore, of course, pouring in
torrents. When I get to the level ground below the Botanical
Gardens I found the road under 2 feet of water. Fortunately there
were kurumas waiting to ferry one across, and I got in one, and had
a man to carry my bicycle on his shoulders. It was serio-comic to see
the houses with 2 and 3 feet of water in them, and clothes hung up
out of reach of the dirty flood. The channels between the houses are
deep, and I saw several people waist high, with a pole, feeling their
way. To think that less than six hours’ rain made that flood, and that
it is in the city of Tokio, and that it happens every few weeks in the
summer, fills one with surprise. How can they put up with it? It only
means the deepening of the channel of the little stream which drains
the district—but men and women tuck up their skirts and wade a
quarter of a mile up to their knees, and those whose houses the
water invades place what they can of their goods out of its way—and
probably the last thing any one of them would do would be to
grumble at the City Council.
I bought some peaches coming back, they are now in season, and in
Tokio more than in any place I know it is a case of “gather ye roses
while ye may.” They were very big, soft, and glowing crimson, and
cost one halfpenny each. When we cut them the stones separated
perfectly, and the rich blood-red flesh stained one’s lips and fingers
with its juice. In buying fruit and vegetables the only Chinese
character I know is of great use, it is that for “Mountain,” and is used
for piles of cucumbers or trios of peaches, and I can read “one
mountain cost 10 sen,” or whatever it may be that a cucumber
mountain costs.
By the way, it may interest you at home to know that a pile of four
cucumbers costs 3 sen, which is exactly 3 farthings the lot. Are you
surprised that I eat boiled cucumbers with white sauce? It is at
home a vegetable we could not often indulge in, with cucumbers 1s.
each, but here, where all things are ridiculous prices, being either
too dear or too cheap, I have the power to indulge in this delicate
dish.
Eggs are funny things here; they get dear in the summer, just when
the man in Punch finds his hens begin to lay. Here the extreme heat
enervates the hens for a couple of months in the summer.
July 17.—A long solitary day’s work till the late afternoon, when
Professor F—— came, and we did a little “joint work”—it is beginning
to be almost farcical; however, without him I should never have got
on at first, so it is all right.
July 18.—Work till 2, when a party of provincial botanists came to
the laboratory, and I met once more the Mr. O—— who was kind to
me at Okoyama in my second tour, as funny and as amusing as ever,
with his twinkling black eyes and mobile eyebrows, that so
incongruously reminded me of “the silk-worm moth eyebrows of a
woman.” At 3 I left the party, who had, of course, to see all the
sights of the Institute, among which was the “Fossil Lab.”
July 19.—At 6.30 I got up to go and see the “Morning Glories,”
huge brilliant convolvulus flowers, which are specially cultivated in a
number of gardens in a part of the town near Oyeno Park. We went
to about a dozen gardens, and saw many of the flowers, though it is
still a little early in the season. The flowers are trained in pots to
grow round light bamboo frames, and are specially cultivated to be
very large. Each morning at ten o’clock all the flowers that have
bloomed that day are picked off, so as to ensure the next day’s
blooms shall not be deprived of any nourishment. The bells are very
large and extremely brilliant, blue, purple, magenta, all the possible
intense shades of each. The flowers are almost a little crude, some
verging on vulgarity in their flaring tones. Many of them are
delightful, and some so large they are said to reach 8 inches or so
across a single bloom; such huge ones I did not see, but what I saw
made it possible to believe in the bigger ones.
In some of the gardens there are many other beautiful things to be
seen, one in particular was almost like a museum of precious things.
There were open rooms in it, with the flowers arranged according to
the best artistic styles, with valuable dwarf trees and curios placed
beside them; there were three old kakemonos I should have loved to
possess. In this garden also was a wonderful collection of landscape
stones, arranged as islands on flat porcelain trays filled with water. It
was indeed a case of bringing the mountain to Mahomet—perfect
rocky scenes, with gleaming waterfalls made by streaks of white
quartz. The innumerable lovely stones—from an inch to a foot high—
represented perfectly, enchantingly, all types of grand, beautiful,
natural scenery. The one I liked best was (even in Japanese things
my fancy usually hits on the most expensive) just a thousand yen in
price!
An old man, apparently master of the garden, came up and talked to
us, he was curious to see a foreigner so interested in stones, and
wished to hear which I liked best, and so on. I wished I could speak
fluently with him, he was just the type of character that seems to be
dying out, and that is so rich in interest and quaint wisdom and
remote culture. His deep wrinkles and keen light eyes were so
attractive. I wished I had gold to spend in that garden, he and I
would enjoy the good old Japanese way of spending several days
over selecting the treasures. He had a pretty little piece of carved
white jade among his flowers, six inches long and an inch high—a
foil for a dark foliage arrangement, £20 it cost, he said, and he didn’t
lie as to its worth.
This is the first nursery garden I have been in that seems to be the
creation of an old artistic Japanese, it was indeed charming.
Afterwards we lunched in Oyeno Park, and then I went a round of
calls on my bicycle, then home to have two friends to tea, and a
view of copies of old Japanese prints: half a chapter I forced myself
to write in the evening sent me to sleep.
July 20–24.—An uneventful week of work, all the Institute seems
asleep, and Professor F—— only came an hour or two for some of
the days till Friday, when we worked very hard.
July 25.—The cycads in Tokio won’t flower, and it is a long way to
go to the places they are reported to grow, so that when I heard
they were to be found in Yokohama, I went off at once by an early
train to visit the various gardens where they are said to be found.
There were two female trees and a male, but they were not very
healthy; still, as the Tokio ones refuse to bloom, and as I need them,
they will be visited by my pilgrimages.
What a hideous influence is the “foreign” style at Yokohama, where
red brick warehouses and treeless streets covered with a pall of
smoke remind one of the “advance” made by modern Japan.
Fortunately the plague spots are not very extensive, one needs to go
but a very little way to find beauty again, but I shudder for the
future when moss-grown walls and green hedges shall have been
ousted from the cities, as they are from ours.
July 26.—I got up at 6 to go to Boshu after more cycads, as the
temple, Awajinja, is reported to have fine ones. The sail down the
coast in the little steamer was very pleasant. It took seven and a
half hours, but we passed very pretty scenery, and for some time
seemed out of sight of land in a sea dotted with innumerable white-
sailed fishing-boats. In the middle of the day many of the fishers
were taking a siesta, the square sail lowered so as to lie along the
boat and form an awning, under whose shade they slept.
When we neared the coast, it required but the smallest imagination
to picture myself in a savage country, for over the rocks ran and
scrambled dark brown men, stark naked, not even the proverbial
string of beads to adorn them. They had long bamboo poles in their
hands, which they waved like savage spears, and gave them a truly
wild aspect.
After landing I bicycled about 8 miles to the temple, and found
splendid male flowers on the cycads, but no female. Last year there
were lots of female. It is too bad, this year seems to be so
unfavourable for the seeds.
I put up at a little hotel near the sea, and after six went down for a
bathe. The coast was perfect, shelving rocks sloping out to sea, with
little bathing coves and sheltering rocks, and, as I imagined, perfect
solitude. But, of course, in this out of the way place I had been
noticed, and before I was in the water a minute a crowd of women
and children had collected. Nothing I could do or say would drive
them away, and so I had to get out and dress under the fire of their
eyes and criticisms. In their long-drawn country tones they kept up a
running commentary, “Ooā—how white she is!” “Is she married?”
“Why does she wear a dress in the sea?” “How old can she be?”
“Perhaps twenty years.” There was no escape from nearly fifty
people forming a cordon but 3 feet away from me; if I had fled they
would have followed; so I dressed as leisurely and as unconcernedly
as if I were at home, and gravely buttoned the little buttons of my
bodice and put on my stockings while I returned the compliment and
made a searching examination of them.
The boy children were naked, with smooth glowing copper limbs like
sun-burned clay—as indeed they were. The girl children had usually
some floating robe of a dressing-gown nature, open to show the
whole body, or caught at the waist and turned down to leave the
upper part free. Bright-eyed they were and muddy-cheeked, but
neither pretty nor attractive. The women were naked to below the
waist, the kimono being turned down over the girdle to form a kind
of double skirt. No one wore any ornament of any kind, save a few
coloured beads to tie their hair, but few of them had even that. The
men wore 3 inches of cloth round their waists and sometimes a band
round their heads made of a small Japanese towel. All were perfectly
quiet, and the remarks were made one at a time by the older
women; the children stood open-mouthed. I know that the blue of
the sea-water makes one gleam like white ivory, and as all my
clothes were white, I suppose the effect must have seemed novel to
them. The deep colour of the Japanese is chiefly due to sunburn, but
as they are exposed to it from their earliest days it gets so ingrained
that they may not realise it is an attempt at clothing on the part of a
body otherwise so unprotected.
July 27.—I rode back again to the starting-point of the steamer,
and got there twenty minutes too soon, and so went along the shore
and had a bathe. The steamer was very crowded and hot—I wonder
who it was that started the fiction that a Japanese crowd does not
possess an odour? Why, the detestable smell of the rancid oil in the
women’s hair is enough for one alone, without any of the other
items, which include a peculiarly virulent pickle, daikon, and an
odour of decayed fish that hangs over a good many in a poor crowd.
The heat is now upon us, and as I returned on my cycle through the
Tokio streets I met gentlemen with fans, schoolboys with fans,
errand-boys with big baskets and fans, kuruma men with fans, even
the men dragging heavy carts fanned themselves as they struggled
along. Yet very few women had fans, only the ladies riding in
kurumas.
July 28.—I had to go up to the University and to several places and
get ready for my start to-morrow. Fearfully hot.
July 29.—Started for Hakone. After the railway journey there was a
tram ride for several miles along the old Tokkaido road; a beautiful
avenue of Cryptomerias shaded it most of the way, and on one side
gleams of the blue sea shone between the tree trunks. After
reaching the foot of the hills there was a four-hours’ walk up the
pass, by a steep and very rough path, with beautiful views of a clear
river rushing over big rocks, and blue hills rising peak by peak
behind the trees.
My luggage was carried by the quaintest human being to whom I
have ever spoken—a dwarf. He hardly reached up to my elbow, and
had bent legs and long arms, yet he was very strong and very
genial, though so hideous. His back view was like this sketch, and
his short stick, about 18 inches long, was very thick and used as a
walking-stick or a support to prop up the saddle-like luggage-holder
when he rested.
Going with him quite alone through the narrow paths in the woods I
felt as though I had been transported into the Middle Ages, where
damsels were served by strange dwarfs who led them to witches’
haunts and fairies’ palaces. I walked slowly in this dreamland, and
he pattered along, half in a run, for his legs were so short that my
slow pace was haste for him. But I need not have felt that his
burden was too heavy, I met several charcoal-burners carrying six
and seven times more than his load. It is wonderful what the natives
can carry here.
We passed a mountain hamlet, a double row of houses built along a
path. There was a runnel of clear water rushing down the middle of
the road, and a tributary stream brought between each of the
houses to join it. In its building the village must be very old, and is
not so “Japanese” looking as the buildings of the plain. There
seemed to be no gardens, but in the space between the houses
grew banks of blue hydrangeas, crimson phlox, and great white
lilies.
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