CHAPTER TWO

DATA COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers information, instructions
to each other and for sharing resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we
can send or receive data. A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers. Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.

2.1 Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another.
It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone,
laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium
that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or
wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable
to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.

Basic Components of Communication system

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the
source computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It also
makes sure that the packets have the information about the source of the message data, the destination
of the message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the
message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Do you ever wonder how computer determines which packet belongs to which
device. IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent
to its proper destination.

2.2 Types of data Communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one
device to another. The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional
communication in which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices

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 uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing
music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the
same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa.
For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example,
mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

comparison
Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the
communication communication is the communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one at
a time.
Send/Receive A device can only send the Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
data but cannot receive it or send and receive the receive the data simultaneously.
it can only receive the data data, but one at a time.
but cannot send it.
Performance The performance of half- The performance of The Full-duplex mode has better
duplex mode is better than full-duplex mode is performance among simplex and
the simplex mode. better than the half- half-duplex mode as it doubles the
duplex mode. utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.
Example Examples of Simplex mode Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-duplex mode is
are radio, keyboard, and is Walkie-Talkies. a telephone network.
monitor.

Now that we’ve explored the various types of data communication, let’s dive into the second category,
which is all about the level of synchronization between the sender and receiver—synchronous and
asynchronous transmission.

Synchronous transmission

This is a full-duplex type of transmission that allows data to be transmitted without start/stop bits or any
gaps between them, and the sender and receiver are synchronized by the same clock signal. Using this
method is a way of sending information in a smooth, continuous stream without any pauses and
interruptions.

As you can see in the diagram, this method of transmission sends data in blocks of bits, which arrive at the
receiver as a stream of bits. The receiver needs to group the bits correctly to make sense of the message.
Next, the receiver counts the bits as they come in and groups them into units of eight bits. Lastly, the
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receiver keeps listening to the message even if no data is being transmitted, and it receives information at
the same rate that the transmitter sends it.

Synchronous transmission can be helpful for real-time data transfer in various fields, including computer
networking (such as Ethernet and fiber optic communications), and computer systems (such as CPUs and
RAM).

Asynchronous transmission

In this type of transmission, the data is sent in a half-duplex manner, with start and stop bits added to the
message during transmission. These bits ensure that the data is transmitted accurately from the sender to
the receiver. Unlike synchronous transmission, which relies on a clock signal to maintain a steady pace for
sending and receiving data, asynchronous transmission doesn’t have this signal. However, this transmission
method can still be reliable because the speed of data transfer is negotiated based on the capabilities of the
devices involved.

Based on the diagram above, in asynchronous transmission, the start bit is typically set to binary “0,” and
the stop bit is set to binary “1.” Additionally, there is a data gap between each character that begins and
ends with the start and stop bits. This gap is called a “mark state,” typically represented by a binary “1” or
negative voltage. Asynchronous transmission works well for slower speeds, but data can always be
compressed to increase transfer rates. A common example of asynchronous transmission is when data is
entered using a computer keyboard. Below is a quick comparison of synchronous and asynchronous
transmission:

Descriptions Synchronous transmission Asynchronous transmission

Timing and Data is transmitted fast in a Data transmission is slow at irregular and random time
transmission synchronized manner, with fixed and intervals
speed constant timing intervals
Start/stop Not required, as timing is used for Start and stop bits are used to synchronize each
bits synchronization character transmission
Efficiency High efficiency, as it uses data blocks Low efficiency due to wasted time between bytes or
of bits without any gap between data characters
Distance Suitable for long-distance data Excellent for short-distance data transmission
transfer
Cost Expensive Low-priced
Ideal for Video conferencing, live streaming Keyboard input, mouse input, serial data transfer

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Now that we’ve covered the different levels of synchronization in data transmission, we’ll proceed to the
aspect of transmitting data that’s defined by the number of bits sent across the network. This category
breaks down into two types: serial and parallel.

Serial transmission

Serial data transmission involves sending data bits one at a time over the transmission channel. This means
that the bits are sent sequentially rather than in parallel. To receive data correctly, the sender and receiver
must be synchronized. The data stream takes some time to send, but the order of the data bits is sustained,
ensuring data integrity. This mode of transmission is ideal for small amounts of data or long-distance
transfers, such as data transfer between two computers via serial ports.

Parallel transmission

Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at once using parallel channels. It’s like many lanes on a
highway where each lane carries different data. Other cables help the sender and receiver communicate.
Parallel transmission is useful for transferring large amounts of data quickly, but it works best over short
distances. However, if multiple transmission channels are too close, it can affect the quality of the data
signal. Additionally, it can be costly because it requires more channels. An example of parallel transmission
is how a computer communicates with a printer.

Feature Serial transmission Parallel transmission

Definition One bit at a time is transmitted over a Multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously
single communication line over multiple communication lines
Speed Relatively slower due to single-bit Due to multiple-bit transmission, it is
transmission considerably faster
Distance Long-distance communication Short-distance communication
Cost Low-cost Expensive
Complexity Simple and requires fewer components Sophisticated, requiring additional components

2.3 Digital and Analog communication

Analog Communication:
In analog communication the data is transferred with the help of analog signal in between transmitter and
receiver. Any type of data is transferred in analog signal. Any data is converted into electric form first and
after that it is passed through communication channel. Analog communication uses a continuous signal
which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property with time in proportion to that of a variable.

Digital Communication:
In digital communication digital signal is used rather than analog signal for communication in between
the source and destination. The digital signal consists of discrete values rather than continuous values. In
digital communication physical transfer of data occurs in the form of digital bit stream i.e 0 or 1 over
a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission medium. In digital communication the digital
transmission data can be broken into packets as discrete messages which is not allowed in analog
communication.

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2.3.1 Digital Transmission

Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital form to store the
information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so that it can be used by a computer.

Digital-To-Digital Conversion

Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. When binary 1s
and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated
over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

Unipolar
o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as wire or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a zero voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:

o DC Component
o Synchronization

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Polar
o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive, and another is
negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC component problem
of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.

NRZ

o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.

o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.

The two most common methods used in NRZ are:

1. NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it represents.
If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we can
say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.
2. NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding
scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this
scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.

RZ

o RZ stands for Return to zero.

o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to change with
every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.

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 o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1, the negative
voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by negative-to-zero.

Disadvantage of RZ:

It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.

Biphase

o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does
not return to zero. Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:

 Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and positive-to-
negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has two levels of
amplitude.

 Differential Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the presence or
absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A transition means
binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal change represent

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Bipolar
o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is represented by
alternating positive and negative voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is represented by negative
voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This alternation can also
occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.

Analog-To-Digital Conversion
o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.
o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to digitalize the analog
signal which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the number of values in an analog
message so that they can be represented in the digital stream.
o In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave form is converted
in digital pulses.

The output of the analog-to-digital converter has defined levels or states. The number of states is almost
always a power of two -- that is, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. The simplest digital signals have only two states and are
called binary. All whole numbers can be represented in binary form as strings of ones and zeros.

Techniques for Analog-To-Digital Conversion

PAM

o PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.

o PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
o PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of digital pulses based on
the result of sampling where sampling means measuring the amplitude of a signal at equal intervals.
o PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original wave form into
pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM technique is modified to PCM
technique.

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PCM

o PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.

o PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital signal. To achieve
this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of assigning integral values in a specific
range to sampled instances.
o PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and digital-to-digital
encoding.

PCM

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Applications
 Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for processing, storing, or transporting almost
any analogue signal into digital format require ADCs to perform well. Let’s an example, in TV tuner
cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital converters.
 Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-based sound recording and music
reproduction technologies both are basically rely heavily on analog-to-digital converters.
 Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems are normally use analog-to-digital
converters for digitizing the instruments and projects pixels.

2.4 Transmission Impairment in Data Communication

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to deteriorate
the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Below are the
causes of the impairment.

Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which
causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal.
Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back and compensate
for this loss.

Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at
two different point.

Attenuation (dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)

P1 is the power at sending end and P2 is the power at receiving end. Some where the decibel is also define
in terms of voltage instead of power. In this case because power is proportional to the square of the voltage
the formula is
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Attenuation (dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)
V1 is the voltage at sending end and V2 is the voltage at receiving end.

Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite
signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed
travelling through a medium. And that’s why it delay in arriving at the final destination every component
arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end
from what they had at senders end.

Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise. There are
several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which
may corrupt the signal.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of electrons in
wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other
wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

 To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ration .The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER

SNRdB = 10Log10SNR

EXAMPLE
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are
SNR = Signal Power/0 = ∞
SNRdB = 10Log10 ∞ = ∞
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.
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2.5 Components of the network

The network infrastructure contains three categories of network components—devices, media, and
services. The path that a message takes from source to destination can be as simple as a single cable
connecting one computer to another or as complex as a network that literally spans the globe. This network
infrastructure is the platform that supports the network. It provides the stable and reliable channel over
which our communications can occur.

Devices and media are the physical elements, or hardware, of the network. Hardware is often the visible
components of the network platform such as a laptop, PC, switch, router, wireless access point, or the
cabling used to connect the devices. Occasionally, some components might not be so visible. In the case of
wireless media, messages are transmitted using invisible radio frequency or infrared waves without
requiring any physical connecting media.

Network components are used to provide services and processes. These are the communication programs,
called software, that run on the networked devices. A network service provides information in response to
a request. Services include many of the common network applications people use every day, like email-
hosting services and web-hosting services. Processes provide the functionality that directs and moves the
messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us but are critical to the operation of networks.

End Devices

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These devices form
the interface between users and the underlying communication network.

Some examples of end devices are

 Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)

 Network printers
 VoIP phones
 TelePresence endpoints
 Security cameras
 Mobile handheld devices (such as smartphones, tablets, PDAs, and wireless debit/credit card
readers and bar-code scanners)

A host device is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network. To distinguish
one host from another, each host on a network is identified by an address. When a host initiates
communication, it uses the address of the destination host to specify where the message should be sent.
Data originates with an end device, flows through the network, and arrives at an end device. Messages can
take alternate routes through the network between end devices.

Intermediary Network Devices

Intermediary devices interconnect end devices. These devices provide connectivity and work behind the
scenes to ensure that data flows across the network. Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to
the network and can connect multiple individual networks to form an internetwork.
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Examples of intermediary network devices are

 Network access (switches and wireless access points)

 Internetworking (routers)
 Security (firewalls)

The management of data as it flows through the network is also a role of the intermediary devices.
Intermediary devices direct the path of the data but do not generate or change the data content. These
devices use the destination host address, in conjunction with information about the network
interconnections, to determine the path that messages should take through the network.

Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform these functions:

 Regenerate and retransmit data signals

 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to quality of service (QoS) priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

Network Media

Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which
the message travels from source to destination.

Modern networks primarily use three types of media to interconnect devices and to provide the pathway
over which data can be transmitted.

 Metallic wires within cables

 Glass or plastic fibers (fiber-optic cable)
 Wireless transmission

The signal encoding that must occur for the message to be transmitted is different for each medium type.
On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical impulses that match specific patterns. Fiber-optic
transmissions rely on pulses of light, within either infrared or visible light ranges. In wireless transmission,
patterns of electromagnetic waves depict the various bit values.

Different types of network media have different features and benefits. Not all network media have the same
characteristics and are appropriate for the same purpose. The criteria for choosing network media are

 The distance the medium can successfully carry a signal

 The environment in which the medium is to be installed
 The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted
 The cost of the medium and installation

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Generally Network media could be grouped into two categories:

 Guided media transmission

 Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or cables between
two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using these cables in terms of signals.
Guided media transmission of the following types:

o Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a twisted-pair
cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire reduces
the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to which signal
can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as
well as external forms of signal interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the
name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external
interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield. Due
to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as compare to
UTP.
o Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields.
The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield provides the ground. It is
widely used for television signals and also used by large corporations in building security systems.
Data transmission of this cable is better but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
o Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data at very
high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a light that travels
inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the signals are
propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave through the air, water, or
vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into
various parts:
 Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave signals are
just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication. Microwave
transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave communication,
there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The
higher the tower, the greater the range.
 Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed radio
waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the receiver. Both use
antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
 Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is generally used
in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.

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