RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION

2023
The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,
purchasers and training providers

www.compressortechsg.com
 The Ariel Smart Compressor. The next generation in compression monitoring, optimization, and
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 FROM THE EDITOR
KEEFE BORDEN

COMMENT
EDITORIAL
Vice President Editorial
Michael J. Brezonick
[email protected]
An updated source
T: +1 262-754-4112
C: +1 262-366-9452
Editor
Keefe Borden
[email protected]
of basic industry
Becky Schultz
[email protected]

PRODUCTION
information
I
Print Production Manager - KHL Americas t is my pleasure to offer the latest iteration of the COMPRESSORTECH2
Brenda Burbach
[email protected] SOURCING GUIDE. Over the years, this annual publication has grown
Production Manager - KHL Global into one of our most popular products.
Charlotte Kemp
[email protected] The COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE has been widely used as
Group Design Manager Jeff Gilbert
Group Designer Jade Hudson a reference for professionals, business development specialists and
Creative Designer Kate Brown sales professionals as a quick go-to point of reference. Some technical
Events Manager Steven Webb
[email protected] schools use it as an educational reference for its range of specifications
Events Design Manager Gary Brinklow from different manufacturers.
CIRCULATION Over the years, the publication has become the industry go-to guide
Subscriptions [email protected] for all players in the gas compression industry. Think of it as a Who’s Who
Audience Development Manager
Anna Philo of the gas compression world, a common reference to show who does
[email protected]
what in one location.
SALES We revise this guide annually to keep it up to date.
Vice President, Global Sales
Alister Williams Its format and presentation is designed to be both flexible and
T: +1 843 637 4127 accessible. A large portion of our audience still wants to something it can
C: +1 312-860-6775
[email protected] put on a shelf and flip through from time to time. We include a handful
Sales Manager of technical articles widely used in the gas compression industry to add
Daniel Brindley
+1 414 406 7025 additional utility to the guide.
[email protected]
Regional Sales Managers For many of our readers, something physical that you can through in
Gabriele Dinsel a briefcase is a known and dependable medium. A physical book doesn’t
+49 711 3416 74 71
[email protected] need to be charged or rebooted. It doesn’t have any cookies, passwords
Petra Kaiser or pop-up ads. For many, simple is best.
+49 151 218 52 127
[email protected] To get a physical copy of the guide for education or training programs,
Thomas Kavooras email us at [email protected]. Yes, that’s a digital link to get a physical
T: +1 312 929 3478
C: +1 847 609 4393 product. It’s testament that the physical and the digital can and do
[email protected]
Josh Kunz coexist.
+1 414 379 2672 Others prefer an online reference that they can search selectively
[email protected]
Roberta Prandi for specific pieces of information. Those readers prefer access
+39 0464 014421 to information without the need to carry around the physical
[email protected]
Niki Trucksa page. Digital, we note, has another advantage: it can be updated
Tel: +1 262 844 5131
[email protected] continuously as specifications change.
There are advantages to each format, but we still provide
Chief Executive Officer
James King a physical guide as well as an online reference with quick
Chief Financial Officer searching capabilities. Regardless of the format, we try to keep
Paul Baker
Chief Operating Officer updated and relevant information in a single location. Despite the
Trevor Pease difference in presentation, the content is the same. Whatever
format you choose, we hope you enjoy the 2023 edition of
the COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE.

© Copyright KHL Group, 2023

KHL GROUP AMERICAS LLC Keefe Borden
14269 N 87th Street, Suite 205, Editor
Scottsdale, AZ 85260.
e-mail: [email protected] [email protected]
COOK CLEAN™Sealing Systems
REDUCE FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS TO NEAR ZERO
As companies establish decarbonization policies,
reciprocating compressor owners must work to meet
more stringent emission requirements.

COOK CLEAN sealing systems leverage field-tested

technologies, such as BTUU or BTRR uncut rings, and
engineering innovation to offer a best-in-class system
proven to lower fugitive emissions to near-zero levels.* North America +1 877 266 5226
Europe +44 151 355 5937
Surpass emission targets with COOK CLEAN sealing systems. China +86 21 24112600

*Learn more at www.cookcompression.com/cookclean c ookc ompre ssion.c om

Cook Compression is a proud part of Dover Precision Components

 INSIDE
CTSG

CONTENTS
149
■ INDEX TO MANUFACTURES’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS .......................................6
■ COMPRESSOR HORSEPOWER: Selection Chart ................................................. 12
■ PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE .......................................................... 13

|COMPRESSORS|
INCLUDING: Centrifugal, turboexpanders, and reciprocating and rotary
compressors
■ CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Specifications ..................................................... 21
■ TURBOEXPANDER Specifications ....................................................................... 26
■ RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSOR Specifications ...................... 28
■ TECH CORNER: Compressors and expanders ................................................ 39

|PRIME MOVERS|
INCLUDING: Reciprocating engines, turbines, electric motors
■ NATURAL GAS ENGINE Specifications ................................................................ 111
■ MECHANICAL DRIVE GAS TURBINE Specifications ..........................................112
■ MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINE Specifications .................................... 114
■ ELECTRIC MOTOR Specifications ........................................................................116
■ VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE Specifications .............................................................117
■ TECH CORNER: Prime movers for mechanical drives ................................. 118

159 |COMPONENTS|
INCLUDING: Heat exchangers, lubrication, filters, seals, valves, etc.
Published March 2023 by KHL Group, ■ TECH CORNER: The link between rotating machine reliability
14269 N 87th Street, Suite 205, Scottsdale,
AZ 85260, USA. Copyright 2023. and the hydrodynamic bearing ...................................................................... 149
All Rights Reserved. This book or parts thereof ■ TECH CORNER: A dry approach to centrifugal compressor
may not be reproduced in any form without
emissions mitigation ......................................................................................... 154
written permission of the Publisher.

Additional copies of the COMPRESSORTECH2

SOURCING GUIDE are available for $55.00/copy
|PACKAGERS|
postpaid. Send order to the Publisher’s Circulation INCLUDING: Compression and power generation
Office: 14269 N 87th Street, Suite 205, ■ TECH CORNER: Module mounted machinery packages ............................159
Scottsdale, AZ 85260, USA.
When ordering from outside the United States,
■ PACKAGER GUIDE 2023 ..........................................................................................162
remit in U.S. funds. Printed in the United Kingdom. ■ DIRECTORY OF ADVERTISERS ................................................................................166

154
Follow @COMPRESSORTECH2 on:

MEMBERS OF:

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 5

INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

A Compressors, Oil-Free Liners, Reconditioning Cylinder

Compressors, Oil-Injected Meters, Flow
Compressors, Piston Packages, Gas Turbine Compressor
Compressors, Reciprocating Packages, Engine Compressor
Compressors, Reconditioned Packagers, Engineering & Design
Compressors, Skid-Mounted Packagers, Motor Compressor
Computer-Controlled Engine Testing Pistons, Reconditioning
Ariel Corporation Condensers Power Turbines
Inside Front Cover, Compressor Tab Controllers, Engine System Pumps, Centrifugal
35 Blackjack Road Controls, Alarm & Shutdown Pumps, Cryogenic
Mt. Vernon, Ohio 43050 Controls, Compressor Pumps, Heavy-Duty
USA Controls, Electronic Pumps, High-Pressure
Phone: +1 740-397-0311 Controls, Engine Pumps, High-Temperature
Fax: +1 740-397-3856 Controls, Fuel Consumption Pumps, Horizontal
Email: [email protected] Controls, Hydraulic Pumps, Hydraulic
www.arielcorp.com Controls, Inlet Guide Vane Pumps, Water
Compressors, Gas Controls, Knock Detection & Control Reducers, Gear
Compressors, Reciprocating Controls, Liquid Level Rotor Turning Gears
Controls, Mechanical Rotors Turbo Machinery
Controls, Pneumatic Seals, Dry Gas
B Controls, Remote Sensors, Bearing Wear
Controls, Shutdown Sensors, Density
Controls, Speed Sensors, Gas-Density
Controls, Supervisory Sensors, Hall-Effect, Gear-Tooth
Controls, Surge Sensors, Oil Level
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Controls, Temperature Sensors, Oil-Mist
Process Solutions  73, 87 Controls, Throttle Sensors, Oxygen
Via Felice Matteucci 2 Controls, Turbocharger Sensors, Pressure
50127 Florence Controls, Vibration Sensors, Speed
ITALY Controls, Viscosity Sensors, Temperature
Phone: +39 055 423211 Controls, Voltage Sensors, Vibration
Fax: +39 055 423 2800 Coolers, Charge Air Sensors, Viscosity
www.bakerhughes.com Couplings, Flexible Service Systems & Training, Gas Turbines
Acoustical Pulsation Analysis Couplings, Shaft Service Tools & Equipment
Air/Fuel Ratio Controls Cylinders Services & Training
Analysis, Systems Cylinders Reconditioning Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair
Analyzers Emissions Analyzers Services, Diagnostics
Bearings, Journal or Sleeve Type Emissions Controls Services, Engineering
Bearings, Magnetic Engine Maintenance, Overhaul & Parts Services, Failure-Analysis
Blades & Nozzles, Gas Turbines Services Services, Field Pulsation, Vibration-Analysis
Blades, Turbine Engine, Conversion Systems/ Components Services, Gas Turbine Overhaul & Repair
Compressor Condition Monitoring Engines, Gas Turbine Services, Shutdown
Compressor Cylinder & Packing Lubrication Expanders Services, Turbomachinery Overhaul & Repair
Compressor Divider Block Lubrication Expanders, Fuel Gas Starting Motors, Electric
Systems Flame Protection Systems & Components Steam Turbines
Compressor Frame End Parts Gas Turbines Valves, Compressor
Compressor No-Flow Shutdown Devices Gearboxes Valves, Engine
Compressor Oil Consumption Monitor Gears, Custom Valves, Engine Overspeed
Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven Gears, Epicyclic Valves, Expansion
Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven Gears, Ring Valves, Expansion Relief
Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven Gears, Spur Valves, Metering
Compressor Valve Condition Monitoring Gears, Stationary Valves, Oil Flow Control
Compressors, Axial Gears, Stationary/ Industrial Drive Valves, Overhaul
Compressors, Capacity Control Devices Gears, Turbo Valves, Pneumatic
Compressors, Centrifugal Heat Exchangers, Air-Cooled Valves, Pressure
Compressors, Diaphragm Instrument Panels Valves, Relief & Safety
Compressors, Gas Instrumentation Valves, Remote Control
Compressors, Integral Liners, Cylinder Valves, Shut-Off

6 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

Burckhardt Compression Fax: +33 (1) 75 72 03 40

Brazil Ltda� ��������������������������������������������������108 Email: francois.bouziguet@
Trav. Claudio Armando, 171 burckhardtcompression.com
Building no. 41 www.burckhardtcompression.com
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH ������������� 43 09861-730 So Bernardo do Campo ■ For product listing see
Seiferitzer Allee 26 BRAZIL Burckhardt Compression AG
08393 Meerane Phone: +55 11 4344 2900
GERMANY Fax: +55 11 4356 2901 Burckhardt Compression
Phone: +49 3764 5390-0 Email: [email protected] (India) Pvt� Ltd� ������������������������������������������108
Fax: +49 3764 5390-5092 www.burckhardtcompression.com Gat No. 304, Village Kondhapuri
Email: [email protected] ■ For product listing see Pune-Nagar Road, Taluka Shirur
www.borsig.de/zm Burckhardt Compression AG Dist. Pune 412 209
Compressor Condition Monitoring INDIA
Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven Burckhardt Compression Phone: +91 2137 669400
Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven (Canada) Inc� ���������������������������������������������108 Fax: +91 2137 669496
Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven 5080 Timberlake Boulevard Email: [email protected]
Compressors, Air Unit 26 www.burckhardtcompression.com
Compressors, Centrifugal Mississauga, Ontario L4W 4M2 ■ For product listing see
Compressors, Gas CANADA Burckhardt Compression AG
Phone: +1 905-602-8550
Fax: +1 905-602-8619 Burckhardt Compression
Email: [email protected] (Italia) S�r�l� �������������������������������������������������108
www.burckhardtcompression.com Via E. Mattei 2
■ For product listing see 20852 Villasanta (MB)
Burckhardt Compression AG ITALY
Burckhardt Compression AG ����������������108 Phone: +39 039 96368 00
Franz-Burckhardt-Strasse 5, P.O. Box 3352 Burckhardt Compression Fax: +39 039 96368 15
8404 Winterthur (Deutschland) GmbH �������������������������������108 Email: [email protected]
SWITZERLAND Kruppstrasse 1a www.burckhardtcompression.com
Phone: +41 52 261 55 00 41469 Neuss ■ For product listing see
Fax: +41 52 261 00 51 GERMANY Burckhardt Compression AG
Email: [email protected] Phone: +49 2137 91700
www.burckhardtcompression.com Fax: +49 2137 9170 29 Burckhardt Compression
Compressors, Gas Email: info.deutschland@ (Japan) Ltd� �������������������������������������������������108
Compressors, Oil-Free burckhardtcompression.com Yamazaki Bldg. 4F,
Compressors, Oil-Injected www.burckhardtcompression.com 3-7-2 Irifune, Chuo-ku
Compressors, Piston ■ For product listing see Tokyo 104-8563
Compressors, Reciprocating Burckhardt Compression AG JAPAN
Compressors, Skid-Mounted Phone: +81 3 3537-8870 to 8876, and 8878
Compressors, Stationary Burckhardt Compression S�A� ��������������108 Fax: +81 3 3537 8877
Monitors, Compressor Systems Avenida Camino de lo Cortao Email: [email protected]
Services & Training 37A E-28703 San Sebastian de los Reyes www.burckhardtcompression.com
Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair SPAIN ■ For product listing see
Services, Engineering Phone: +34 (91) 567 57 20 Burckhardt Compression AG
Valves, Compressor Fax: +34 (91) 567 57 87
Email: [email protected] Burckhardt Kompresr
Burckhardt Compression www.burckhardtcompression.com San� Ve Tic� Ltd� Sti� ����������������������������������108
Argentina ����������������������������������������������������108 ■ For product listing see Imes Sanayi Sitesi, D Blok, SK 404, No: 5
Azopardo 770, Torre Burckhardt Compression AG 34775 Dudullu
Quartier Madero Urbano, Piso 15, Depto 2 Umraniye/ Istanbul
C1107ADL, Buenos Aires Burckhardt Compression TURKEY
ARGENTINA (France) S�A�S���������������������������������������������108 Phone: +90 216 313 83 00
Phone: +54 112 152 1900 Parc de l ‘Horloge, Bat cerithe 204 Fax: +90 216 420 21 23
Email: [email protected] 21/23 rue du Petit Albi Email: [email protected]
www.burckhardtcompression.com 95800 Cergy Saint Christophe www.burckhardtcompression.com
■ For product listing see FRANCE ■ For product listing see
Burckhardt Compression AG Phone: +33 (1) 75 72 03 50 Burckhardt Compression AG

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 7

INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

Burckhardt Compression SINGAPORE ROMANIA

Korea Ltd. Service Center ......................108 Phone: +65 6795 8684 Phone: +4 021 434 02 40
105-dong, 48, Yutongdanji 1-ro 58beon-gil Fax: +65 6795 1472 Fax: +4 021 434 02 41
Gangseo-gu, Email: patrick.chong@burckhardtcompression.
Email: [email protected]
Busan, 46721 com
www.comoti.ro
KOREA www.burckhardtcompression.com
■ For product listing see Acoustical Pulsation Analysis
Phone: +82 51 832 6030
Fax: +82 2 538 2641 Burckhardt Compression AG Bearings, Tilting Pad
Email: [email protected] Blades & Nozzles, Gas Turbines
www.burckhardtcompression.com Burckhardt Compression Blowers
■ For product listing see South Africa (Pty) Ltd..............................108 Compressor Condition Monitoring
Burckhardt Compression AG 5 Sunrock Close Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven
1401 Sunnyrock
Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven
Burckhardt Compression SOUTH AFRICA
Phone: +27 (010) 593 1915 Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven
Korea Busan Ltd. .......................................108
Email: rene.mueller@burckhardtcompression. Compressor Valve Condition Monitoring
10, Mieumsandan 1ro, 15beon-gil
Gangseo-gu com Compressors, Air
Busan 46730 www.burckhardtcompression.com Compressors, Centrifugal
KOREA ■ For product listing see Compressors, Gas
Phone: +82 51 711 11 20 Burckhardt Compression AG Compressors, Oil-Free
Fax: +82 51 711 11 21 Compressors, Oil-Injected
Email: info.koreabusan@ Burckhardt Compression (UK) Ltd. ....108
Compressors, Rotary Screw
burckhardtcompression.com Units 1 & 2, Arena 14, Bicester Park
Charbridge Lane, Bicester Compressors, Screw
www.burckhardtcompression.com
Oxfordshire OX26 4SS Computer-Controlled Engine Testing
■ For product listing see
Burckhardt Compression AG U.K. Controls, Electronic
Phone: +44 1869 326800 Emissions Analyzers
Burckhardt Compression Fax: +44 1869 326808 Emissions Controls
(Middle East) Fze ......................................108 Email: [email protected] Engines, Gas Turbine
P.O. Box 262944 www.burckhardtcompression.com
Engines, Natural Gas (Spark Ignited)
Jebel Ali Free zone ■ For product listing see
Burckhardt Compression AG Engines, Research
Dubai
Expanders
U.A.E.
Burckhardt Compression (US) Inc. ....108 Gas Turbines
Phone: +971 887 00 42
Fax: +971 887 00 52 19750 FM 362 Road Gear Systems
Email: [email protected] Waller, Texas 77484 Gears, Custom
www.burckhardtcompression.com USA Machining
■ For product listing see Phone: +1 281-582-1050 Packages, Engine Compressor
Burckhardt Compression AG Fax: +1 281-582-1060
Packages, Engineering & Design
Email: bcus.webquery@
burckhardtcompression.com Packages, Motor Compressor
Burckhardt Compression Power Turbines
www.burckhardtcompression.com
(Shanghai) Co. Ltd. ...................................108
■ For product listing see Research & Development
Building 6 No. 509 Renqing Road
Burckhardt Compression AG Rotors, Turbomachinery
Pudong, Shanghai 201201
P.R. CHINA Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair
Phone: +86 21 5072 0880 Services, Diagnostics
Fax: +86 21 5072 0389
C Services, Engineering
Email: [email protected] Services, Field Pulsation, Vibration-Analysis
www.burckhardtcompression.com Services, Gas Turbine Overhaul & Repair
■ For product listing see
Services, Turbomachinery Overhaul & Repair
Burckhardt Compression AG
Silencers
Burckhardt Compression Silencers, Acoustical
COMOTI - Romanian R&D
Singapore Pte Ltd. ...................................108 Institute for Gas Turbines ...................... 49 Silencers, Exhaust
29A, Benoi Road 220D luliu Maniu Ave Silencers, Intake Air
Singapore 627775 061126 Bucharest Turboexpander

8 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

www.cookcompression.com Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven

www.cookcompression.com Compressors, Air
www.cookcompression.com Compressors, Air Starting
Compressor Condition Monitoring Compressors, Centrifugal
Project Management Compressors, Gas
Cook Compression4, 55
Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair Compressors, Integral
11951 N Spectrum Blvd.
Services, Turbomachinery Overhaul & Repair Compressors, Oil Free
Houston, Texas 77047
Compressors, Skid Mounted
USA
Compressors, Stationary
Phone: +1 713-433-2002
Packagers, Engine Compressor
Fax: +1 713-433-8388
Packagers, Motor Compressor
Email: [email protected]
Packagers, Steam Turbine Compressor
www.cookcompression.com
Rotors, Turbomachinery
Component Reconditioning
Compressor Condition Monitoring
Cylinders, Reconditioning
Emissions Controls
Liners, Cylinder Cozzani 151
Liners, Reconditioning Cylinder Viale XXV Aprile 7
Packings, Oil Wiper 19021 Arcola (SP)
Packings, Piston Rod ITALY
Packing Cases Phone: +39 0187 95581
Pistons Fax: +39 0187 955853 GPA Midstream Suppliers
Pistons, Reconditioning Email: [email protected]  Components Tab
Rings, Compressor www.cozzani.com 66 American Plaza
Rings, Packing Actuators, Electric Tulsa, Oklahoma 74135
Rings, Piston Actuators, Pneumatic USA
Rings, Pressure Breaker Actuators, Solenoid Phone: +1 918 493 3872
Rings, Rider Component Reconditioning Email: [email protected]
Rings, Sealing Compressors, Capacity Control Devices gpsamidstreamsuppliers.org
Rings, Wiper Seats, Valve Association
Seats, Valve Valve Springs Education
Services, Diagnostics Valves, Check
Services, Engineering Valves, Compressor
Valve Springs Valves, Overhaul
Valves, Compressor
H
Valves, Seats & Rings
Valves, Overhaul
Valves, Seats & Rings

G
Cook Compression Ltd4, 55
Helix Business Park
New Bridge Road
Ellesmere Port, Cheshire CH65 4LR Howden Compressors Ltd  80,81
U.K. Old Govan Road
Phone: +44 151 355 5937 Renfrew, PA4 8XJ
Fax: +44 151 357 1098 U.K.
Email: [email protected] German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH Phone: +44 141 885 7500
www.cookcompression.com  101, Outside Back Cover Fax: +44 141 885 7444
For Product Listing See Cook Compression Arthur-Winkler-Strasse 67 Email: [email protected] OR
Leipzig 04319 Saxony [email protected]
Cook Mechanical Field Services4, 55 Germany www.howden.com/products/compressors
11951 N Spectrum Blvd Phone: +49 341 58 303 813 Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven
Houston, Texas 77047 Fax: +49 341 58 303 849 Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven
USA www.gpe-turbo.de Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven
Phone: +1 713 433 2002 [email protected] Compressors, Centrifugal
Fax: +1 713 433 8388 Blowers Compressors, Diaphragm
Email: [email protected] Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven Compressors, Gas

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 9

INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

Compressors, Integral Howden Process Compressors K

Compressors, Oil-Free Screw Compressors ��������������������������� 80,81
Compressors, Oil-Injected Old Govan Road
Compressors, Piston Renfrew PA4 8XJ
Compressors, Reciprocating U.K.
Compressors, Reconditioned Phone: +44 141 885 7500
Compressors, Rotary Screw Fax: +44 141 882 8648
Compressors, Screw Email: [email protected] OR
KoHo (Kohler & Horter GmbH)������������������77
Compressors, Skid-Mounted [email protected]
Am Tempel 10
Expanders www.howden.com/products/compressors
58089 Hagen
Packages, Engineering & Design ■ For product listing see
Germany
Packages, Foundation, Platform Deck, FPSO Howden Compressors Ltd.
Phone: +49 2331 9357 50
Module Design Fax: +49 2331 9357 98
Howden Roots ��������������������������������������� 80,81
Services & Training Email: [email protected]
900 W. Mount St.
Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair www.koho-kompressor.com
Connersville, Indiana 47331
Services, Diagnostics Compressors, Gas
USA
Services, Product Research Compressors, Oil-Free
Phone: 800-55-ROOTS, +1 765 827 9200
Services, Turbomachinery Overhaul & Repair Compressors, Oil-Injected
Email: [email protected]
Compressors, Piston
www.howden.com/products/blowers
Compressors, Reciprocating
Howden BC Compressors ������������������ 80,81 ■ For product listing see
Compressors, Stationary
62 - 66 Rue Roland Vachette Howden Compressors Ltd.
60181 Nogent-Sur-Oise KoHo China 75
Howden Thomassen Compressors
FRANCE People’s Republic of China
�������������������������������������������������������������������� 80,81
Phone: +33 (0) 3 44 74 41 00 Phone: +86 13601053581
Havelandseweg 8-a
Fax: +33 (0) 3 44 71 72 43 Email: [email protected]
P.O. Box 99
Email: [email protected] OR hbc. 6990 AB Rheden ■ For product listing see
[email protected] NETHERLANDS KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH)
www.howden.com/products/compressors Phone: +31 (0) 26 4975200
■ For product listing see Fax: +31 (0) 26 4975201 KoHo India 75
Howden Compressors Ltd. Email: [email protected] India
www.howden.com/products/compressors Phone: +91 8658 690415
■ For product listing see Email: [email protected]
Howden Compressors Inc� ���������������� 80,81 ■ For product listing see
7204 Harms Road Howden Compressors Ltd.
KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH)
Houston, Texas 77041
Howden Turblex����������������������������������� 80,81
USA KoHo Turkey �������������������������������������������������77
4654 West Junction St.
Phone: +1 716-817-6900 Springfield, Missouri 65802 Turkey
Email: [email protected] USA Phone: +90 216 447 20 83
www.howden.com/services Phone: +1 417 864 5599 Email: [email protected]
■ For product listing see Fax: +1 417 866 0235 ■ For product listing see
Howden Compressors Ltd. Email: [email protected] KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH)
www.howden.com/products/blowers
Howden Process Compressors ������� 80,81 ■ For product listing see KoHo Poland �������������������������������������������������77
Howden Compressors Ltd. Poland
Park Road
Phone: +48 517 902 001
Holmewood Industrial Park
Howden Turbo GmbH ��������������������������� 80,81 Email: [email protected]
Chesterfield S42 5UY
Hessheimer Strasse 2 ■ For product listing see
U.K. KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH)
67227 Frankenthal
Phone: +44 (0) 141 885 7500 GERMANY
Fax: +44 (0) 141 885 7444 Phone: +49 6233 850 KoHo Brazil ���������������������������������������������������77
Email: [email protected] OR Fax: +49 6233 852660 Brazil
[email protected] Email: [email protected] Phone: +55 11 9 4128 2498
www.howden.com/products/compressors www.howden.com/products/compressors Email: [email protected]
■ For product listing see Compressors, Centrifugal ■ For product listing see
Howden Compressors Ltd. Steam Turbines KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH)

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 INDEX TO MANUFACTURERS’ SECTIONS AND PRODUCTS

L Controls, Compressor Compressors, Skid-Mounted

Drives, Compressor Compressors, Stationary
Engine Maintenance, Overhaul & Parts Cylinders, Reconditioning
Services Services & Training
Engines, Gas Turbine Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair
Expanders Services, Diagnostic
Monitors, Compressor Systems
Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik GmbH Services, Engineering
Monitors, Engine System
 68,69 Services, Failure-Analysis
Packages, Engine Compressor
Sudbahnstrasse 28 Services, Field Pulsation, Vibration Analysis
Packages, Motor Compressor
2522 Leobersdorf Power Turbines Valves, Compressor
AUSTRIA Protective Controls
Phone: +43 2256 9001 0 Reactor Systems
Email: [email protected] Rotors, Turbomachinery
www.LMF.at Service Systems & Training, Gas Turbines
Compressors, Air Services & Training
Compressors, Gas Services, Compressors Overhaul & Repair
Compressors, Oil-Free Services, Engineering
Compressors, Oil-Injected Services, Gas Turbine Overhaul & Repair Solar Turbines Incorporated
Compressors, Piston Steam Turbines  Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover
Compressors, Reciprocating PO Box 85376
Compressors, Rotary Screw San Diego, California 92186-5376
Compressors, Screw MAN Energy Solutions SE 56,57
Stadtbachstr. 1 USA
Compressors, Single Screw Phone: +1 619-544-5352
Compressors, Skid-Mounted 86153 Augsburg
Germany Fax: +1 619-544-2633
Compressors, Stationary
Phone: +49 821 322-0 Email: [email protected]
Fax: +49 821 322-3382 www.solarturbines.com
Email: [email protected] Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven
M www.man-es.com Compressors, Centrifugal
■ For product listing see Compressors, Gas
MAN Energy Solutions SE Engines, Gas Turbine
Packages, Engine Compressor
Packages, Foundation, Platform Deck, FPSO
S Module Design

MAN Energy Solutions SE 56,57

Steinbrinkstrasse 1 SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA  63 T
46145 Oberhausen Compressors Division
GERMANY Via Canovine 214
Phone: +49 (0) 208 692 01 24126 Bergamo
Fax: +49 (0) 208 669 021 ITALY
Email: [email protected] Phone: +39 035 327611 TMIC Termomeccanica Industrial
www.turbomachinery.man-es.com Fax: +39 035 316131 Compressors  94,95
Compressor Sets, Electrically Engine-Driven Email: [email protected] Via Del Molo,3
Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven www.siadmi.com 19126 La Spezia
Compressors, Air Compressor Frame End Parts
Italy
Compressors, Axial Compressor Sets, Gas Turbine-Driven
Phone: +39 0187 552 1
Compressors, Centrifugal Compressor Sets, Natural Gas Engine-Driven
Email: industrialcompressors@
Compressors, Gas Compressors, Air
Compressors, Integral Compressors, Gas termomeccanica.com
Compressors, Oil-Free Compressors, Oil-Free www.tmic.termomeccanica.com
Compressors, Rotary Screw Compressors, Oil-Injected Compressors, Air
Compressors, Screw Compressors, Piston Compressors, Gas
Compressors, Skid-Mounted Compressors, Reciprocating Compressors, Oil-Injected
Compressors, Stationary Compressors, Reconditioned Compressors, Screw

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 COMPRESSOR HORSEPOWER SELECTION CHART
(Brake Horsepower Per Million Cu. Ft.)
DISCHARGE PRESSURE (PSIG)
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
SELECTION CHART

0 65 99 128 144 156 168 178 187 203 218 233 233 241 248 254 260 266 272 277 282 286 291 295 299 303 307 311 315
10 35 63 85 104 121 131 140 149 163 175 186 196 205 214 223 231 228 233 237 242 245 250 253 257 260 264 267 270
3
S
T
20 43 62 78 92 106 118 126 139 151 160 170 178 186 193 199 206 212 218 225 231 226 229 232 236 239 242 245 A
G

12 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

30 29 47 62 74 85 96 107 123 133 143 152 159 167 173 179 185 191 196 201 206 211 216 221 226 230 224 227 E
40 36 50 61 72 81 90 107 121 130 138 145 152 158 164 170 175 180 185 190 194 198 202 206 210 214 218
COMPRESSOR HORSEPOWER

50 26 41 52 61 70 78 93 106 119 127 134 141 147 153 158 163 168 173 177 181 185 189 193 196 200 203
60 32 44 53 61 69 83 95 108 118 125 131 137 143 148 153 158 162 166 170 174 178 182 185 188 192
70 25 37 46 54 61 74 86 97 109 117 123 129 135 140 145 149 153 157 161 165 169 172 176 179 182
80 30 40 47 54 67 78 89 98 109 117 122 127 132 137 142 146 150 153 157 161 164 167 171 174 2
90 24 34 42 49 61 72 81 91 100 109 116 121 126 131 135 139 143 147 150 154 157 160 163 166
S
T
A
100 28 37 44 55 66 75 84 92 100 109 116 120 125 129 133 137 141 144 148 151 154 157 160 G
E
125 25 32 44 54 63 71 78 85 92 99 106 113 117 121 124 128 131 134 137 140 143 146
150 22 35 45 53 60 67 74 80 86 92 98 103 110 114 118 121 124 127 130 133 135
175 27 37 45 52 57 60 71 76 82 87 92 97 102 107 112 115 118 121 123 126
200 30 38 45 52 58 63 68 73 78 83 88 92 96 101 105 110 113 116 119
250 26 33 40 46 51 56 60 65 69 73 77 81 85 88 92 95 99 102

SUCTION PRESSURE
300 23 30 36 41 46 50 54 58 62 66 69 73 76 79 83 86 89
350 21 27 33 38 42 46 50 53 57 60 63 67 70 73 75 78
400 25 30 35 39 43 46 50 53 56 59 60 64 67 70
450 23 28 32 36 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 60 63 1
S
500 22 26 30 34 38 41 44 46 49 52 54 57 T
A
550 20 25 20 32 36 39 41 44 46 49 51 G
E
600 23 27 30 34 37 39 42 44 46
650 22 26 29 32 35 38 40 42
700 22 25 28 30 33 36 38
750 20 24 27 29 32 34

NOTE: 1 MMSCFD MEASURED 14.7 AND 60°F NOT CORRECTED FOR COMPRESSIBILITY 2 “N”=1.26 3 SUCTION TEMPERATURE 100°F 4 NATURAL GAS

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 PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

A C German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH

..................................101, Outside Back Cover
ACOUSTICAL PULSATION ANALYSIS COMPONENT RECONDITIONING Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cozzani ............................................................ 151 SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Compressors Division ............................... 63
Turbines ........................................................49 COMPRESSOR CONDITION MONITORING Solar Turbines Incorporated
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process .........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover
ACTUATORS, ELECTRIC Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Cozzani ............................................................ 151 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 COMPRESSOR SETS, NATURAL GAS ENGINE-
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas DRIVEN
ACTUATORS, PNEUMATIC Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Turbines ........................................................49
Cozzani ............................................................ 151 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
ACTUATORS, SOLENOID Cook Mechanical Field Services ........... 4, 55 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Cozzani ............................................................ 151 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
COMPRESSOR CYLINDER & PACKING Turbines ........................................................49
AIR/FUEL RATIO CONTROLS LUBRICATION Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
COMPRESSOR DIVIDER BLOCK LUBRICATION Compressors Division ............................... 63
ANALYSIS, SYSTEMS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SYSTEMS COMPRESSOR VALVE CONDITION MONITORING
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
ANALYZERS
COMPRESSOR FRAME END PARTS COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Turbines ........................................................49
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMPRESSORS, AIR
ASSOCIATION SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
GPA Midstream Suppliers Compressors Division ............................... 63 GmbH ......................................................92, 93
.............................................. Components Tab
COMPRESSOR NO-FLOW SHUTDOWN DEVICES BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Turbines ........................................................49
B German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
COMPRESSOR OIL CONSUMPTION MONITOR ..................................101, Outside Back Cover
BEARINGS, JOURNAL OR SLEEVE TYPE
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 GmbH ......................................................68, 69
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
COMPRESSOR SETS, ELECTRICALLY ENGINE-
BEARINGS, MAGNETIC Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93
DRIVEN
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Compressors Division ............................... 63
GmbH ......................................................92, 93
BEARINGS, TILTING PAD Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process TM.I.C. Termomeccanica Industrial
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Compressors ........................................94, 95
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Turbines ........................................................49 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 COMPRESSORS, AIR-STARTING
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
BLADES & NOZZLES, GAS TURBINES Turbines ........................................................49 ..................................101, Outside Back Cover
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 ..................................101, Outside Back Cover COMPRESSORS, AXIAL
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
BLADES, TURBINE MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 COMPRESSORS, CAPACITY CONTROL DEVICES
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
COMPRESSOR SETS, GAS TURBINE-DRIVEN
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
BLOWERS Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Cozzani ............................................................ 151
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Turbines ........................................................49 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 COMPRESSORS, CENTRIFUGAL
German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
.................................101, Outside Back Cover Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87

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PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108 Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
Turbines ........................................................49 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93
German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH Turbines ........................................................49 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
.................................101, Outside Back Cover German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 ..................................101, Outside Back Cover Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
Howden Turbo GmbH ..............................80, 81 Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93 GmbH ......................................................68, 69
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93
Solar Turbines Incorporated KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77 SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
.........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik Compressors Division ............................... 63
GmbH ......................................................68, 69
COMPRESSORS, DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSORS, RECONDITIONED
Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
GmbH ......................................................92, 93 Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Compressors Division ............................... 63
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93 COMPRESSORS, OIL-INJECTED Compressors Division ............................... 63
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik COMPRESSORS, ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSORS, GAS GmbH ......................................................92, 93 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Turbines ........................................................49
GmbH ......................................................92, 93 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Ariel Corporation Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108 Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
.......... Inside Front Cover, Compressor Tab COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas GmbH ......................................................68, 69
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Turbines ........................................................49 MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 COMPRESSORS, SCREW
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik Turbines ........................................................49
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
GmbH ......................................................68, 69 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Turbines ........................................................49
Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
GmbH ......................................................68, 69
.................................101, Outside Back Cover SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Compressors Division ............................... 63 MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93
TM.I.C. Termomeccanica Industrial TM.I.C. Termomeccanica Industrial
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Compressors ........................................94, 95 Compressors ........................................94, 95
KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77
Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik COMPRESSORS, PISTON COMPRESSORS, SINGLE SCREW
GmbH ......................................................68, 69 Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 GmbH ......................................................92, 93 GmbH ......................................................68, 69
Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COMPRESSORS, SKID-MOUNTED
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Compressors Division ............................... 63 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solar Turbines Incorporated Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
.........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93 Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
TM.I.C. Termomeccanica Industrial Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
Compressors ........................................94, 95 ..................................101, Outside Back Cover
KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77
COMPRESSORS, INTEGRAL Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process GmbH ......................................................68, 69 Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 GmbH ......................................................68, 69
German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
.................................101, Outside Back Cover Compressors Division ............................... 63 Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
COMPRESSORS, RECIPROCATING Compressors Division ............................... 63
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
COMPRESSORS, OIL-FREE GmbH ......................................................92, 93 COMPRESSORS, STATIONARY
Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik Ariel Corporation German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
GmbH ......................................................92, 93 ......... Inside Front Cover, Compressor Tab .................................101, Outside Back Cover
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 KoHo (Köhler & Hörter GmbH) ......................77

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 PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

Leobersdorfer Maschinenfabrik CONTROLS, PNEUMATIC BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43

GmbH ......................................................68, 69 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA CONTROLS, REMOTE
Compressors Division ............................... 63
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
D
COMPUTER-CONTROLLED ENGINE TESTING Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
DRIVES, COMPRESSOR
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process CONTROLS, SHUTDOWN
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Turbines ........................................................49 CONTROLS, SPEED E
CONDENSERS Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 EDUCATION
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 GPA Midstream Suppliers
CONTROLS, SUPERVISORY .............................................. Components Tab
CONTROLLERS, ENGINE SYSTEM Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 EMISSIONS ANALYZERS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 CONTROLS, SURGE Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
CONTROLS, ALARM & SHUTDOWN Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Turbines ........................................................49
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 CONTROLS, TEMPERATURE EMISSIONS CONTROLS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
CONTROLS, COMPRESSOR
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 CONTROLS, THROTTLE COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Turbines ........................................................49
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55

CONTROLS, ELECTRONIC CONTROLS, TURBOCHARGER ENGINE MAINTENANCE, OVERHAUL & PARTS

Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SERVICES
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas CONTROLS, VIBRATION MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Turbines ........................................................49 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 ENGINES, CONVERSION SYSTEMS/
CONTROLS, ENGINE
COMPONENTS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process CONTROLS, VISCOSITY Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
CONTROLS, FUEL CONSUMPTION ENGINES, GAS TURBINE
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process CONTROLS, VOLTAGE Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
CONTROLS, HYDRAULIC COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COOLERS, CHARGE AIR Turbines ........................................................49
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solar Turbines Incorporated
CONTROLS, INLET GUIDE VANE .........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COUPLINGS, FLEXIBLE
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process ENGINES, NATURAL GAS (SPARK IGNITED)
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
CONTROLS, KNOCK DETECTION & CONTROL COUPLINGS, SHAFT Turbines ........................................................49
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 ENGINES, RESEARCH
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
CONTROLS, LIQUID LEVEL CYLINDERS Turbines ........................................................49
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 EXPANDERS
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
CONTROLS, MECHANICAL CYLINDERS, RECONDITIONING Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Turbines ........................................................49

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PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 H PACKAGES, ENGINEERING & DESIGN

MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
HEAT EXCHANGERS, AIR-COOLED Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
EXPANDERS, FUEL GAS Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Turbines ........................................................49
I Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
INSTRUMENT PANELS PACKAGES, FOUNDATION, PLATFORM DECK,
F Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process FPSO MODULE DESIGN
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
FLAME PROTECTION SYSTEMS & COMPONENTS
INSTRUMENTATION Solar Turbines Incorporated
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process .........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 PACKAGES, GAS TURBINE COMPRESSOR
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
G Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
L BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
GAS TURBINES
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process LINERS, CYLINDER PACKAGES, MOTOR COMPRESSOR
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Turbines ........................................................49 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
GEAR SYSTEMS LINERS, RECONDITIONING CYLINDER
Turbines ........................................................49
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Turbines ........................................................49 ..................................101, Outside Back Cover
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
GEARBOXES
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process PACKAGES, PIPING, STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 M BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43

GEARS, CUSTOM MACHINING PACKAGES, STEAM TURBINE COMPRESSOR

Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Turbines ........................................................49 German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas .................................101, Outside Back Cover
METERS, FLOW
Turbines ........................................................49 PACKING CASES
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
GEARS, EPICYCLIC Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process MONITORS, COMPRESSOR SYSTEMS PACKINGS, OIL WIPER
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
GEARS, RING MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process MONITORS, ENGINE SYSTEM PACKINGS, PISTON ROD
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
GEARS, SPUR PISTONS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
P
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
PACKAGES, ENGINE COMPRESSOR PISTONS, RECONDITIONING
GEARS, STATIONARY
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
GEARS, STATIONARY/INDUSTRIAL DRIVE COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Turbines ........................................................49
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH POWER TURBINES
..................................101, Outside Back Cover Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
GEARS, TURBO MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Solar Turbines Incorporated COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 .........Prime Movers Tab, Inside Back Cover Turbines ........................................................49

16 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 RINGS, PRESSURE BREAKER SENSORS, OXYGEN
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Cook Mechanical Field Services ........... 4, 55 RINGS, RIDER
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 SENSORS, PRESSURE
PROTECTIVE CONTROLS
RINGS, SEALING Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
PUMPS, CENTRIFUGAL
SENSORS, SPEED
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process RINGS, WIPER
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
PUMPS, CRYOGENIC ROTOR TURNING GEARS
SENSORS, TEMPERATURE
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
PUMPS, HEAVY-DUTY ROTORS, TURBOMACHINERY SENSORS, VIBRATION
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
PUMPS, HIGH-PRESSURE COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Turbines ........................................................49 SENSORS, VISCOSITY
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 German Pneumatics Engineering GmbH Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
..................................101, Outside Back Cover Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
PUMPS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 SERVICE SYSTEMS & TRAINING, GAS TURBINES
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
PUMPS, HORIZONTAL
S
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SAFETY SYSTEMS
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 SERVICE TOOLS & EQUIPMENT
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
PUMPS, HYDRAULIC Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
SEALS, DRY GAS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SERVICES & TRAINING
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
PUMPS, WATER Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SEATS, VALVE
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
Cozzani ............................................................ 151
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
SENSORS, BEARING-WEAR MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
R SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
REACTOR SYSTEMS Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Compressors Division ............................... 63
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 SENSORS, DENSITY SERVICES, COMPRESSORS OVERHAUL &
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process REPAIR
REDUCERS, GEAR
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 SENSORS, GAS-DENSITY BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Turbines ........................................................49 Turbines ........................................................49
SENSORS, HALL-EFFECT, GEAR-TOOTH
RINGS, COMPRESSOR Cook Mechanical Field Services ........... 4, 55
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57
RINGS, PACKING SENSORS, OIL-LEVEL Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Compressors Division ............................... 63
RINGS, PISTON SENSORS, OIL-MIST SERVICES, DIAGNOSTICS
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Norwalk Compressor Company, Inc. .92, 93 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 17

PRODUCT DIRECTORY AND BUYERS’ GUIDE

COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas SILENCERS VALVES, EXPANSION

Turbines ........................................................49 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 VALVES, EXPLOSION RELIEF
SILENCERS, ACOUSTICAL
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Compressors Division ............................... 63 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
SERVICES, ENGINEERING
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process SILENCERS, EXHAUST VALVES, METERING
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43 Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas SILENCERS, INTAKE AIR VALVES, OIL FLOW CONTROL
Turbines ........................................................49 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Turbines ........................................................49 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 STARTING MOTORS, ELECTRIC VALVES, OVERHAUL
ARCANUM Energy Systems GmbH & Co. KG Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
92, 93 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Compressors Division ............................... 63 STEAM TURBINES Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cozzani ............................................................ 151
SERVICES, FAILURE-ANALYSIS
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process VALVES, PNEUMATIC
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Howden Turbo GmbH ..............................80, 81
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Compressors Division ................................... 63
VALVES, PRESSURE
SERVICES, FIELD PULSATION, VIBRATION- T Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
ANALYSIS GmbH ......................................................92, 93
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process TURBOEXPANDER Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Turbines ........................................................49 Hofer Kompressoren ..............................92, 93
Turbines ........................................................49
VALVES, RELIEF & SAFETY
SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA
Compressors Division ................................... 63
V Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
GmbH ......................................................92, 93
SERVICES, GAS TURBINE OVERHAUL & REPAIR VALVE SPRINGS Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Solutions ............................................. 73, 87
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 Cozzani ............................................................ 151 Hofer Kompressoren ...........................92, 93
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas VALVES, REMOTE CONTROL
Turbines ........................................................49 VALVES, CHECK
Cozzani ............................................................ 151 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
MAN Energy Solutions SE ..................... 56, 57 Solutions ............................................. 73, 87
SERVICES, LASER MEASUREMENTS VALVES, COMPRESSOR
VALVES, SEATS & RINGS
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cook Compression ................................ 4, 55
SERVICES, PRODUCT RESEARCH Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 Cozzani ......................................................... 151
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
SERVICES, SHUTDOWN Burckhardt Compression AG .................... 108 VALVES, SHUT-OFF
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process Cook Compression ................................... 4, 55 Andreas Hofer Hochdrucktechnik
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87 GmbH ...................................................92, 93
Cozzani ............................................................ 151
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
SERVICES, TURBOMACHINERY OVERHAUL & SIAD Macchine Impianti SpA Solutions ............................................. 73, 87
REPAIR Compressors Division ................................... 63 Hofer Kompressoren ...........................92, 93
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process VALVES, ENGINE
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH .................43
Solutions ................................................ 73, 87
COMOTI - Romanian R&D Institute for Gas
Turbines ........................................................49 VALVES, ENGINE OVERSPEED
Cook Mechanical Field Services ........... 4, 55 Baker Hughes - Turbomachinery & Process
Howden Compressors Ltd. ....................80, 81 Solutions ................................................ 73, 87

18 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 COMPRESSORS

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www.arielcorp.com/arielsmartcompressor
 Ariel Ultra-Low Emissions
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Find out more at

arielcorp.com/ultra-low
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min Pressure Power (rpm)
Model

Catalog Page Reference

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes
Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric
OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected
Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar hp kW min max
AERZENER * AT and TB Turbo X 212 19,070 6 540 17.5 1.2 2 871.65 650 20000 45400
MASCHINENFABRIK Blowers
ATLAS COPCO GAS AND * GT-Series X X X OF 140 293,100 4 8300 2970 205 4 46500 35000 52000
PROCESS
T-Series X OF 6060 38,000 170 1080 623.7 43 1.25 13300 9900 3600
RT-Series X OF 188,000 293,100 5330 8300 101 7 2.5 40000 30000 6500
BAKER HUGHES 73, 87 AN (Air Service) X X OF 60,000 355,000 1600 10000 362.5 25 95200 70000 3000 10000
AN (LNG Service) X X OF 60,000 355,000 1600 10000 360 25 95200 70000 3000 10000
BCL-HP (>350bara) X X OF 350 7060 10 200 14500 1000 40800 30000 7000 20000
BCL-LP/MP (<350 bara) X X OF 350 100,000 10 2700 5075 350 54400 40000 3000 20000
MCL X X OF 3530 100 8500 870 60 95200 70000 3000 20000
PCL X X X OF 2100 60,000 60 1700 1890 130 54400 40000 3600 18000
SRL X X X OF 1060 215,000 30 6000 2900 200 43500 32000 1500 30000
SRL (Overhung, X OF 1060 60,000 30 1700 1380 95 20400 32000 1500 20000
Single Stage)
ICL X X X OF 880 20,000 25 550 5075 350 21500 16000 1500 30000
ICL single stage X X X OF 880 20,500 25 580 1740 120 19600 14600 1500 30000
Blue-C X X X OF 52,500 530,000 1500 15000 2980 205 18620 14000 3000 11000
BORSIG ZM COMPRESSION GMBH 43 BTC Series X X X OF 425 282,500 12 8000 2900 200 3 33525 25000 48000
CRYOSTAR SAS * CM 400 / CM 300 X X X OF 58 666 6 2 1000 11000
CM 2-200 / 300 2, 4, 6 X X OF 42 175 to 100 10 to 25 2 700 to 1000 30000
COMOTI 49 CCAE 9-125 X X X X X OF 2,154 3,072 61 87 116 8 939 700 22,900 36,800
CCAE 9-144 X X X X X OF 2,649 3,531 75 100 116 8 939 700 22,900 36,800
CCAE 9-300 X X X X X OF 5,297 7,345 150 208 131 9 1,475 1100 22,900 36,800
CCAE 12-300 X X X X X OF 5,297 7,345 150 208 160 11 1,944 1450 16,500 31,000
CCAE 21-300 X X X X X OF 5,297 7,345 150 208 290 20 2,414 1800 16,500 31,000
CCAE 15-300 x x x x X OF 5368 7593 152 215 203 14 2146 1600 16,500 31000
CCAE 25-350 x x x x X OF 172 245 25 2200
ELLIOTT GROUP * A X X X OF 441,000 12500 90 6.2 175000 130000 8025
M X X OF 896,000 25370 1000 69 225000 170000 20000

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 21

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min Pressure Power (rpm)
Model

Catalog Page Reference

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes
Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric
OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected
Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar hp kW min max
ELLIOTT GROUP * MB X X OF 319,000 9000 10000 690 225000 170000 20000

22 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

PH X X OF 75,000 2100 800 55 15000 11000 13500
TC X X OF 90,000 2500 725 50 40000 30000 10000
FIMA MASCHINENBAU GMBH * F1 Series X X X X OF 3 5000 100 3 6800 5000 35,000
F3 Series X X X OF 3 5000 100 3 6800 5000 35,000
F2 Series X X X X OF 3 85 240 1.6 408 600 11,000
F4 Series (Zone 0) X X OF 3 150 1.3 1.2 74 55 7700
FS-ELLIOTT * PAP Series X X X X OF 900 to 2200 to 25 to 60 to 175 to 12.1 to up to 3.1 500 to 375 to 1450 3600
15,000 24,500 425 695 450 31 6000 4475 to2950
Polaris Series X X X X OF 900 to 2200 to 25 to 60 to 150 10.5 up to 3.0 450 to 335 to 2950 3600
5500 12,000 155 340 2600 2600
GARO S.P.A. * VC X X X OF 17 833 2 1.2 536 400 3000 6000
VAP X X X OF 17 833 90 1.2 2682 2000 3000 6000
CC (Galileo) X X X X OF 17 833 90 3 2682 2000 4000 42000
GPE TURBO 101, 168 CC 200-900 X X X OF 530 265,000 15 7500 2175 150 2.5 33,500 25,000 3000 50,000
(German Pneumatics
Engineering GmbH) CCL 200-900 X OF 1770 265,000 50 7500 725 50 2.5 16,000 12,000 3000 30,000
CCS 200-900 X X X X OF 530 265,000 15 7500 3625 250 1.6 27,000 20,000 3000 20,000
HITACHI, LTD. * 2BCH X X OF 1700
3 to 8 6000to 45 - 5 to 10 30000 to 2500 to 14000 to
750 50000 3500 18000
HOWDEN 80-81 Howden Periflow X X X OF 60 3026 2 86 3000 200 3 1340 1000 500 6000
Howden ČKD RL X X X X OF 2500 24,000 70 633 20 1.4 2 1600 1200 3000 27000
Howden ČKD RLV X X X X OF 1000 13,000 30 370 23 1.6 2 1350 1000 12000 27000
Howden ČKD RD X X X X OF 50,000 280,000 1400 8000 20 1.4 1 13500 10000 3000 27000
Howden ČKD RK Series X X X OF 5300 81,000 140 2100 2320 160 2 17200 12800 3000 37000
Howden ČKD RS Series X X X OF 450 18,000 12 470 1400 96 2 13000 9900 3000 27000
Howden ČKD RM Series X X X OF 4000 216,000 100 5700 502 35 2 34000 25400 3000 27000
Howden ČKD RP Series X X OF 2450 37,000 65 1000 310 21.4 2 4000 3000 3000 27000
SG26 X X OF 4238 6357 120 180 29 2 3 268 200 5000 33000
SG30 X X X OF 4238 8476 120 240 29 2 3 603 450 5000 33000
continued SG35 X X X OF 4238 10,595 120 300 29 2 3 671 500 5000 33000

www.compressortechsg.com
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min Pressure Power (rpm)
Model

Catalog Page Reference

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes
Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric
OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected
Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar hp kW min max
HOWDEN 80-81 SG40 X X X OF 6357 14,832 180 420 29 2 3 1073 800 5000 33000
SG45 X X X OF 8476 19,070 240 540 29 2 3 1341 1000 5000 33000
SG52 X X X OF 12,713 25,427 360 720 29 2 3 2146 1600 5000 33000
SG60 X X X OF 14,832 31,784 420 900 29 2 3 2414 1800 5000 33000
SG65 X X X OF 16,951 33,903 480 960 29 2 3 2682 2000 5000 33000
SG70 X X X OF 21,189 40,259 600 1140 29 2 3 3487 2600 5000 33000
SG80 X X X OF 25,427 52,973 720 1500 29 2 3 4023 3000 5000 33000
SG92 X X X OF 33,903 63,567 960 1800 29 2 3 5364 4000 5000 33000
SG105 X X X OF 44,497 84,757 1260 2400 29 2 3 6705 5000 5000 33000
KK&K SF (2.8 - 14) X X OF 2600 250,000 75 7000 45 3 3.5 22000 16000 2500 40000
KK&K SF (18 - 22.4) X X OF 140,000 420,000 4000 12000 30 2 2.3 22000 16000 1800 4000
KK&K SF (HP) X X OF 2600 105,000 75 3000 370 50 3 13500 10000 3600 40000
KK&K SFG X X X OF 1800 175,000 50 5000 45 3 3.5 11000 8000 3600 40000
KK&K SFG (HP) X X X OF 1800 105,000 50 3000 370 50 3 11000 10000 3600 40000
KK&K SL X X OF 9000 237,000 250 6700 30 2 2.3 11000 8000 2800 15000
KK&K R X X OF 40 200,000 10 6000 30 2 1.7 7000 5000 1200 15000
KK&K R (HP) X X OF 40 30,000 10 800 370 25 1.5 3500 2500 1800 15000
KK&K ST X X OF 2600 85,000 75 2400 45 3 3.5 8000 6000 8000 30000
KK&K ST (HP) X X OF 2600 85,000 75 2400 370 50 2.8 8000 6000 8000 25000
Roots OIB X X OF 3000 230,000 85 6500 25 1.72 2.75 18000 13500 2500 30000
Roots H X X OF 5000 90,000 140 2550 25 1.72 1.8 18000 13500 3000 20000
ExVel Xr X X OF 5000 350,000 140 10000 1450 10 2 7000 5000 1800 6000
HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 883 2354 25 67 29 2 3 215 160 19500 40500
KA2
HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 2060 4708 58 133 33 2.3 3.3 536 400 13000 31500
KA5
HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 3531 8828 100 250 33 2.3 3.3 872 650 10000 23000
KA10
HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 6474 14,124 183 400 29 2 3 1207 900 7800 17800
KA22
continued HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 11,770 23,540 333 667 27 1.9 2.9 2548 1900 7500 14200
KA44

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 23

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min Pressure Power (rpm)
Model

Catalog Page Reference

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes
Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric
OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected
Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar hp kW min max
HOWDEN 80-81 HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 18,832 38,253 533 1083 26 1.8 2.8 3889 2900 5000 11300
KA66

24 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 29,425 54,142 833 1533 23 1.6 2.6 3353 2500 4300 8700
KA80
HV-TURBO / Turblex X X X OF 44,138 64,735 1250 1833 17 1.2 2.2 3487 2600 3600 6500
KA100
INGERSOLL RAND * Centac Series X X X X OF 1300 to 2100 to 42 to 60 to 35 to 3 to 42 maxim 350 to 270 to 1800 to
12,500 30,000 350 850 610 of 3 6000 4500 3600
TA Series X X X OF 1300 to 6000 to 14 to 48 to 150 to 10 to maxim 350 to 250 to 3600
12,500 24,000 339 679 1160 80 of 3 5500 4100
MSG Series X X X OF 2500 to 10,000 to 70 to 283 to 125 to 8 to maxim 4000 to 3000 to 1800 to
50,000 135,000 1416 3823 1450 100 of 3 25,000 19,000 3600
KOBELCO * VH Series X X OF 1059 58,951 30 1670 5000 350 28000 20000 5000 18000
VGS/VGSP Series X X X OF 1765 264,750 50 7500 1420 100 67000 50000 3000 40000
DH Series X X OF 1059 105,900 30 3000 1300 90 33500 25000 1000 18000
V-VS-VSS Series X X X OF 1059 200,151 30 5670 700 50 21000 15000 5000 18000
VG / VGP Series X X X OF 1765 264,750 50 7500 1420 100 67000 50000 3000 60000
MAN ENERGY SOLUTIONS 56-57 A, AV X X X OF 29,000 900,000 835 25,450 362 25 120,000
(Turbocompressors)
AG, AK, AKF X X X OF 29,000 900,000 835 25,450 220 15 125,000
AR X X X X X OF 29,000 900,000 835 25,450 362 25 165,000
HOFIM X X X OF 95 18,000 3 500 4350 300 24,000 18,000 3000 16,000
RB X X X OF 95 190,000 3 5400 14,500 1000 107,000 80,000 24,000
TURBAIR (RC) X X OF 5300 115,000 150 3300 29 2 5400
RG X X X X OF 550 360,000 16 10,000 3600 250 107,000 80,000 50,000
RH X X X OF 450 417,000 13 11,800 1160 80 80,000
RIK, RIKT, RIO X X OF 10,500 440,000 300 12,500 300 21 70,000 15,000 3000
MOPICO (RM) X X X X OF 530 18,000 15 500 2200 150 24,000 18,000 3000 16,000
subsea HOFIM X X X OF 150 18,000 4 500 4350 300 24,000 18,000 3100 16,000
MITSUBISHI HEAVY * H-Type X X X OF/OI 530,000 15000 870 60 2 134100 100000 1500 20000
INDUSTRIES COMPRESSOR
INTERNATIONAL V-Type X X X OF/OI 212,000 6000 14500 1000 2 134100 100000 3000 20000
Integrally Geared X X X OI 600,000 17000 2900 200 2.5 93900 70000 1500 100000
MITSUI E&S * H Series X X OI 353 177,000 10 5000 725 50 42900 32000
V Series X X OI 353 35,300 10 1000 9400 650 42900 32000

www.compressortechsg.com
MA Series X X OI 353,000 9200 145 10 7 134100 100000
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min Pressure Power (rpm)
Model

Catalog Page Reference

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes
Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric
OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected
Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar hp kW min max
SIEMENS ENERGY * STC-GV X X X X OF 880 590,000 25 16700 2900 200 80500 60000 45000
STC-SV X X X OF 140 283,000 4 8000 14500 1000 134000 100000 20000
STC-SH X X X OF 140 353,000 4 10000 1450 100 134000 100000 20000
STC-GC X X OF 5900 236,000 167 6670 290 20 40200 30000 45000
STC-SX X X X X OF 29,400 766,000 833 21700 102 7 53600 40000 9000
STC-SR X X X X X X OF 29,400 766,000 833 21700 232 16 134000 100000 9000
STC-GVT X X OF 880 283,000 25 8000 870 60 40200 30000 45000
DATUM X X X X OF 470,900 13300 14500 1000 181000 135000 26500
Axial X X X OF 75,000 700,000 2120 20000 80 5.5 125000 93250 8000
RFA, RFBB X X X OF 12,710 62,400 360 1775 2250 155 75000 56000 13800
SOLAR TURBINES C16 X X 200 2200 4 60 4500 310 13100 9800 23800
INCORPORATED
C31 X X X 500 4000 15 113 5000 344 20000 14900 16000
C33 X X X 800 9500 23 270 2700 186 17270 12900 19000
C40 X X X 600 9000 17 255 2500 172 29500 21700 14300

PRIME MOVERS TAB, 167

C41 X X X 750 18,000 21 510 3750 259 41976 31300 14300
C41D X X X 750 18,000 21 510 3750 259 41976 31300 14300
C50 X X X 2000 20,000 57 565 1500 103 31915 23800 14000
C51 X X X 2000 25,000 57 710 3000 207 52333 39000 12000
C51D X X X 12,000 339 3000 207 12000
C61 X X X 2800 35,000 79 990 3000 207 87640 65400 10200
C40 Pipeline X X X 1500 11,000 42 300 1600 186 16223 12100 15500
C45 Pipeline X X X 3800 18,500 108 525 2250 124 35206 26300 12000
C65 Pipeline X X X 5000 24,000 142 680 1600 110 34968 26100 10500
C75 Pipeline X X X 2420 30,000 68 850 2250 155 76138 56730 8860
C85 Pipeline X X X 10,000 45,000 283 1275 1600 110 77707 57900 7000
SUNDYNE CORPORATION * LMC X X X OF 50 3600 85 6120 2160 149 4 550 410 2950 34000
BMC X X X OF 50 3600 85 6120 2160 149 4 550 410 2950 34000
LF-2000 X X X X OF 100 10,200 170 17300 4400 304 4 10000 7500 5000 50000
2500 to 1865 to 9410 to

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 25

YORK/FRICK (JCI) * M Series X X OF 400 to 1800 to 11 to 402 51 to 651 450 to 31 to 41
14,200 23,000 600 17,300 12,900 24,980
* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 TURBOEXPANDERS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Mass Flow Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min lb/hr kg/h Pressure Power (rpm)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes

Model Designation
OF = Oil Free
OI =Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Temp (°C)
min max min max min max min max psig bar

Catalog Page Reference

Expansion Ratio
(Per Stage)

MANUFACTURER hp kW min max

ATLAS COPCO GAS * Radial Inflow
AND PROCESS Expanders

26 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

Frame 1 to X X X X X OF, OI 50 40,000 1 1200 3000 200 -253 to 1.2 to 30,000 23000 3000 105000
10 EC,ECM,EG, +550 18
ETH

BAKER HUGHES 73, 87 HIPER X X X OF 412 12 1232.5 85 0 to 100 402 300 30000

EC 10 X X OF, OI 647 18 3335 230 -270 to 315 268 200 110000

EC 15 X X OF, OI 1295 37 3335 230 -270 to 315 1072 800 70000

EC 20 X X OF, OI 2648 75 3335 230 -270 to 315 2010 1500 51000

EC 25 X X OF, OI 3531 100 3335 230 -270 to 315 4020 3000 35000

EC 30 X X OF, OI 4473 127 3335 230 -270 to 315 6700 5000 25000

EC 40 X X OF, OI 7062 200 3335 230 -270 to 315 10050 7500 22000

EC 50 X X OF, OI 10,299 292 2030 140 -270 to 315 14,740 11000 19000

EC 60 X X OF, OI 13,241 375 2030 140 -270 to 315 18,090 13500 15000

EC 80 X X OF, OI 17,067 483 1305 90 -270 to 315 24,120 18000 12000

EC 100 X X OF, OI 22,363 633 1305 90 -110 to 315 26,800 20000 7000

EC 130 X X OF, OI 29,425 833 725 50 -110 to 315 33,500 25000 5500

EC 160 X X OF, OI 44,726 1267 725 50 -110 to 315 46,900 35000 4000

EC 180 X X OF, OI 64,735 1833 725 50 -110 to 315 53,600 40000 3000

EG 10 X X X X OI 647 18 2030 140 -270 to 315 268 200 38000

EG 15 X X X X OI 1295 37 2030 140 -270 to 315 804 600 38000

EG 20 X X X X OI 2648 75 2030 140 -270 to 315 1340 1000 38000

EG 25 X X X X OI 3531 100 2030 140 -270 to 315 2010 1500 35000

EG 30 X X X X OI 4473 127 2030 140 -270 to 315 4020 3000 26000

EG 40 X X X X OI 7062 200 2030 140 -270 to 315 6968 5200 20000

continued EG 50 X X X X OI 10299 292 2030 140 -270 to 315 10050 7500 17000

www.compressortechsg.com
* This company is not represented in the 2021 Supplement with a section describing its products.
 TURBOEXPANDERS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Flow Radial Flow Thermal

MAWP
Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Mass Flow Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Input Range
acfm m3/min lb/hr kg/h Pressure Power (rpm)

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Horizontally Split
Vertically Split
Integral Gear
Integral Electric

Multiple Stage
Fixed Stator Vanes
Variable Stator Vanes

Model Designation
OF = Oil Free
OI =Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stage
Temp (°C)
min max min max min max min max psig bar

Catalog Page Reference

Expansion Ratio
(Per Stage)

MANUFACTURER hp kW min max

BAKER HUGHES 73, 87 EG 60 X X X X OI 13241 375 2030 140 -270 to 315 14070 10500 13000

EG 80 X X X X OI 17067 483 1305 90 -270 to 315 17420 13000 8000

EG 100 X X X X OI 22363 633 1305 90 -110 to 315 24120 18000 5000

EG 130 X X X X OI 29425 833 725 50 -110 to 315 31490 23500 4000

EG 160 X X OI 44726 1267 725 50 -110 to 315 38860 29000 3000

EG 180 X X OI 64735 1833 725 50 -110 to 315 46900 35000 1500

CRYOSTAR SAS * TP Series X X X OI 30 to 260 to 0.75 7.5 to 6500 to 66,000 to 3000 to 30,000 to 1015 to 70 to -196 to 60 1.05 268 to 200 to 1400 to 8200 to
300 8100 to 8 230 100,000 2,777,821 45,000 1,260,000 1450 100 - 18 9655 7200 10,500 66,000

MTC 200 X X X OF 30 to 630 to 1 to 8 18 to 6500 to 158,732 to 3000 to 72000 to 870 to 60 to 1.05 1234 to 920 to 4800 to 10,850 to
300 8100 230 100,000 2,777,821 45,000 1,260,000 1450 100 -196 to 60 - 18 10,862 8100 21,000 37,600

TG Series X X X X X X OI 30 to 630 to 1 to 10 18 to 6500 to 158,733 to 3000 to 72,000 to 1015 70 -196 to 60 1.05 916 683 11,100 66,000
360 9712 275 175,000 4,900,000 80,000 2,200,000 - 18

ELLIOTT GROUP * TH-85 X X 467,000 211,830 50 / 5 3.4 / 760 / 649 18,000 13,500 6700
0.34

TH-100 X X 718,000 325,680 50 / 5 3.4 / 760 / 649 25,000 19,000 5800

0.34

TH-120 X 1,105,000 501,220 50 / 5 3.4 / 760 / 649 40,000 30,000 4700

0.34

TH-140 X 1,700,000 771,110 50 / 5 3.4 / 760 / 649 60,000 45,000 4000

0.34

L.A. TURBINE * 350 to 1070 to 800 to 15,000

L Series 9400 3000 206 -195 to 260 18,700 14,000 to
105,000

MAN ENERGY 56-57 EN X X X X 1,320,000 600,000 218 16 540 15 80,000 60,000 20,000
SOLUTIONS

EH X X 1,320,000 600,000 44 4 760 10 60,000 45,000 24,000

ER X X X X 1,230,000 560,000 348 24 to 500 5 67,000 50,000 50,000

SIEMENS ENERGY * STC-GT X X X X X OI 5297 353,146 150 10,000 217.5 15 550 16 60,345 45,000 4400 25,000

E Series X X 58,000 to 20,000 to 26,500 to 45,000 to 35 to 3 to 15 760 15 10,000 to 7500 to 3600 to

780,000 1,609,000 354,000 730,000 217 65,000 48,500 10,930

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 27

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
AERZENER * VMY Series X X X OI 63 to 315 to 2 to 40 9 to 199 232 to 16 to 3,600
MASCHINENFABRIK 1404 7020 508 16 to 35 25

28 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

VML X X OF 177 8830 5 250 30 2 3 3600
VM X X X OF 70 6000 2 170 145 10 6 3600
VRa X X X OF 335 89,500 10 2535 754 52 12 2000 18,000
Delta Hybrid X X OF 71 5297 2 150 29 2 3 2100 15,000
GM Series X X X OF 18 to 190 to 0.5 to 148 1320 15 1 to 64 2 150 to 610 to
5200 46,600 1000 4800
GR (2-lobe) X X X OF 60 29,400 2 833 363 25 2 500 4000
GQ (2-lobe) X X X OF 880 58,900 25 1667 87 6 3 500 1200
ARROW ENGINE CO. * VRU1 X X 350 24.1 10,000 15 250 600
VR Series, Multi- X X X X 350 24.1 10,000 30 250 900
Stage
14,000 150 to
VRC Series X X X X 6000 413.7 to 550 900 1800
20,000
ARIEL CORPORATION JGM:P X X X X OI 9000 621 7000 31,138 170 127 750 1800
JGN:Q X X X X OI 9000 621 11,000 48,930 280 209 750 1800
JG:A X X X X OI/OF 9000 621 11,000 48,930 840 627 750 1800
JGR:J X X X X OI/OF 6100 421 23,000 102,309 1860 1388 600 1800

COMPRESSOR TAB
JGH:E X X X X OI 10,000 690 32,000 142,343 3210 2395 600 1500

INSIDE FRONT COVER,

JGK:T X X X X OI/OF 10,000 690 40,000 177,929 3900 2909 600 1500
KBE X X X X OI/OF 2,600 179 40,000 177,929 2680 1999 600 1500
KBK:T X X X X OI/OF 10,000 690 50,000 222,411 5520 4118 600 1500
JGC:D:F X X X X OI/OF 10,000 690 60,000 266,893 6210 4633 500 1400
KBC:D:F X X X X OI/OF 10,000 690 69,000 306,927 7200 5371 500 1400
KBU:Z X X X X OI/OF 10,000 690 80,000 355,858 7800 5819 500 1200
KBB:V X X X X OI/OF 6700 462 100,000 444,822 10,000 7460 360 900
BAUER KOMPRESSOREN * X X OI 3 to 371 21 to 0.6 to 5300 to 365 to 20 to 15 to 315 985 to 1485 to
GMBH, GERMANY 805 0.1 to 10.5 22.8 7500 520 422 1485 1785
BLACKMER * HD Series X X OF 2 to 52 8 to 125 335 to 23 to 41 2650 to
600 7000 5 5 to 50 350 825
HD Series X X OF 4 to 52 8 to 125 335 to 23 to 68 2650 to 5 15 to 50 350 825
(Watercooled) 985 7000
NG Series X X OF 2 to 52 8 to 125 335 to 23 to 41 2650 to
600 7000 5 5 to 50 350 825
NGH100 X X OF 30 345 1500 103 7000 5 100 500 1800

www.compressortechsg.com
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
BORSIG ZM COMPRESSION 43 BX15 X X X X OF/OI 1450 100 5 8046 6000 800 1200
GMBH
BX22 X X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 5 1340 1000 400 750
BX32 X X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 5 4023 3000 270 600
BX40 X X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 5 9387 7000 200 450
BX45 X X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 5 16,092 12,000 150 400
BX50 X X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 5 28,161 21,000 110 350
PV90 Vertical X X OF 10,150 700 5 335 250 450 1500
Series
PV110 Vertical X X OF 10,150 700 5 600 450 360 1200
Series
PV140 Vertical X X OF 10,150 700 5 940 700 295 900
Series
PV180 Vertical X X OF 10,150 700 5 2010 1500 230 750
Series
PV220 Vertical X X OF 10,150 700 5 3350 2500 180 600
Series
BURCKHARDT 108 BY X X X OF/OI 2300 60 14,500 1000 22,500 100,000 4 1000 800 425 850
COMPRESSION AG CY X X OF/OI 2300 60 14,500 1000 22,500 100,000 4 1000 800 425 850
PROCESS GAS
COMPRESSOR API 618 BF X X OF/OI 14,500 1000 32,600 145,000 4 3000 2200 300 600
BS X X X OF/OI 7100 200 14,500 1000 45,000 200,000 4 3200 2400 300 600
CS X X OF/OI 4700 130 14,500 1000 45,000 200,000 4 3200 2400 300 600
BX X X X OF/OI 10,600 300 14,500 1000 78,500 350,000 4 7200 5400 260 520
BA X X X OF/OI 15,900 450 14,500 1000 124,000 550,000 4 12,700 9,500 250 500
BC X X X OF/OI 19,400 550 14,500 1000 202,000 900,000 4 21,700 16,000 300 450
BE X X X OI 23,000 650 14,500 1000 382,000 1,700,000 4 42,100 31,000 300 429
D/M 6.5 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 14,612 65,000 4 805 600 300 520
D/M 10 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 22,480 100,000 4 1475 1100 300 520
D/M 12 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 26,977 120,000 4 1743 1300 300 512
D/M 16 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 35,969 160,000 4 2145 1600 300 450
D/M 20 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 44,992 200,000 4 2,682 2,000 300 450
D/M 25 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 56,202 250,000 4 4,291 3,200 300 450
D/M 32 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 71,938 320,000 4 7242 5400 300 420
D/M 45 x x x OF/OI 2900 200 101,164 450,000 4 7445 5550 300 400
D/M 80 x x x OI 2900 200 179,847 800,000 4 11,165 8325 300 360
D/M VL x x x OI 2900 200 224,808 1,000,000 4 13,955 10,406 300 360
continued D/M HE x x x OI 2900 200 281,011 1,250,000 4 21,725 16,200 300 333

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 29

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
BURCKHARDT 108 1D130 X OF 300 10 4640 300 4 100 76 450 750
COMPRESSION AG

30 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

LABY COMPRESSORS 1D150 X OF 300 10 730 50 4 160 120 360 600
2D100 X X OF 300 10 730 50 4 160 120 600 1000
2D140 X X OF 400 10 290 20 4 233 174 450 750
2D160 X X OF 700 20 1160 80 4 407 304 450 750
2D200 X X OF 1000 30 750 52 4 643 480 360 600
2DL200 X X OF 2200 60 290 20 4 643 480 360 600
2D205 X X OF 800 20 3630 250 4 938 700 360 600
2D250 X X OF 2500 70 1740 120 4 2279 1700 312 520
2DL250 X X OF 2700 80 360 25 4 2370 1770 312 520
3D200 X X OF 1900 50 1020 70 4 657 490 360 600
4D225 X X OF 2700 80 810 56 4 973 726 360 600
4D250 X X OF 4700 130 3050 210 4 1374 1025 312 520
4D300 X X OF 4000 110 1280 88 4 2055 1533 270 450
4D375 X X OF 4800 140 730 50 4 2755 2055 228 380
6D375 X X OF 5400 150 870 60 4 2755 2055 228 380
2K70 x x OF 300 10 261 18 4 95 71 1080 1800
2K90 X X OF 300 10 610 42 4 154 115 600 1000
2KL90 X X OF 300 10 610 16 4 154 115 600 1000
2K105 X X OF 500 10 1160 80 4 252 188 600 1000
2K140 X X OF 800 20 730 50 4 406 303 450 750
2KL140 x x OF 800 20 232 16 4 406 303 450 750
2K158 X X OF 700 20 460 32 4 665 485 450 750
2K160 X X OF 1200 30 2180 150 4 665 485 450 750
2K250 X X OF 800 20 1670 115 4 2226 1660 300 500
3K140 X X OF 700 20 580 90 4 665 485 450 750
3K160 X X OF 1800 950 640 44 4 665 485 450 750
4K165 X X OF 2000 60 960 66 4 1397 1042 450 750
HYPER COMPRESSORS H X X X OI 14,200 400 50,760 3500 4 10,700 8000 154 257
F X X X OI 42,600 1210 50,760 3500 4 26,850 20,000 139 231
K X X X OI 85,100 2410 50,760 3500 4 51,000 38,000 129 215
LABY-GI COMPRESSORS LP250 X X X OF/OI 110 14500 1000 72 322 4 5320 4000 312 520

www.compressortechsg.com
continued
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
BURCKHARDT 108 CB X OI 0.8 2900 200 5 24 18 1500
COMPRESSION AG
STANDARD CC X OI 1.7 5100 350 5 60 45 1365
HIGH-PRESSURE CU X OI 13.3 5800 400 5 150 110 1230
COMPRESSORS
CT X OI 25 5100 350 5 270 200 1045
MARINE HIGH-PRESSURE MHP-A-310 X OI 25 4500 310 5 225 168 1180
COMPRESSORS
DIAPHRAGM MD2.5 X X X OF 0.6 8000 550 6 25 5 16 12
COMPRESSORS
MD5 X X X OF 1.6 8000 550 11 50 5 39 29
MD6.5 X X X OF 11.5 8000 550 15 65 5 225 168
MD10 X X X OF 19 8000 550 22 100 5 350 261
MD12 X X X OF 23 8000 550 27 120 5 424 316
CLAUGER-TECHNOFRIGO * GEA Grasso LT & M X X OI 164 8,150 4.6 229.3 913.0 63 20 5,623 4193 1400 3600
S.P.A. Series
Howden WRV X X OI 328 17,068 9.2 483.3 653.0 45 22 11,400 8500 750 3600
COMOTI 49 ECS 2.5/10 X Ol 1 3 10 10 30 1450
ECS 10/10 X Ol 4 8 10 10 37 1050
ECS 15/10 X Ol 4 11 10 10 75 1050
ECS 20/10 X Ol 4 13 10 10 90 1050
ECS 1/10 X OI 0.40 0.70 10 10 15 1450
ECS 2/10 X OI 0.70 1.40 10 10 22 1450
ECS 25/10 X Ol 7 17 10 10 110 1000
ECS 30/10 X Ol 7 23 10 10 132 1000
ECS 60/10 X Ol 13 42 10 10 250 600
ECS 75/10 X OL 42 52 6 6 315 2000
ECS 2.5/16 X Ol 1 3 16 15 40 1450
ECS 20/25 X Ol 2 7 25 15 75 1700
ECS 15/30 X Ol 3 10 30 15 132 1200
ECS 20/30 X Ol 2 6 30 15 132 1600
ECS 30/30 X Ol 2 5 30 15 160 1600
ECS 35/30 X Ol 17 24.5 30 15 250 2000
ECS 60/30 X Ol 27 42 30 15 450 2000
ECS 80/30 X Ol 40 56 30 15 500 2000
ECS 5/40 B X OL 2 7 40 14 90 2000
continued CU64GM X OL 1 4 26 15 52 2296

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 31

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
COMOTI 49 CU 90GM X OL 2 8 26 15 98 1632

32 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

CU 128G X OL 4 16 26 15 193 1148
CU 64 GM X OL 1 4 45 15 100 2296
CU 90 GM X OL 2 8 45 15 175 1632
CU 200 X OL 7 35 26 15 550 735
CORKEN, INC. * HG600/THG600 X X X OI/OF 1650 20.7 7500 33,361 5:1 75 56 400 1200
Horizontal Series
Vertical Series X X OF 335 to 23 to 83 3600 to 1633 to
1200 7000 3175 5:1 15 to 45 11 to 34 400 825
COMPACT COMPRESSION * HCG Series X X OF 0 19 0 0.4 to 1.5 1500 103.4 20 15, 50 11, 37
WGC Series X X X OF 0 34 to 63 0 0.96 to 1500 103.4 4000 17,793
2.8 20 20, 30 22 30 225
COOPER MACHINERY * AJAX Series X X X OI 5500 379 30,000 133,446 148 to 110 to 260, 300 440, 455
SERVICES 300 224
A, CFA, CFH, CFR,
H, M, MH, RAM, X X X X OF/OI 6000 to 152 to 6000 to 26,689 to 60 to 45 to 200 to 1000 to
WG and WH 10,000 689 90,000 400,339 9000 6711 900 1800
SeriesM301
Cooper-Bessemer X X X OF, OI 15,000 1034 150,000 667,230 3500 to 2600 to 264 330
Series 9300 6900
FLSMIDTH INC. FUL-VANE * CC Series, Single X X OI 45 to 121 to 1.3 to 3.4 to 150 10.3 6 50 to 37 to 325 to 750 to
Stage 943 2176 26.7 61.6 500 375 725 1940
C Series, Single X X OI 1102 to 2203 to 31.2 to 55 62.4 to 150 10.3 5, 6 650, 500 375, 485 300, 325 520, 650
Stage 1943 3368 95.4
CC Series, Multi- X X OI 106 to 271 to 3 to 26.7 7.7 to 300 20 5 75 to 55 to 325 to 750 to
Stage 943 2176 61.6 500 375 725 1850
C350-350H X X OI 1102 2203 31.2 62.4 300 20 5 500 375 325 650
CB Series X X OI 38 to315 97 to 726 1.1 to 8.9 2,8 to 300 20 7 75 to 55 to 325 to 750 to
20.6 500 375 725 1850
B350 X X OI 368 736 10.4 20.8 300 20 7 500 375 325 650
V Series, Single X X OI 106 to 271 to 3 to 31.2 7.7 to -13.2 -0.9 75 to 55 to 325 to 650 to
Stage 1102 2203 62.4 500 375 725 1500
V Series, Multi- X X OI 106 to 271 to 3 to 31.2 7.7 to -14.6 -1 75 to 55 to 325 to 650 to
Stage 1102 2203 62.4 500 375 725 1500
FORNOVOGAS SRL * SA200 X X X OF 308 15,000 55 500 1800
DA300 X X X OF 375 50,000 400 500 1500
DA500 X X X X OF/OI 275 125,000 1500 650 1800
GARO S.P.A. * AM, ASM, AB X X X OF 140 3000 4 83 190 13 5 1340 1000 580 3600
HAUG SAUER * HAUG.Pluto X X X OF 30 1 870 60 3 2.2 970 1740
KOMPRESSOREN AG
continued HAUG.Mercure X X X X OF 41 1 1450 100 5.5 4 970 1470

www.compressortechsg.com
* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
HAUG SAUER * HAUG.Neptune X X X OF 59 2 1450 100 10 7.5 970 1470
KOMPRESSOREN AG
HAUG.Sirius X X X OF 590 17 1450 100 41 30 970 1470
HAUG.Sirius X X X OF 35 1 6527 450 41 30 970 1470
NanoLoc
HAUG.Titan X X X OF 1177 33 1450 100 150 110 450 900
HAUG.Cygnus X X X OF 7 1 435 30 3 2.2 1450 3400
HAUG.Taurus X X X OF 27 1 870 60 15 11 970 1470
HAUG.Orion X X X OF 94 3 870 60 41 30 970 1470
HOFER * MK X X X X X OF 0.35 175 0.01 5.00 44,000 3000 31,500 140,000 8 335 250 250 720
TKH X X X X OF 0.35 15.00 0.01 0.40 60,000 4000 78,500 350,000 8 270 200 8 40
Howden
HOWDEN 80-81 Thomassen P X X X OF 4 20,000 0.1 568 5100 350 49,500 220,000 4 3400 2500 200 1000
Series
Howden Burton X X X OF 0 357 0 10 43,500 3000 49,500 220,000 12 1766 1300 200 750
Corblin D Series
Howden HPD X X X OF 35 2925 1 83 14,500 1000 49,500 220,000 3 2649 1950 200 500
Hybrid Series
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 29,225 130,000 5 1090 800 300 600
Thomassen C-7
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 41,600 185,000 5 3130 2300 300 600
Thomassen C-12
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 67,500 300,000 5 7620 5600 300 600
Thomassen C-25
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 123,700 550,000 5 14,000 10,300 250 500
Thomassen C-35
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 185,500 825,000 5 20,950 15,400 250 500
Thomassen C-45
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 281,000 1,250,000 5 33,720 24,800 190 375
Thomassen C-85
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 404,600 1,800,000 5 44,870 33,000 300 375
Thomassen C-85H
Howden X X X OF/OI 8700 600 55,000 245,000 5 6254 4600 500 1200
Thomassen CHS
XRV127 X OI 342 9.9 305 21 10 200 150 1800 5000
XRV163 X OI 504 14.3 305 21 10 350 260 1800 3600
XRV204 X OI 976 27.6 305 21 10 600 450 1800 3600
M127 X OI 410 11.8 305 21 10 200 150 1800 5000
GTV 228 X OI 683 19.3 870 60 3 4690 3500 1250 4000
WRV(H)163 X OI 601 17.3 350 24 12 470 350 1500 4500
WRV(H)204 X OI 718 33.6 350 24 12 1028 766 1500 4500
continued

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 33

WRVi255 X OI 1905 54 350 24 12 1542 1150 1500 3600
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
HOWDEN 80-81 WRV255 X OI 2258 63.9 200 13.8 8 1542 1150 1500 3600

34 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

WRVi321 X OI 3811 108 350 24 12 2741 2044 1500 3600
WRV321 X OI 4517 128 200 13.8 8 2741 2044 1500 3600
WRVi365 X OI 5580 158.1 350 24 12 5814 4335 1500 3600
WRVT510 X OI 13,430 380 350 24 12 6700 5000 700 2600
WRVTi580 X OI 17,070 483 350 24 12 11,265 8400 750 2600
WRVTF510 X OI 12,400 350 203 14 12 6700 5000 700 3000
H127 X OF 882 25 126 8.7 4 286 213 7500 15,000
HP204 X OF 1490 42 201 13.8 4 800 600 4750 9500
H204 X OF 2236 63 126 8.7 4 800 600 4750 9500
HP255 X OF 2300 65 201 13.8 4 1250 935 4000 7500
H255 X OF 3450 98 126 8.7 4 1250 935 4000 7500
HP408 X OF 5899 167 201 13.8 4 3050 2275 2300 4700
H408 X OF 8845 250 126 8.7 4 3050 2275 2300 4700
HP510 X OF 8266 234 200 15 4 4000 2985 2000 3750
H510 X OF 12,397 351 130 10 4 4000 2985 2000 3750
ČKD JSKB X X OF 113 1561 3 44 435 30 88,185 392,266 6 362 270 300 1000
ČKD DSKB X X OF 99 1137 3 32 435 30 88,185 392,266 5 367 274 300 1000
ČKD TSKB X X OF 60 1737 2 49 2391 165 88,185 392,266 4 624 465 300 1000
ČKD JSKM X X OI 441 1811 13 51 652 45 88,185 392,266 5 282 210 300 1000
ČKD DSKM X X OI 162 2147 5 61 652 45 88,185 392,266 5 456 340 300 1000
ČKD (T)SKM X X OI 11 706 1 20 3623 250 88,185 392,266 4 429 320 300 1000
Howden Roots X X OF 6 2350 0.2 66.5 25 1.7 2 75 56 600 5275
URAI
Howden Roots X X OF 100 3300 2.8 93.4 25 1.7 2 175 130 900 4000
RAM
Howden Roots X X OF 400 5500 11.3 155.7 25 1.7 2 325 242 950 2600
RCS
Howden Roots X X OF 300 5500 8.5 155.7 25 1.7 2 350 261 1100 4750
Tri-RAM
Howden Roots X X OF 600 29000 17 821.2 60 4.1 2 1000 746 600 1900
RAS
Howden Roots X X OF 600 29000 17 821.2 60 4.1 2 1000 746 600 1900
RGS
HYCOMP INC. * X OF 2 to 51 5 to 105 500 to 2800 to 5 8 to 72 400 700 to
1500 11,700 825
X OF 2 to 102 1 to 179 200 to 2800 to 5 8 to 72 400 700 to
1500 11,700 825

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 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max

INGERSOLL RAND * X X X X OF/OI 12 to 58 to 0.3 to 1.6 to 150 to 10.3 to 10,000 44,480 to 3 to 8 15 to 750 11 to 560 300 to 514 to
1690 2400 1500 4000 1500 100 to 18000 80,070 340 650
KOBELCO * KR Series X X X OF/OI 400 10,150 700 350,000 160,000 40,000 30,000 250 1000
Dry Screw X X X OF 140 84,000 4 2,380 650 45 10 13,500 10,000 1500 24,000
Oil-Injected X X X OI 120 20,000 3.5 567 1500 100 20 13,500 10,000 1000 5500
Screw
KÖHLER & HÖRTER GMBH 77 TWX 1 X X OF / OI 2176 150 9000 40,000 4 41 30 250 800
(KOHO)
TWX 4 X X OF / OI 2176 150 9000 40,000 4 74 55 250 800
TWX 5 X X OF / OI 2176 150 13,490 60,000 4 121 90 250 800
TWX 6 X X OF / OI 2176 150 9000 40,000 4 74 55 250 800
TWX 7 X X OF / OI 2611 180 13,490 60,000 4 121 90 250 800
TWX 8 X X OF / OI 2611 180 15,740 70,000 4 148 110 250 800
TWX 9 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 470 350 250 750
TWX 10 X X OF / OI 2611 180 15,740 70,000 4 148 110 250 750
TWX 11 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 12 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 13 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 14 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 15 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 16 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
TWX 17 X X OF / OI 2176 150 9000 40,000 4 41 30 250 800
TWX 18 X X OF / OI 4352 300 20,240 90,000 4 671 500 250 600
LEROI GAS COMPRESSORS * X X X X OI 0 160 to 0 3.5 to 150 to 6 to 172 3900 to 17,350 to 6 to 22 20 to 15 to 671 350 to 1015 to
3750 106 2500 6000 26,700 900 2500 10,000
LMF COMPRESSORS Process Gas (API
* X X X X OF/OI 10,150 700 134,885 600,000 4 8300 6200 300 1200
618)
Process Gas (API X X X X OF/OI 10,150 700 98,916 440,000 4 8160 6000 450 1800
11P)
EcoPET X OF 580 40 15,737 70,000 3 778 580 450 1200
Mobile Systems X X X OF/OI 10,150 700 16,861 75,000 4 1743 1300 450 1800
CNG X X OF/OI 5076 350 16,861 75,000 4 800 1200 450 1800
Industrial X X X OF/OI 6527 450 24,729 110,000 6 800 1200 600 1800
Applications
Electric Rotary X X X OI 15 2600 0,5 74 175 13 475 355
Screw
MAN ENERGY SOLUTIONS 56-57 CP X X X OF 120 12,000 3 340 725 50 10 13,410 10,000 3000 25,000
SKUEL X X X OF 2331 60,000 66 1700 230 16 10 13,410 10,000 1500 8900

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 35

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
MAYEKAW * 750 52

36 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

MEHRER * TRE 200 X X OF 217 15 4 7 5 380 750
TRZ 200 X X OF 363 25 4 7 5 380 700
TRE 300 X X OF 435 30 4 13 10 380 750
TRZ 300 X X OF 435 30 4 13 10 380 750
TRE 400 X X OF 2,900 220 4 41 30 400 700
TRZ 400 X X OF 2,900 220 4 41 30 400 700
TZL 40 X X OF 319 22 4 30 22 400 735
TEL 80 X X OF 377 26 4 41 30 400 735
TEW 90 X X OF 348 24 5 75 55 400 700
TEW 110 X X OF 247 17 5 75 55 400 700
TZW 50 X X OF 391 27 5 30 22 400 700
TZW 60 X X OF 334 23 5 61 45 380 725
TZW 70 X X OF 334 23 5 102 75 380 725
TRE 700 X X OF 377 26 5 170 125 380 850
TRZ 700 X X OF 2,900 45 5 170 125 380 850
TRB 700 X X OF 653 45 5 170 125 380 850
TVE 900 X X OF 160 11 5 271 200 380 900
TVZ 900 X X OF 943 65 5 271 200 380 900
TVB 900 X X OF 943 65 5 271 200 380 900
TVD 900 X X OF 943 65 5 271 200 380 900
TRZ 1000 X X OF 377 26 5 180 132 380 900
MRx 300 X X X OF 17,405 1200 10 15 11 400 400
MLx 300 X X X OF 17,405 1200 10 15 11 400 400
MHx 300 X X X OF 17,405 1200 10 15 11 400 400
MRx 400 X X X OF 14,504 1000 10 41 30 400 400
MLx 400 X X X OF 14,504 1000 10 41 30 400 400
MHx 400 X X X OF 14,504 1000 10 41 30 400 400
MRx 1300 X X X OF 14,504 1000 10 217 160 400 400
MHx 1300 X X X OF 14,504 1000 10 217 160 400 400
MITSUI E&S * C Series X X X OF/OI 14,125 400 21,200 600 7 24,138 18,000 500
MB Series X X X OF/OI 14,125 21,200 600 7 134 1000 700
NATURAL GAS SERVICES * CiP PHT2 X X X X OI 5 585 0.1 16.6 3050 210 20,000 890,000 4 250/400 186/298 800 1800
GROUP/CIP
CiP PXT2 X X X X OI 5 585 0.1 16.6 3050 210 16,000 712,000 4 175/300 130/223 800 1800

www.compressortechsg.com
CiP PVT2 X X X X OF/OI 3 270 0.1 7.7 2000 138 7500 34,000 4 100/150 74/111 900 2200
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed

www.compressortechsg.com
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max

NEUMAN & ESSER GROUP * X X X X X OF/OI 43,500 3000 5620 to 25,000 to 160 to 120 to 600 to
382,180 1,700,000 41,000 30,600 1800
PEDRO GIL S.l * Rotary Piston X X OF 1 170 0.5 150 29 2.0 422 315 4800
Blower
PETER BROTHERHOOD * M X X X OI/OF Dependent on inlet conditions 5800 400 24,728 110,000 3 2400 1800
300 750
A X X X OI/OF Dependent on inlet conditions 5800 400 44,960 200,000 3 4690 3500
300 600
B X X X OI/OF Dependent on inlet conditions 5800 400 71,936 320,000 3 8715 6500
300 500
D X X X OI/OF Dependent on inlet conditions 5800 400 105,656 470,000 3 15,420 11,500
300 400
E X X X OI/OF Dependent on inlet conditions 5800 400 143,872 640,000 3 26,820 20,000
300 360
RO-FLO COMPRESSORS * Single-Stage, X X OI 0.5 to 30 to 0 to 20.7 0.9 to 80, 150, 5, 10, 13 275 640 to
Sliding Vane 880 2286 64.7 200 5, 7 15 to 500 11 to 373 865to 2200
Mulit-Stage, X X OI 15 to 700 34 to 0.4 to 1 to 63.8 150, 200 10, 13 5 50 to 37 to 275 to 640 to
Sliding Vane 2254 19.8 600 447 865 1465
ROTORCOMP VERDICHTER * EVO Series Gas/ X X OI 2 to 105 217 14 to 17 15 to 11 to 670 1000 to 3000 to
GMBH Geared 900 2000 9300
EVO2-NK Series X X OI 2 to 8 217 15 1500,
15 to 75 11 to 55 2000 6300 to
9000
NK200-Gas/ X X OI 10 217 15 102 75 1500 4000
Geared
SAFE SPA * S7-S9 X X OI 4 300 22,000 4 75 550 1500
SW X X X OF/OI 18 300 50,000 4 500 550 1500
ST X X X OI 8 250 35,000 4 110 550 1500
Hydraulic series X X X OI 15 300 4 75
SAUER COMPRESSORS * X X OF/OI 150 to 10 to 1, 2, 3, 980 1780
7250 500 4, 5
SERA HYDROGEN GMBH * MV1 - MV6 X X X X OF 0.058 294 0.100 500† 13053 900 on on up to 100 75 200 340
request request 15††
SERTCO * 98 to 632 HP X X X OI 51 to 91 118 to 1.4 to 2.6 3.3 to 12 125 to 9 to 24 6 to 12 50 to 180 36 to 900 2100
425 350 132
SIAD MACCHINE IMPIANTI 63 HT Series X X X X OI/OF 8700 600 140,000 625,000 4 11,900 8700 300 500
S.P.A.
HSF Series X X X X OI/OF 8700 600 78,000 350,000 4 8700 6400 490 1200
HSD Series X X X X OI/OF 8700 600 55,000 240,000 4 5600 4100 490 1500
HD Series X X X X OI/OF 8700 600 55,000 240,000 4 3275 2400 300 750
HP Series X X X X OI/OF 8700 600 37,500 165,000 4 1950 1400 300 750
HM Series X X X X OI/OF 5075 350 22,000 95,000 4 950 700 300 750
P Series X X X OI/OF 5075 350 30,000 133,000 4 1500 1100 300 750
M Series X X X OI/OF 5075 350 22,000 95,000 4 700 525 300 750
W Series X X X OI/OF 5075 350 10,500 45,000 4 280 200 300 1200
T Series X X X OI/OF 5075 350 3500 15,000 4 105 75 300 1200
I Series X X X OI/OF 1450 100 1350 6000 4 14 10 300 1200

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 37

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products. †depending on the inlet pressure ††depending on the gas
 RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY COMPRESSORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Reciprocating Rotary

MAWP MARL
Maximum Maximum
Inlet Flow Range Allowable Allowable Maximum Speed
Working Rod Input Range
Model acfm m3/min Pressure Load Power (rpm)

Catalog Page Reference

Compression Ratio
(Per Stage)

Straight Lobe
Helical Lobe (Screw)
Single Screw
Sliding Vane
Liquid-Ring
Trochoidal
Scroll
hp kW

OF = Oil Free
OI = Oil Injected

Single Stage
Multiple Stages
Integral Engine Driven
Separable
Balanced/Opposed
Diaphragm
MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max psig bar lb Newtons min max
11,000 758 to 10,200 to 45,200 to 75 to 56 to 277 to 450 to
SIEMENS ENERGY * X X X X OF/OI to

38 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

12,000 827 350,000 1,557,000 22,500 16,778 600 1800

SULLAIR * PDX Series X X OI 75 to 251 to 200 14.0

1168 3893
PDR Series X X OI 863, 1168 2810 to 100, 150 7.0, 10.0
3893
PDH Series X X OI 86, 136 288, 453 500, 35, 28
400
PC16L X X OI 220 1392 733 to 350, 24.0,
4640 400 28.0
DC Series X X OI 330 to 200 to 200 14.0
1200 1050
TM.I.C. - 94-95 NG8 X X OI 21 88 1 3 247 17 31 23 2600 10300
Termomeccanica
Industrial Compressors NG9 X X OI 28 106 1 3 232 16 43 32 1750 6150
SCG10 X X OI 35 222 1 6 290 20 76 57 1850 6800
NG13 X X OI 71 290 2 8 290 20 114 85 1500 6600
NG14 X X OI 78 424 2 12 290 20 148 110 1300 6500
NG21 X X OI 134 706 4 20 290 20 295 220 1000 5000
NG22 X X OI 177 883 5 25 290 20 335 250 900 3900
NG30 X X OI 283 1589 8 45 290 20 536 400 700 3400
NG36 X X Ol 1760 3200 50 90 190 13 350 900 1800 3600
ITA-HP13 X X OI 53 318 2 9 363 25 148 110 1500 7400
ITA-HP26 X X OI 318 1271 9 36 363 25 469 350 1100 3600
ITA-TS23 X X OI 494 953 14 27 363 25 362 270 1800 3600
VILTER MANUFACTURING * VSG Series X OI 310 to 8.2 to 485 to 33 to 65 20 400 to 298 to 3800 to
LLC 2962 83.9 950 2000 1491 4800
VPT KOMPRESSOREN * RS Compact X X X OF/OI 0 to 10 15 to 150 16 to 80 4 to 25 110 to 3600 to
GMBH 3000 24,000
YORK/FRICK (JCI) * X OI 89 to 2.5 to 334 to 23 to 90 3550 to
8212 232 1300 6297

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* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

The following section covering Compressors and Expanders has been reproduced, by permission,
from the GPSA Engineering Data Book, 14th edition, published by GPSA. The complete GPSA
Engineering Data Book can be ordered by visiting GPSAmidstreamsuppliers.org/.

Compressors and expanders

FIG. 13-1
Nomenclature

ACFM = psia ft3

conditions) R = universal gas constant = 10.73
lb mole °R
Ap = cross sectional area of piston,sq in lb/ft3 ft lb
= 1545 or
Ar = cross sectional area of piston rod, sq in lb mole °R lb mole °R
BHP = brake or shaft horsepower
Btu
C = cylinder clearance as a percent of piston = 1.986
lb mole °R
displacement
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure, BTU/(lb °F) r = compression ratio, P2/P1
Cv = specific heat at constant volume, BTU/(lb °F) s = entropy, BTU/(lb °R)
D = cylinder inside diameter, in sm = surge margin
d = piston rod diameter, in SCFM = cubic feet per minute measured at
E = overall efficiency 14.7 psia and 60°F
High speed reciprocating units — 0.82 stroke = length of piston movement, in
Low speed reciprocating units — 0.85 T = absolute temperature, °R
EP = extracted horsepower of expander Tc = critical temperature, °R
F = an allowance for interstage pressure drop, Eq 13-4 TR = reduced temperature, T/Tc
GHP = gas horsepower, actual compression horsepower, t = temperature, °F
excluding mechanical losses, BHP U = impeller tip speed
H = head, ft lb/lb V = specific volume, ft3/lb
h = enthalpy, Btu/lb v = velocity ft/s
ICFM = inlet cubic feet per minute, usually at suction VE = volumetric efficiency, percent
conditions W = work, ft lb
k = Cp/Cv w = weight flow, lb/min
MCp = molar specific heat at constant pressure, X = temperature rise factor
BTU/(lb mole °F) y = mole fraction
MCv = molar specific heat at constant volume, Z = compressibility factor
BTU/(lb mole °F) Zavg = average compressibility factor = (Zs + Zd)/2
MW = molecular weight, lb/lb mole = efficiency, expressed as a decimal
MN = machine mach number = density, lb/ft3
N = speed, rpm
Nm = molar flow, moles/min
Subscripts
n = polytropic exponent or number of moles
P = pressure, psia avg = average
Pc = critical pressure, psia d = discharge
PD = piston displacement, ft3/min g = gas
PL = pressure base used in the contract or regulation, is = isentropic process
psia L = standard conditions used for calculation or
pPc = pseudo critical pressure, psia contract
PR = reduced pressure, P/Pc m = mechanical
pTc = pseudo critical temperature, °R p = polytropic process
Q = inlet capacity (ICFM) S = standard conditions, usually 14.7 psia, 60°F
Qg = standard gas flow rate, MMSCFD s = suction
t = total or overall
1 = inlet conditions
2 = outlet conditions

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 39

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

DEFINITIONS OF WORDS AND Capacity: (Actual Flow) of a compressor is the volume rate of
flow of gas compressed and delivered referred to conditions
PHRASES USED IN COMPRESSORS of pressure, temperature and gas composition prevailing at
AND EXPANDERS the compressor inlet.
Absolute pressure: the pressure measured from an absolute Standard or normal flow: the rate of flow under certain
vacuum. It equals the algebraic sum of barometric pressure ‘standard’ conditions, for example 60°F and 14.7 psia (US
and gauge pressure. Standard) or 15°C and 101.325 kPa (GPA-SI Standard).
Static pressure: the pressure in the gas measured in such a Mass flow: the rate of flow in mass units.
manner that no effect is produced by the velocity of the gas
stream. It is the pressure that would be shown by a measur- Isentropic compression: refers to the reversible adiabatic
ing instrument moving at the same velocity as the moving compression process.
stream and is the pressure used as a property in defining the Isentropic work (head): the work required to compress a unit
thermodynamic state of the fluid. mass of gas in an isentropic compression process from the
Stagnation (total) pressure: the pressure which would be inlet pressure and temperature to the discharge pressure.
measured at the stagnation point when a moving gas stream Isentropic power: defined as the power required to compress
is brought to rest and its kinetic energy is converted to an isentropically and deliver the capacity of the compressor
enthalpy rise by an isentropic compression from the flow con- from the compressor inlet conditions to the compressor dis-
dition to the stagnation condition. It is the pressure usually charge pressure.
measured by an impact tube. In a stationary body of gas, the
static and stagnation pressures are numerically equal. Isentropic efficiency: the ratio of the isentropic work to the
work required for the compression process.
Velocity pressure (dynamic pressure): the stagnation pres-
sure minus the static pressure in a gas stream. It is the pres- Polytropic compression: a reversible compression process be-
sure generally measured by the differential pressure reading tween the compressor inlet and discharge conditions, which
of a Pitot tube follows a path such that, between any two points on the path,
the ratio of the reversible work input to the enthalpy rise is
Absolute temperature: the temperature above absolute zero. constant. In other words, the compression process is de-
It is equal to the degrees Fahrenheit plus 459.66, and is stat- scribed as an infinite number of isentropic compression
ed as degrees Rankine. steps, each followed by an isobaric heat addition. The re-
Static temperature: the temperature that would be shown by sult is an ideal, reversible process that has the same suc-
a measuring instrument moving at the same velocity as the tion pressure, discharge pressure, suction temperature
fluid stream. It is the temperature used as a property in and discharge temperature as the actual process.
defining the thermodynamic state of the gas. Polytropic work (head): the reversible work required to
Stagnation (total) temperature: that temperature which compress a unit mass of the gas in a polytropic compression
would be measured at the stagnation point if a gas stream process.
were brought to rest and its kinetic energy converted to an
enthalpy rise by an isentropic compression process from the
flow condition to the stagnation condition.

Compressors
Depending on application, compressors are manufactured compressors in which the rotating element (impeller or bladed
as positive-displacement, dynamic, or thermal type (Fig. 13-2). rotor) accelerates the gas as it passes through the element, con-
verting the velocity head into static pressure, partially in the
Positive displacement types fall in two basic categories:
rotating element and partially in stationary diffusers or blades.
reciprocating and rotary.
Ejectors are “thermal” compressors that use a high velocity
The reciprocating compressor consists of one or more cylin-
gas or steam jet to entrain the inflowing gas, then convert the
ders each with a piston or plunger that moves back and forth,
velocity of the mixture to pressure in a diffuser.
displacing a positive volume with each stroke.
Fig. 13-3 covers the normal range of operation for compres-
The diaphragm compressor uses a hydraulically pulsed flex-
sors of the commercially available types.
ible diaphragm to displace the gas.
The advantages of a centrifugal compressor over a recipro-
Rotary compressors cover lobe-type, screw-type, vane-type,
cating machine are:
and liquid ring type, each having a casing with one or more ro-
tating elements that either mesh with each other such as lobes 1. Lower installed first cost where pressure and volume
or screws, or that displace a fixed volume with each rotation. conditions are favorable,
The dynamic types include radial-flow (centrifugal), axial- 2. Lower maintenance expense,
flow, and mixed flow machines. They are rotary continuous-flow

40 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

3. Greater continuity of service and dependability, On multistage machines, intercoolers may be provided be-
tween stages. These are heat exchangers which remove the
4. Less operating attention, heat of compression from the gas and reduce its temperature
5. Greater volume capacity per unit of plot area, to approximately the temperature existing at the compressor
intake. Such cooling reduces the actual volume of gas going to
6. Adaptability to high-speed low-maintenance-cost drivers. the high-pressure cylinders, reduces the horsepower required
The advantages of a reciprocating compressor over a cen- for compression, and keeps the temperature within safe operat-
trifugal machine are: ing limits.

1. Greater flexibility in capacity and pressure range, Reciprocating compressors should be supplied with clean gas
as they cannot satisfactorily handle liquids and solid particles
2. Higher compressor efficiency and lower power cost, that may be entrained in the gas. Liquids and solid particles tend
to destroy cylinder lubrication and cause excessive wear. Liquids
3. Capability of delivering higher pressures, are non-compressible and their presence could cause major dam-
4. Capability of handling smaller volumes, age to the compressor cylinder or frame components.

5. Less sensitive to changes in gas composition and density. Reciprocating compressors are typically designed to one of
the following industry standard specifications:
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS API Standard 618 “Reciprocating Compressors for Petro-
leum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services.”
Reciprocating compressor ratings vary from fractional to
more than 40,000 hp per unit. In gas processing it would be ISO Standard 13631: 2002, “Petroleum and Natural Gas In-
unusual for units larger than 10,000 hp to be used. Pressures dustries — Packaged Reciprocating Compressors.”
range from low vacuum at suction to 30,000 psi and higher at
Low to moderate speed compressors, typically 300–700 rpm,
discharge for special process compressors.
have historically been used in refineries, chemical plants and
Reciprocating compressors are furnished either single-stage also can be used in gas plant service. They are normally driven
or multi-stage. The number of stages is determined by the over- by electric motors. These compressors are typically applied in
all compression ratio. The compression ratio per stage (and valve accordance with API Standard 618 “Reciprocating Compressors
life) is generally limited by the discharge temperature and usu- for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services.”
ally does not exceed 4, although small-sized units (intermittent
Moderate to high speed compressors, typically 600–1800
duty) are furnished with a compression ratio as high as 8.
rpm packaged separable compressors are used for field gas
Gas cylinders are generally lubricated, although a non-lu- compression, mid-stream compression, gas plant and mainline
bricated design is available when warranted; example: nitro- compression. These units are normally driven by gas engines
gen, oxygen, and instrument air. or electric motors. These compressors are typically applied in
accordance with ISO Standard 13631.

FIG. 13-2
Types of Compressors

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

A low speed “integral” compressor refers to a compressor of the gas in going from suction to discharge conditions. Years
driven by a gas engine where the power cylinders of the engine ago the capability of easily generating P-H diagrams for natural
that turn the crankshaft are in the same housing as the gas gases did not exist. The result was that many ways of estimat-
compression cylinders. (See Fig. 13-4). These compressors are ing the enthalpy change were developed. They were used as a
no longer manufactured but there are a number of them still crutch and not because they were the best way to evaluate com-
in operation in pipeline boosting service as well as inlet com- pression horsepower requirements.
pression service at field gas plants. Integral compressors were
designed to API 11 which is no longer supported by API. Today the engineer does have available, in many cases, the
capability to generate that part of the P-H diagram required for
Performance Calculations compression purposes. This is done using equations of state on
a computer. This still would be the best way to evaluate the
The engineer in the field is frequently required to: compression horsepower. The other methods are used only if
access to a good equation of state is not available.
1. determine the approximate horsepower required to com-
press a certain volume of gas from some intake condi- Section 13 continues to treat reciprocating and centrifugal
tions to a given discharge pressure, and machines as being different so far as estimation of horsepower
requirements is concerned. This treatment reflects industry
2. estimate the capacity of an existing compressor under
practice. The only difference in the horsepower evaluation is
specified suction and discharge conditions.
the efficiency of the machine. Otherwise the basic thermody-
The following text outlines procedures for making these cal- namic equations are the same for all compression.
culations from the standpoint of quick estimates and also pres-
The reciprocating compressor horsepower calculations pre-
ents more detailed calculations. For specific information on a
sented are based on charts. However, they may equally well
given compressor, consult the manufacturer of that unit.
be calculated using the equations in the centrifugal compressor
For a compression process, the enthalpy change is the best section, particularly Equations 13-25 through 13-43. This also
way of evaluating the work of compression. If a P-H diagram includes the mechanical losses in Equations 13-37 and 13-38.
is available (as for propane refrigeration systems), the work of
There are two ways in which the thermodynamic calcula-
compression would always be evaluated by the enthalpy change
tions for compression can be carried out — by assuming:

FIG. 13-3
Compressor Coverage Chart

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Commitment for life.
TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

1. isentropic reversible path — a process during which increases as it passes from suction to discharge in the compres-
there is no heat added to or removed from the system sor, k is normally determined at the average of suction and dis-
and the entropy remains constant, pvk = constant charge temperatures.
2. polytropic reversible path — a process in which changes For a multi-component gas, the mole weighted average value
in gas characteristics during compression are considered, of molar heat capacity must be determined at average cylinder
pvn = constant temperature. A sample calculation is shown in Fig. 13-7.
Fig. 13-5 shows a plot of pressure vs. volume for each value The calculation of pPc and pTc in Fig. 13-7 permits calcula-
of the above exponents. The work, W, performed in proceeding tion of the reduced pressure PR = P/pPc mix and reduced tem-
from p1 to p2 along any polytropic curve (Fig. 13-5) is perature TR = T/pTc mix. The compressibility Z at T and P can
2 p2 then be determined using the charts in Section 23.
W= 1 V dp = p1 V dp Eq 13-1
If only the molecular weight of the gas is known and not
The amount of work required is dependent upon the poly- its composition, an approximate value for k can be determined
tropic curve involved and increases with increasing values of from the curves in Fig. 13-8.
n. The path requiring the least amount of input work is n = 1,
which is equivalent to isothermal compression, a process dur- Estimating Compressor Horsepower
ing which there is no change in temperature. For isentropic
compression, the exponent used is k = ratio of specific heat at Equation 13-4 is useful for obtaining a quick and reasonable
constant pressure to that at constant volume. estimate for compressor horsepower. It was developed for large
slow-speed (300 to 450 rpm) compressors handling gases with
It is usually impractical to build sufficient heat-transfer a specific gravity of 0.65 and having stage compression ratios
equipment into the design of most compressors to carry away above 2.5.
the bulk of the heat of compression. Most machines tend to op-
erate along a polytropic path which approaches the isentropic. CAUTION: Compressor manufacturers generally rate their
Most compressor calculations are therefore based on an effi- machines based on a standard condition of 14.4 psia rather than
ciency applied to account for true behavior. the more common gas industry value of 14.7 psia.
A compression process following the outer curve in Fig. 13-5 Due to higher valve losses, the horsepower requirement
has been widely referred to in industry as “adiabatic”. However, for high-speed compressors (1000 rpm range, and some up to
all compression processes of practical importance are adiabatic. 1800 rpm) can be as much as 20% higher, although this is a
The term adiabatic does not adequately describe this process, very arbitrary value. Some compressor designs do not merit a
since it only implies no heat transfer. The ideal process also fol- higher horsepower allowance and the manufacturers should be
lows a path of constant entropy and should be called “isentropic,” consulted for specific applications.
as will be done subsequently in this chapter.
horsepower = (22)  stage 
Brake ratio
(# of stages) (MMcfd) (F)
Equation 13-3 which applies to all ideal gases can be used
to calculate k. Eq 13-4
Where:
MCp – MCv = R = 1.986 Btu/(lbmol °F ) Eq 13-2
MMcfd = Compressor capacity referred to 14.4 psia and in-
By rearrangement and substitution we obtain: take temperature
Cp MCp MCp F = 1.0 for single-stage compression
k= = = Eq 13-3 1.08 for two-stage compression
Cv MCv MCp – 1.986
1.10 for three-stage compression
To calculate k for a gas we need only know the constant
pressure molar heat capacity (MCp) for the gas. Fig. 13-6 gives Equation 13-4 will also provide a rough estimate of horse-
values of molecular weight and ideal-gas state heat capacity power for lower compression ratios and/or gases with a higher
(i.e. at 1 atm) for various gases. The heat capacity varies con- specific gravity, but it will tend to be on the high side. To al-
siderably with temperature. Since the temperature of the gas low for this the tendency is to use a multiplication factor of 20
instead of 22 for gases with a specific gravity in the 0.8 to 1.0

FIG. 13-4
Integral Engine Compressor FIG. 13-5
Compression Curves

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-6
Molar Heat Capacity MCp (Ideal-Gas State), Btu/(lb mol • °R)

*Data source: Selected Values of Properties of Hydrocarbons, API Research Project 44; MW updated to agree with Fig. 23-2
Chemical Temperature
Gas Mol wt
formula 0°F 50°F 60°F 100°F 150°F 200°F 250°F 300°F
Methane CH4 16.043 8.23 8.42 8.46 8.65 8.95 9.28 9.64 10.01
Ethyne (Acetylene) C2H2 26.038 9.68 10.22 10.33 10.71 11.15 11.55 11.90 12.22
Ethene (Ethylene) C2H4 28.054 9.33 10.02 10.16 10.72 11.41 12.09 12.76 13.41
Ethane C2H6 30.070 11.44 12.17 12.32 12.95 13.78 14.63 15.49 16.34

Propene (Propylene) C3H6 42.081 13.63 14.69 14.90 15.75 16.80 17.85 18.88 19.89
Propane C3H8 44.097 15.65 16.88 17.13 18.17 19.52 20.89 22.25 23.56

1-Butene (Butlyene) C4H8 56.108 17.96 19.59 19.91 21.18 22.74 24.26 25.73 27.16
cis-2-Butene C4H8 56.108 16.54 18.04 18.34 19.54 21.04 22.53 24.01 25.47
trans-2-Butene C4H8 56.108 18.84 20.23 20.50 21.61 23.00 24.37 25.73 27.07
iso-Butane C4H10 58.123 20.40 22.15 22.51 23.95 25.77 27.59 29.39 31.11
n-Butane C4H10 58.123 20.80 22.38 22.72 24.08 25.81 27.55 29.23 30.90

iso-Pentane C5H12 72.150 24.94 27.17 27.61 29.42 31.66 33.87 36.03 38.14
n-Pentane C5H12 72.150 25.64 27.61 28.02 29.71 31.86 33.99 36.08 38.13

Benzene C6H6 78.114 16.41 18.41 18.78 20.46 22.45 24.46 26.34 28.15
n-Hexane C6H14 86.177 30.17 32.78 33.30 35.37 37.93 40.45 42.94 45.36
n-Heptane C7H16 100.204 34.96 38.00 38.61 41.01 44.00 46.94 49.81 52.61

Ammonia NH3 17.0305 8.52 8.52 8.52 8.52 8.52 8.53 8.53 8.53
Air 28.9625 6.94 6.95 6.95 6.96 6.97 6.99 7.01 7.03
Water H2O 18.0153 7.98 8.00 8.01 8.03 8.07 8.12 8.17 8.23
Oxygen O2 31.9988 6.97 6.99 7.00 7.03 7.07 7.12 7.17 7.23
Nitrogen N2 28.0134 6.95 6.95 6.95 6.96 6.96 6.97 6.98 7.00
Hydrogen H2 2.0159 6.78 6.86 6.87 6.91 6.94 6.95 6.97 6.98
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.08 8.00 8.09 8.11 8.18 8.27 8.36 8.46 8.55
Carbon monoxide CO 28.010 6.95 6.96 6.96 6.96 6.97 6.99 7.01 7.03
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 8.38 8.70 8.76 9.00 9.29 9.56 9.81 10.05
* Exceptions: Air — Keenan and Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Air, Wiley, 3rd Printing 1947. Ammonia — Edw. R. Grabl, Thermodynamic Properties of Am-
monia at High Temperatures and Pressures, Petr. Processing, April 1953. Hydrogen Sulfide — J. R. West, Chem. Eng. Progress, 44, 287, 1948.

FIG. 13-7
Calculation of k

Determination of mix- Determination of MCp, Determination of pseudo critical pressure,

Example gas mixture
ture mol weight Molar heat capacity pPc, and temperature, pTc
Individual Individual
Mol Component Component
Component Component Compo- p
fraction critical pres- critical tem- c
name Mol weight nent MCp @ @ 150°F
y sure Pc psia perature Tc°R
MW 150°F*
methane 0.9216 16.04 14.782 8.95 8.248 666 615.6 343 316.1
ethane 0.0488 30.07 1.467 13.78 0.672 707 34.6 550 26.8
propane 0.0185 44.10 0.816 19.52 0.361 616 11.4 666 12.3
i-butane 0.0039 58.12 0.227 25.77 0.101 528 2.1 734 2.9
n-butane 0.0055 58.12 0.320 25.81 0.142 551 3.0 765 4.2
i-pentane 0.0017 72.15 0.123 31.66 0.054 490 0.8 829 1.4
Total 1.0000 MW = 17.735 MCp = 9.578 pPc = 667.5 pTc = 363.7
MCv = MCp – 1.986 = 7.592 k = MCp/MCv = 9.578/7.592 = 1.26
*For values of MCp other than @ 150°F, refer to Fig. 13-6

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-8 ing degrees. The degree in which any gas varies from the ideal
is expressed by a compressibility factor, Z, which modifies the
Approximate Heat-Capacity Ratios of Hydrocarbon Gases ideal gas equation:
PV = nRT Eq 13-5
to PV = nZRT Eq 13-6
Compressibility factors can be determined from charts in
Section 23 using the pPR and pTR of the gas mixture. For pure
components such as propane, compressibility factors can be de-
termined from the P-H diagrams, although the user would be
better advised to determine the compression horsepower using
the P-H diagram (see Section 24).
For the purpose of performance calculations, compressor
capacity is expressed as the actual volumetric quantity of gas
at the inlet to each stage of compression on a per minute basis
(ICFM).
From SCFM

 520   P1 ZL 
14.7 T1 Z1
Q = SCFM Eq 13-7

From weight flow (w, lb/min)

MW  P1 ZL 
10.73 wT1 Z1
Q=
Eq 13-8
From molar flow (Nm, mols/min)

   P1 ZL 
379.5 14.7 NmT1 Z1 Eq 13-9
Q=
520
From these equations, inlet volume to any stage may be
range; likewise, use a factor in the range of 16 to 18 for compres- calculated by using the inlet pressure P1 and temperature T1.
sion ratios between 1.5 and 2.0. Moisture should be handled just as any other component in the
gas.
Curves are available which permit easy estimation of ap-
proximate compression-horsepower requirements. Fig. 13-9 is In a reciprocating compressor, effective capacity may be
typical of these curves. calculated as the piston displacement (generally in cu ft/min)
multiplied by the volumetric efficiency.
Example 13-1 — Compress 2 MMcfd of gas at 14.4 psia and in-
take temperature through a compression ratio of 9 in a 2-stage The piston displacement is equal to the net piston area mul-
compressor. What will be the horsepower? tiplied by the length of piston sweep in a given period of time.
This displacement may be expressed:
Solution Steps
For a single-acting piston compressing on the outer end only,
(stroke) (N) (D2) Eq 13-10
From Equation 13-4 we find the brake horsepower to be: PD =
(4) (1728)
(22) (3) (2) (2) (1.08) = 285 BHP = 4.55 (10–4) (stroke) (N) (D2)
From Fig. 13-9, using a k of 1.15, we find the horsepower re- For a single-acting piston compressing on the crank end only,
quirement to be 136 BHP/MMcfd or 272 BHP. For a k of 1.4,
the power requirement would be 147 BHP/MMcfd or 294 total (stroke) (N) (D2 – d2) Eq 13-11
PD =
horsepower. (4) (1728)
The two procedures give reasonable agreement, particularly = 4.55 (10–4) (stroke) (N) (D2– d2)
considering the simplifying assumptions necessary in reducing
compressor horsepower calculations to such a simple procedure. For a double-acting piston (other than tail rod type),
(stroke) (N) (2 D2 – d2) Eq 13-12
Detailed Calculations PD =
(4) (1728)
There are many variables which enter into the precise calcu-
lation of compressor performance. Generalized data as given in = 4.55 (10–4) (stroke) (N) (2 D2– d2)
this section are based upon the averaging of many criteria. The
results obtained from these calculations, therefore, must be con-
Volumetric Efficiency
sidered as close approximations to true compressor performance. In a reciprocating compressor, the piston does not travel
completely to the end of the cylinder at the end of the discharge
Capacity stroke. Some clearance volume is necessary and it includes the
Most gases encountered in industrial compression do not space between the end of the piston and the cylinder head when
exactly follow the ideal gas equation of state but differ to vary-

13-7
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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-9
Approximate Horsepower Required to Compress Gases

the piston is at the end of its stroke. It also includes the volume Zs
 Zd 
in the valve ports, the volume in the suction valve guards, and VE = 100 – r – C (r1/k) – 1 Eq 13-14
the volume around the discharge valve seats.
Volumetric efficiencies as determined by Equation 13-14
Clearance volume is usually expressed as a percent of piston are theoretical in that they do not account for suction and dis-
displacement and referred to as percent clearance, or cylinder charge valve losses. The suction and discharge valves are actu-
clearance, C. ally spring-loaded check valves that permit flow in one direction
clearance volume, cu in. only. The valve springs require a small differential pressure to
C= (100) Eq 13-13 open. For this reason, the pressure within the cylinder at the
piston displacement, cu in. end of the suction stroke is lower than the line suction pressure
For double acting cylinders, the percent clearance is based and, likewise, the pressure at the end of the discharge stroke is
on the total clearance volume for both the head end and the higher than line discharge pressure.
crank end of a cylinder. These two clearance volumes are not One method for accounting for suction and discharge valve
the same due to the presence of the piston rod in the crank end losses is to reduce the volumetric efficiency by an arbitrary
of the cylinder. Sometimes additional clearance volume (exter- amount, typically 4%, thus modifying Equation 13-14 as fol-
nal) is intentionally added to reduce cylinder capacity. lows:
The term “volumetric efficiency” refers to the actual pump- Zs
 Zd 
ing capacity of a cylinder compared to the piston displacement. VE = 96 – r – C (r1/k) – 1 Eq 13-15
Without a clearance volume for the gas to expand and delay the
opening of the suction valve(s), the cylinder could deliver its When a non-lubricated compressor is used, the volumetric
entire piston displacement as gas capacity. The effect of the gas efficiency should be corrected by subtracting an additional 5%
contained in the clearance volume on the pumping capacity of a for slippage of gas. This is a capacity correction only and, as a
cylinder can be represented by:

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

first approximation, would not be considered when calculating The horsepower rating of a compressor frame is an indica-
compressor horsepower. The energy of compression is used by tor of the supporting structure and crankshaft to withstand the
the gas even though the gas slips by the rings and is not dis- torque (turning force) and the loads. Rod loads are established
charged from the cylinder. to limit the static and dynamic loads on the frame, crankshaft,
connecting rod, frame, crosshead, piston rod, bolting, and pro-
If the compressor is in propane, or similar heavy gas service, jected bearing surfaces.
an additional 4% should be subtracted from the volumetric ef-
ficiency. These deductions for non-lubricated and propane per- Rod loads are calculated differently based upon the compres-
formance are both approximate and, if both apply, cumulative. sor manufacturer. Some manufacturers use flange-to-flange
pressures
pressureswhile
whileothers
othersuse
useinternal
internalpressures
pressuresandandothers
othersmay
may
Volumetric efficiencies for “high speed” separable compres-
manufacturers use flange-to-flange
sesecombined
combined rod
rodloads
loads(gas
(gasload
loadplus
plusinertia
inertiaload).
load).
sors in the past have tended to be slightly lower than estimated
pressures and
from Equation 13-14. Recent information suggests that this Many manufacturers also require a load reversal of the load
modification is not necessary for all models of high speed com- at the crosshead pin. This load reversal is required so that lube
pressors. oil can lubricate and cool the crosshead pin and bushings.
In evaluating efficiency, horsepower, volumetric efficiency, Gas rod loadings may be calculated by the use of Equa-
etc., the user should consider past experience with different tions 13-19 and 13-20.
speeds and models. Larger valve area for a given swept volume
will generally lead to higher compression efficiencies. Load in compression = Pd Ap – Ps (Ap – Ar)
= (Pd – Ps) Ap + Ps Ar Eq 13-19
Equivalent Capacity
Load in tension = Pd (Ap – Ar) – Ps Ap
The net capacity for a compressor, in cubic feet per day @ = (Pd – Ps) Ap – Pd Ar Eq 13-20
14.4 psia and suction temperature, may be calculated by Equa-
tion 13-16a which is shown in dimensioned form:

MMcfd =
[
PD
ft3
min ]
1440
min
d
VE%
100 [ ] lb
Ps 2 10–6
in
MMft3
ft3
Z14.4
lb
14.4 2 Zs Eq 13-16a
in
which can be simplified to Equation 13-16b when Z14.4 is as-
sumed to equal 1.0.
PD VE Ps 10–6
MMcfd = Eq 13-16b
Zs
For example, a compressor with 200 cu ft/min piston dis- Using Equations 13-19 and 13-20, a plus value for the load
placement, a volumetric efficiency of 80%, a suction pressure of in both compression and tension indicates a reversal of loads
75 psia, and suction compressibility of 0.9 would have a capacity based on gas pressure only. Inertial effects will tend to increase
of 1.33 MMcfd at 14.4 psia. If compressibility is not used as a di- the degree of reversal.
visor in calculating cu ft/min, then the statement “not corrected
for compressibility” should be added.
In many instances the gas sales contract or regulation will
specify some other measurement standard for gas volume. To
convert volumes calculated using Equation 13-16 (i.e. at 14.4
psia and suction temperature) to a PL and TL basis, Equation
13-17 would be used:

 PL   T
 s   Z s  
14.4 TL ZL
MMscfd at PL, TL = (MMcfd from Eq 13-16)

    
Eq 13-17
Discharge Temperature The true rod loads would be those calculated using internal
The temperature of the gas discharged from the cylinder cylinder pressures after allowance for valve losses. Normally,
can be estimated from Equation 13-18, which is commonly used the operator will know only line pressures, and because of this,
but not recommended. (Note: the temperatures are in absolute manufacturers generally rate their compressors based on line-
units, °R or K.) Equation 13-32 gives better results. pressure calculations.
Td = Ts (r(k –1)/k) Eq 13-18 A further refinement in the rod-loading calculation would be
to include inertial forces. While the manufacturer may consider
The discharge temperature determined from Equation 13- inertial forces when rating compressors, useful data on this
18 is the theoretical value. It neglects heat from friction, irre- point is seldom available in the field. Except in special cases,
versibility effects, etc., and is therefore too low, inertial forces are ignored.
Rod Loading A tail-rod cylinder would require consideration of rod cross-
section area on both sides of the piston instead of on only one
Each compressor frame has definite limitations as to maximum side of the piston, as in Equations 13-19 and 13-20.
load-carrying capacity. The load-carrying of a compressor involves
two primary considerations: rod loading and horsepower.

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

2. 100 psia x 3 = 300 psia (1st stage discharge pressure).

Suction pressure to second stage is given by
300 psia – 5 = 295 psia
Where the 5 psi represents the pressure drop between
first stage discharge and second stage suction.
900 psia
= 3.05 (compression ratio for 2nd stage)
295 psia
Detailed Horsepower Calculation It may be desirable to recalculate the interstage pres-
A more detailed calculation of reciprocating compressor sure to balance the ratios. For this sample problem,
power requirements can be performed using the following equa- however, the first ratios determined will be used.
tion: 3. From Fig. 13-8 a gas with specific gravity of 0.8 at
PL 150°F would have an approximate k of 1.21. For most
 TL
BHP/stage = 3.03 Zavg [QgTs/E] (k/(k-1)) compression applications, the 150°F curve will be ad-
equate. This should be checked after determining the
[(Pd/Ps)((k–1)/k)–1] Eq 13-21 average cylinder temperature.
The total horsepower for the compressor is the sum of the 4. Discharge temperature for the 1st stage may be obtained
horsepower required for each of the stages that are utilized. For by using Fig. 13-32 or solving Equation 13-18. For a
multistage machines an allowance should be made for the in- compression ratio of 3, discharge temperature = approxi-
terstage pressure drop associated with piping, cooler, scrubber, mately 220°F. Average cylinder temperature = 160°F.
etc., typically 5–10 psi.
5. In the same manner, discharge temperature for the
Procedure
second stage (with r = 3.05 and assuming interstage
1. Calculate overall compression ratio (rt = Pdfinal/Ps). cooling to 120°F) equals approximately 244°F. Average
cylinder temperature = 182°F.
2. Calculate the compression ratio per stage, r, by taking
the s root of rt, where s is the number of compression 6. From the physical properties section (Section 23), es-
stages. The number of stages, s, should be increased timate the compressibility factors at suction and dis-
until the ratio per stage, r, is < ~ 4. This should gener- charge pressure and temperature of each stage.
ally result in stage discharge temperatures of < 300°F
depending on the interstage cooler outlet temperature 1st stage: Zs = 0.98
assumed. Zd = 0.97
3. Multiplying r by the absolute suction pressure of the Zavg = 0.975
stage being considered will give you discharge pressure
of the stage.
4. Calculate the horsepower required for the stage using 2nd stage: Zs = 0.94
Equation 13-21.
Zd = 0.92
5. Subtr ac t the assumed interstage pressure loss from Zavg = 0.93
the discharge pressure of the preceding stage to obtain
the suction pressure for the next stage.
7. Calculate the horsepower required for the first and sec-
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all stages have been calcu- ond stages from Equation 13-21:
lated.
7. Sum the stage horsepowers to obtain the total compres- BHP for 1st stage = 3.03 (0.975) [2 560/0.82]
sor power required.
 520 
14.65
[1.21/(1.21 – 1)] [(300/100)((1.21 – 1)/1.21) – 1]
= 137.6
Example 13-2 — Compress 2 MMscfd of gas measured at 14.65
psia and 60°F. Intake pressure is 100 psia, and intake tempera-
BHP for 2nd stage = 3.03 (0.93) [2 580/0.82]
ture is 100°F. Discharge pressure is 900 psia. The gas has a
 520 
specific gravity of 0.80 (23 MW). What is the required brake 14.65
[1.21/(1.21 – 1)] [(900/295)((1.21 – 1)/1.21) – 1]
horsepower, assuming a high speed compressor? = 138.2
Assume E = 0.82
Total BHP required = 137.6 + 138.2 = 275.8
1. Compression ratio is
900 psia Note that in Example 13-1 the same conditions result in a
=9 compression power of 285 BHP which is close agreement.
100 psia
This would be a two-stage compressor; therefore, the ratio

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Limits to compression ratio per stage — The maximum to either form or line the pressure wall. There are two types.
ratio of compression permissible in one stage is usually limited The wet liner forms the pressure wall as well as the inside wall
by the discharge temperature or by rod loading. of the water jacket. The dry type lines the cylinder wall and is
not required to add strength.
When handling gases containing oxygen, which could sup-
port combustion, there is a possibility of fire and explosion be- Standard cylinder liners are cast iron. If cylinders are re-
cause of the oil vapors present. quired to have special corrosion or wear resistance, other mate-
rials or special alloys may be needed.
To reduce carbonization of the oil and the danger of fires, a
safe operating limit may be considered to be approximately 300°F. Most compressors use oils to lubricate the cylinder with a
Where no oxygen is present in the gas stream, temperatures of mechanical, force-feed lubricator having one or more feeds to
350°F may be considered as the maximum, even though mechan- each cylinder.
ical or process requirements usually dictate a lower figure.
The non-lubricated compressor has found wide application
Packing life may be significantly shortened by the dual re- where it is desirable or essential to compress air or gas without
quirement to seal both high pressure and high temperature contaminating it with lubricating oil.
gases. For this reason, at higher discharge pressures, a tem-
perature closer to 250°F or 275°F may be the practical limit. For such cases a number of manufacturers furnish a “non-
lubricated” cylinder (Fig. 13-13). Non-metallic packing seal
In summary, and for most field applications, the use of rings of a type that requires no lubricant is used on the stuffing
300°F maximum would be a good average. Recognition of the box. Although oilwiper rings are used on the piston rod where
above variables is, however, still useful. it leaves the compressor frame, minute quantities of oil might
conceivably enter the cylinder on the rod. Where even such
Economic considerations are also involved because a high small amounts of oil are objectionable, an extended cylinder
ratio of compression will mean a low volumetric efficiency and connecting piece can be furnished. This simply lengthens the
require a larger cylinder to produce the same capacity. For this
piston rod so that no lubricated portion of the rod enters the
reason a high rod loading may result and require a heavier and
more expensive frame. cylinder.

Where multi-stage operation is involved, equal ratios of com- A small amount of gas leaking through the packing can be
pression per stage are used (plus an allowance for piping and objectionable. Special distance pieces are furnished between
cooler losses if necessary) unless otherwise required by process the cylinder and frame, which may be either single-compart-
design. For two stages of compression the ratio per stage would ment or double-compartment. These may be furnished gas tight
approximately equal the square root of the total compression and vented back to the suction, or may be filled with a sealing
ratio; for three stages, the cube root, etc. In practice, especially gas or fluid and held under a slight pressure, or simply vented.
in high-pressure work, decreasing the compression ratio in the Compressor valves for non-lubricated service operate in an
higher stages to reduce excessive rod loading may prove to be environment that has no lubricant in the gas or in the cylinder.
advantageous. Therefore, the selection of valve materials is important to pre-
vent excessive wear.
Cylinder Design
Piston rod packing universally used in non-lubricated com-
Depending on the size of the machine and the number of pressors is of the full-floating mechanical type, consisting of a
stages, reciprocating compressors are furnished with cylinders case containing pairs of non-metallic rings of conventional de-
fitted with either single- or double-acting pistons, see examples sign.
in Figs. 13-10 through 13-12.
When handling oxygen and other gases such as nitrogen
In the same units, double-acting pistons are commonly used and helium, it is absolutely necessary that all traces of hydro-
in the first stages and occasionally single-acting in the higher carbons in cylinders be removed. With oxygen, this is required
stages of compression. for safety, with other gases to prevent system contamination.
Cylinder materials are normally selected for strength; how-
ever, thermal shock, mechanical shock, or corrosion resistance High-pressure compressors with discharge pressures from
may also be a determining factor. The table below shows dis- 5,000 to 30,000 psi usually require special design and a com-
charge pressure limits generally used in the gas industry for plete knowledge of the characteristics of the gas.
cylinder material selection.
As a rule, inlet and discharge gas pipe connections on the
Cylinder Material Discharge Pressure (psig) cylinder are fitted with flanges of the same rating for the fol-
Cast Iron up to 1,200 lowing reasons:
Nodular Iron about 2,500 Practicality and uniformity of casting and machinery,
Cast Steel 1,200 to 3,000 Hydrostatic test, usually at 150% design pressure,
Forged Steel above 2,500 Suction pulsation bottles are usually designed for the
same pressure as the discharge bottle (often federal,
state, or local government regulation).
API standard 618 recommends 1000 psig as the maximum
pressure for both cast iron and nodular iron. Reciprocating Compressor Control Devices
Cylinders are designed both as a solid body (no liner) and Output of compressors must be controlled (regulated) to
with liners. Cylinder liners are inserted into the cylinder body match system demand.

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-10
Low Pressure Cylinder with Double-Acting Piston

FIG. 13-11 FIG. 13-12

High Pressure Cylinder with Double-Acting Single-Acting Plunger Cylinder Designed for
Piston and Tail-Rod 15,000 psig Discharge

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Automatic-start-and-stop control, as its name implies, stops

FIG. 13-13
or starts the compressor by means of a pressure-actuated switch
Piston Equipped with Teflon ® Piston and Wear Rings for as the gas demand varies. It should be used only when the de-
a Single-acting Non-Lubricated Cylinder mand for gas will be intermittent.
Constant-speed control permits the compressor to operate at
full speed continuously, but loaded part of the time and fully or
partially unloaded at other times. Two methods of unloading the
compressor with this type of control are in common use: inlet-
valve unloaders, and clearance unloaders. Inlet-valve unloaders
(Fig. 13-14) operate to hold the compressor inlet valves open and
thereby prevent compression. Clearance unloaders (Fig. 13-15)
consist of pockets or small reservoirs which are opened when
unloading is desired. The gas is compressed into them on the
compression stroke and expands back into the cylinder on the
return stroke, reducing the intake of additional gas.
Motor-driven reciprocating compressors above 100 hp in size
are usually equipped with a step control. This is in reality a
variation of constant-speed control in which unloading is ac-
complished in a series of steps, varying from full load down to
no load.
Five-step control (full load, three-quarter load, one-half
load, one-quarter load, and no load) is accomplished by means
of clearance pockets. On some makes of machines inlet-valve
and clearance control unloading are used in combination.

In many installations some means of controlling the output A common practice in the natural gas industry is to prepare
of the compressor is necessary. Often constant flow or a spe- a single set of curves for a given machine unless there are side
cific power is required despite variations in operating condi- loads or it is a multi-service machine.
tions. Compressor capacity, speed, or pressure may be varied Fig. 13-16 shows indicator cards which demonstrate the un-
in accordance with the requirements. The nature of the control loading operation for a double acting cylinder at three capacity
device will depend on the regulating variable — whether pres- points. The letters adjacent to the low-pressure diagrams rep-
sure, flow, temperature, or some other variable — and on type resent the unloading influence of the respective and cumula-
of compressor driver. tive effect of the various pockets as identified in Fig. 13-15. Full
Unloading for Starting — Practically all reciprocating load, one-half, and no load capacity (used for start-up only) is
compressors must be unloaded to some degree before start- obtained by holding corresponding suction valves open or add-
ing so that the driver torque available during acceleration is ing sufficient clearance to produce a zero volumetric efficiency.
not exceeded. Both manual and automatic compressor startup Zero-capacity operation includes holding all suction valves
unloading is used. Common methods of unloading include: dis- open.
charge venting, discharge to suction bypass, and holding open Fig. 13-17 shows an alternative representation of compres-
the inlet valves using valve lifters. sor unloading operation with a step-control using fixed volume
Capacity Control — Capacity control is required to either clearance pockets. The curve illustrates the relationship be-
regulate capacity or maintain the compressor load within the tween compressor capacity and driver capacity for a varying
driver rating. Capacity control devices/unloading devices can be compressor suction pressure at a constant discharge pressure
manually actuated or actuated by air or gas pressure depend- and constant speed. The driver can be a gas engine or electric
motor.
ing on their design. A falling pressure indicates that gas is
being used faster than it is being compressed and that more gas The purpose of this curve is to determine what steps of un-
is required. A rising pressure indicates that more gas is being loading are required to prevent the driver and piston rods from
compressed than is being used downstream and that less gas serious overloading. All lines are plotted for a single stage com-
is required. pressor.
A common method of controlling the capacity of a compres- The driver capacity line indicates the maximum allowable
sor is to vary the speed. This method is applicable to variable capacity for a given horsepower. The cylinder capacity lines
frequency drive (VFD) electric motor driven compressors and to represent the range of pressures calculated with all possible
units driven by internal combustion engines. In these cases the combinations of pockets open, as necessary, to cover the capac-
regulator actuates the VFD controller or fuel-admission valve ity of the driver.
on the compressor driver to control the speed.
Starting at the end (line 0-0) with full cylinder capacity, the
Electric motor-driven compressors usually operate at con- line is traced until it crosses the driver capacity line at which
stant speed, although variable speed drives are becoming in- point it is dropped to the next largest cylinder capacity and fol-
creasingly more common. For constant speed motors other low until it crosses the driver line, etc. This will produce a “saw
methods of controlling the capacity are necessary. On recipro- tooth” effect, hence the name “saw tooth” curve. The number of
cating compressors up to about 100 hp, two types of control are “teeth” depends upon the number of combinations of pockets
usually available. These are automatic-start-and-stop control (opened or closed) required for unloading. If suction valves were
and constant-speed control. also unloaded then there would be more “teeth” on the curve.

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

The same method is followed for multi-stage units. For each There are several types of pulsation chambers. The simplest
additional stage another “saw tooth” curve must be constructed, one is a volume bottle, or a surge drum, which is a pressure ves-
i.e., for a two stage application, two curves are required to at- sel, unbaffled internally and mounted on or very near a cylinder
tain the final results. inlet or outlet.
Although control devices are often automatically operated,
manual operation is satisfactory for many services. Where
manual operation is provided, it often consists of a valve, or
valves, to open and close clearance pockets. In some cases, a
movable cylinder head is provided for variable clearance in the
cylinder (Fig. 13-18). FIG. 13-16

Gas Pulsation Control Indicator Diagram for Three Load Points of Operation

Pulsation is inherent in reciprocating compressors because

suction and discharge valves are open during only part of the
due to overshoot & undershoot
stroke.
Pulsation must be damped (minimized) in order to:
a. provide smooth flow of gas to and from the compressor,
Undershoot
b. prevent overloading or underloading of the compressors,
and
c. reduce overall vibration.

FIG. 13-14
Inlet Valve Unloader

and all suction valves unloaded during start-up only

FIG. 13-17
“Saw Tooth” Curve for Unloading Operation

FIG. 13-15
Pneumatic Actuated Valves Controlling Four Fixed
Pockets in Compressor for Five-Step Control
Capacity at Standard Conditions

Constant Discharge
Pressure and Speed

A A/B A/B/C A/B/C/D

open open open open

Note: No suction valves are unloaded

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

A manifold joining the inlet and discharge connections of cyl- At 600 psi inlet pressure, the suction bottle multiplier is ap-
inders operating in parallel can also serve as a volume bottle. proximately 7.5. Suction-bottle volume = (7.5) (424) = 3,180 cu in.
Performance of volume bottles is not normally guaranteed NOTE: When more than one cylinder is connected to a bottle,
without an analysis of the piping system from the compressor the sum of the individual swept volumes is the size required for
to the first process vessel. the common bottle.
Volume bottles are sized empirically to provide an adequate For more accurate sizing, compressor manufacturers can be
volume to absorb most of the pulsation. Several industry meth- consulted. Organizations which provide designs and/or equip-
ods were tried in an effort to produce a reasonable rule-of- ment for gas-pulsation control are also available.
thumb for their sizing. Fig. 13-19 may be used for approximate
bottle sizing. Having determined the necessary volume of the bottle, the
proportioning of diameter and length to provide this volume re-
Example 13-3 quires some ingenuity and judgment. It is desirable that mani-
folds be as short and of as large diameter as is consistent with
Indicated suction pressure = 600 psia pressure conditions, space limitations, and appearance.
Indicated discharge pressure = 1400 psia A good general rule is to make the manifold diameter 1-1/2
Cylinder bore = 6 in times the inside diameter of the largest cylinder connected to
it, but this is not always practicable, particularly where large
Cylinder stroke = 15 in cylinders are involved.
2
/4) (15) = 424 cu in Inside diameter of pipe must be used in figuring manifolds.
From Fig. 13-19: This is particularly important in high-pressure work and in
small sizes where wall thickness may be a considerable per-
centage of the cross sectional area. Minimum manifold length is

FIG. 13-18
Sectional View of a Cylinder Equipped with a Hand-Operated Valve Lifter and Variable-Volume Clearance

FIG. 13-19
Approximate Bottle Sizing Chart

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

determined from cylinder center distances and connecting pipe Torsional Analysis
diameters. Some additions must be made to the minimum thus
determined to allow for saddle reinforcements and for welding All rotating equipment experiences a torsional load. Exam-
of caps. ples of torsional loads are:

It is customary to close the ends of manifolds with welding inertia and gas loads from the pistons in a reciprocating
caps which add both volume and length. Fig. 13-20 gives ap- compressor or engine; or
proximate volume and length of standard caps. the torque fluctuations from a synchronous motor during
startup.
Pulsation Dampeners (Snubbers)
A complete drive train (for example reciprocating compres-
A pulsation dampener is an internally-baffled device. The sor, coupling, and an electric motor) will have torsional natural
design of the pulsation dampening equipment is based on an frequencies. Those torsional natural frequencies are analogous
acoustical study which takes into account the specified operat- to mechanical natural frequencies of piping or the compressor
ing speed range, conditions of unloading, and variations in gas shaft. For the mechanical natural frequency, the deflection oc-
composition. curs in a horizontal or vertical direction. For a torsional natu-
Analog evaluation is accomplished with an active analog ral frequency, the deflection is a twisting about the axis of the
that simulates the entire compressor, pulsation dampeners, shaft. Consider fixing one end of a shaft and twisting the free
piping and equipment system and considers dynamic interac- end; when released the shaft will rotate back and forth. The
tions among these elements. frequency of the oscillation is the torsional natural frequency.
Pulsation dampeners also should be mounted as close as When the system is started and the compressor is loaded
possible to the cylinder, and in large volume units, nozzles what is the impact? Typically the torsional loads will happen
should be located near the center of the chamber to reduce un- at run speed and harmonics. If a torsional natural frequency
balanced forces. occurs near a frequency where there is significant torsional
energy, the results can be catastrophic! Destroyed coupling,
Pulsation dampeners are typically guaranteed for a maxi- broken compressor shaft or broken motor shaft are potential
mum residual peak-to-peak pulsation pressure of 2% of average consequences of torsional resonance. The cost of repair can be
absolute pressure at the point of connection to the piping sys- large, but the downtime and cost of having the unit unavailable
tem, and pressure drop through the equipment of not more than for 1-2 months is often much larger.
1% of the absolute pressure. This applies at design condition
and not necessarily for other operating pressures and flows. A A torsional failure will typically occur without warning. The
detailed discussion of recommended design approaches for pul- vibration sensors installed at bearings or on component frames
sation suppression devices is presented in API Standard 618, are designed to detect lateral (horizontal or vertical) vibra-
Reciprocating Compressors for General Refinery Services. tions, and will not detect torsional problems. The best insur-
ance against a torsional failure is a design study before a unit
As pressure vessels, all pulsation chambers (volume bottles is built.
and dampeners) are generally built to Section VIII of ASME
Code and suitable for applicable cylinder relief valve set pres- A design study will consider each component and the role
sure. it plays in the torsional system. Manufacturing tolerances,
installation differences, and loading all play a critical part in
Suction pulsation chambers are often designed for the same the system’s ability to operate without failure. As well as the
pressure as the discharge units, or for a minimum of 2/3 of the normal operating loads, the torsional analysis should consider
design discharge pressure. the loads of other operating scenarios, such as compressor valve
failures (upset) or the unit startup (transient).

FIG. 13-20
Welding Caps

Standard weight Extra strong Double Extra strong

Pipe size
Volume, cu in. Length, in. Volume, cu in. Length, in. Volume, cu in. Length, in.
1 1
4" 24.2 2 20.0 2 2 15 3
6" 77.3 31 2 65.7 31 2 48 4
8" 148.5 411 16 122.3 411 16 120 5
10" 295.6 53 4 264.4 53 4
12" 517.0 67 8 475.0 67 8
13
14" 684.6 7 16 640.0 713 16
16" 967.6 9 911.0 9
1
18" 1432.6 10 16 1363.0 101 16
1
20" 2026.4 11 4 1938.0 111 4
7
24" 3451.0 13 16 3313.0 137 16

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

With early involvement by designers, the system can be Fig. 13-22 efficiency values should be used as a reference
modified. Changing the coupling size or style, adding a fly- only. The efficiencies of centrifugal compressors rely on the abil-
wheel, changing shaft material or size are all easily done if the ity to select optimized impeller flow coefficients for the specified
components have not been built. Modifications to a system that process conditions, and will deteriorate for non-optimal impel-
is already built can be expensive and may require re-design. If ler flow coefficients and high compression ratios or compressors
this occurs, delivery of the unit will be delayed. with more than 4–5 impellers.
Torsional design analyses should be done on all new units These efficiencies reflect compressor designs after say 1998;
unless there is successful operating experience with a similarly in general earlier designs could be 4% lower in efficiency.
configured compressor (the same compressor frame, cylinders,
staging, coupling and driver) and similar operating conditions Most centrifugal compressors operate at speeds of 3,000 rpm
(the same pressures, temperatures and load steps). Considera- or higher, a limiting factor being impeller stress considerations
tion should be given to doing a torsional analysis on existing as well as velocity limitation of 0.8 to 0.85 Mach number at the
units where the operating conditions will be changed signifi- impeller tip and eye. Recent advances in machine design have
cantly from the existing conditions, and especially if the unit is resulted in production of some units running at speeds in excess
being restaged. of 40,000 rpm.
Centrifugal compressors are usually driven by electric mo-
Troubleshooting tors, steam or gas turbines (with or without speed-increasing
Minor troubles can normally be expected at various times dur- gears), or turboexpanders.
ing routine operation of the compressor. These troubles are most There is an overlap of centrifugal and reciprocating compres-
often traced to dirt, liquid, and maladjustment, or to operating sors on the low end of the flow range, see Fig. 13-3. On the higher
personnel being unfamiliar with functions of the various machine end of the flow range an overlap with the axial compressor exists.
parts and systems. Difficulties of this type can usually be cor- The extent of this overlap depends on a number of things. Before
rected by cleaning, proper adjustment, elimination of an adverse a technical decision could be reached as to the type of compressor
condition, or quick replacement of a relatively minor part. that would be installed, the service, operational requirements,
Major trouble can usually be traced to long periods of opera- and economics would have to be considered.
tion with unsuitable coolant or lubrication, careless operation Design requirements for centrifugal compressors are cov-
and inadequate maintenance, or the use of the machine on a ered by API Standard 617.
service for which it was not intended.
Components of Centrifugal Compressors
A defective inlet valve can generally be found by feeling the
valve cover. It will be much warmer than normal. Discharge Figs. 13-23 through 13-25 provide cross sectional drawings
valve leakage is not as easy to detect since the discharge is al- and identification of major components for typical centrifugal
ways hot. Experienced operators of water-cooled units can usu- compressors. The essential components of a centrifugal com-
ally tell by feel if a particular valve is leaking. The best indica- pressor that accomplish the compression task are described in
tion of discharge valve trouble is the discharge temperature. the following text referring to Figure 13-24. The gas entering
This will rise, sometimes rapidly, when a valve is in poor condi- the inlet nozzle of the compressor is guided (often with the help
tion or breaks. This is one very good reason for keeping a record of guide vanes) to the inlet of the impeller. An impeller consists
of the discharge temperature from each cylinder. of a number of rotating vanes that impart mechanical energy
to the gas. As we will see later, the gas will leave the impeller
Recording of the interstage pressure on multistage units is with an increased velocity and increased static pressure. In the
valuable because any variation, when operating at a given load diffuser, part of the velocity is converted into static pressure.
point, indicates trouble in one or the other of the two stages. If Diffusers can be vaneless or contain a number of vanes. If the
the pressure drops, the trouble is in the low pressure cylinder. compressor has more than one impeller, the gas will be again
If it rises, the problem is in the high pressure cylinder. brought in front of the next impeller through the return chan-
nel and the return vanes. If the compressor has only one impel-
Troubleshooting is largely a matter of elimination based on ler, or after the diffuser of the last impeller in a multi stage
a thorough knowledge of the interrelated functions of the vari- compressor, the gas enters the discharge system. The discharge
ous parts and the effects of adverse conditions. A complete list system can either make use of a volute, which can further con-
of possible troubles with their causes and corrections is imprac- vert velocity into static pressure, or a simple cavity that collects
tical, but the following list of the more frequently encountered the gas before it exits the compressor through the discharge
troubles and their causes is offered as a guide (Fig. 13-21). nozzle.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS The rotating part of the compressor consists of all the impel-
lers. This rotor runs on two radial bearings (on all modern com-
This section is intended to supply information sufficiently pressors, these are hydrodynamic tilting pad bearings), while
accurate to determine whether a centrifugal compressor should the axial thrust generated by the impellers is balanced by a
be considered for a specific job. The secondary objective is to balance piston, and the resulting force is balanced by a hydro-
present information for evaluating compressor performance. dynamic tilting pad thrust bearing.
Fig. 13-22 gives an approximate idea of the flow range that To keep the gas from escaping at the shaft ends, dry gas seals
a centrifugal compressor will handle. A multi-wheel (multi- are typically used on both shaft ends. Other seal types have been
stage) centrifugal compressor is normally considered for inlet used in the past, but virtually all modern centrifugal compres-
volumes between 500 and 200,000 inlet acfm. A single-wheel sors used in the oil and gas industry use dry gas seals. Refer to
(single stage) compressor would normally have application be- the Dry Gas Seals discussion for additional information.
tween 100 and 150,000 inlet volume. A multiwheel compressor
can be thought of as a series of single wheel compressors con-
tained in a single casing.

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

The entire assembly is contained in a casing. For discharge The centrifugal compressor approximates the constant head-
pressures below about 3400 kPa (500 psi), the casing is horizon- variable volume machine, while the reciprocating is a constant
tally split to allow the installation of the rotating components. volume-variable head machine. The axial compressor, which
For higher pressures, the compressors are usually of the barrel is a low head, high flow machine, falls somewhere in between.
type. The pressure containing casing, consists of a center body A compressor is a part of the system, and its performance is
with end caps on either end. Bearings, seals, shaft and aerody- dictated by the system resistance. The desired system capabil-
namic components (both rotating and stationary) can slide in ity or objective must be determined before a compressor can be
and out of the center body once one of the endcaps is removed selected.
(Fig 13-25).
Fig. 13-27 is a typical performance map which shows the
Performance Calculations basic shape of performance curves for a variable-speed centrifu-
gal compressor. The curves are affected by many variables, such
The operating characteristics must be determined before an as desired compression ratio, type of gas, number of wheels, siz-
evaluation of compressor suitability for the application can be ing of compressor, etc.
made. Fig. 13-26 gives a rough comparison of the characteris-
tics of the axial, centrifugal, and reciprocating compressor.

FIG. 13-21
Probable Causes of Reciprocating Compressor Trouble

Trouble Probable Cause(s) Trouble Probable Cause(s)

1. Power supply failure. 1. Lubrication failure.
Compressor Will 2. Switchgear or starting panel. Packing Over- 2. Improper lube oil and/or insufficient
not Start 3. Low oil pressure shutdown switch. Heating lube rate.
4. Control panel. 3. Insufficient cooling.
1. Low voltage. 1. Excessive lube oil.
Motor Will Not 2. Excessive starting torque. 3. Oil carryover from inlet system or
Synchronize 3. Incorrect power factor. previous stage.
Excessive Carbon
4. Excitation voltage failure. 4. Broken or leaking valves causing high
On Valves
temperature.
1. Oil pump failure.
5. Excessive temperature due to high
2. Oil foaming from counterweights
pressure ratio across cylinders.
striking oil surface.
3. Cold oil. 1. Faulty relief valve.
4. Dirty oil filter. 2. Leaking suction valves or rings on next
Relief Valve
5. Interior frame oil leaks. higher stage.
Popping
6. Excessive leakage at bearing shim tabs 3. Obstruction (foreign material, rags),
Low Oil Pressure
and/or bearings. blind or valve closed in discharge line.
7. Improper low oil-pressure switch setting. 1. Excessive compression ratio on cylinder
8. Low gear oil pump by-pass/relief valve due to leaking inlet valves or rings on
setting. next higher stage.
9. Defective pressure gauge. High Discharge 2. Fouled intercooler/piping.
10. Plugged oil sump strainer. Temperature 3. Leaking discharge valves or piston rings.
11. Defective oil relief valve. 4. High inlet temperature.
1. Loose piston. 5. Fouled water jackets on cylinder.
2. Piston hitting outer head or frame end 6. Improper lube oil and/or lube rate.
of cylinder. 1. Loose crosshead pin, pin caps or
3. Loose crosshead lock nut. crosshead shoes.
Noise In Cylinder 4. Broken or leaking valve(s). 2. Loose/worn main, crankpin or crosshead
5. Worn or broken piston rings or expanders. bearings.
6. Valve improperly seated/damaged seat Frame Knocks
3. Low oil pressure.
gasket. 4. Cold oil.
7. Free air unloader plunger chattering. 5. Incorrect oil.
1. Worn packing rings. 6. Knock is actually from cylinder end.
2. Improper lube oil and/or insufficient Crankshaft Oil 1. Faulty seal installation.
lube rate (blue rings). Seal Leaks 2. Clogged drain hole.
3. Dirt in packing.
Excessive 1. Worn scraper rings.
4. Excessive rate of pressure increase.
Packing Piston Rod Oil 2. Scrapers incorrectly assembled.
5. Packing rings assembled incorrectly.
Leakage Scraper Leaks 3. Worn/scored rod.
6. Improper ring side- or end-gap clearance.
7. Plugged packing vent system. 4. Improper fit of rings to rod/side clearance.
8. Scored piston rod.
9. Excessive piston rod run-out. Courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 61

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-22 With variable speed, the centrifugal compressor can deliver
constant capacity at variable pressure, variable capacity at con-
Approximate Centrifugal Compressor Flow Range stant pressure, or a combination variable capacity and variable
pressure.
Nominal flow Average Average Speed to
range polytropic isentropic develop 10,000 Similarity Law (Fan Law)
(inlet acfm) efficiency efficiency ft head/wheel
Under certain simplifying conditions, operating points of
100- 500 0.68 0.65 20,500 a compressor at different speeds can be compared (Kurz and
500- 7,500 0.78 0.76 10,500 Ohanian, 2003). This fact is captured in the fan law, which is
strictly only true for identical Mach numbers in all stages, but
7,500- 20,000 0.84 0.81 8,200
which is still a good approximation for cases where the machine
20,000- 33,000 0.84 0.81 6,500 Mach number:
33,000- 55,000 0.84 0.81 4,900 u
MN = Eq 13-22
55,000- 80,000 0.84 0.81 4,300 k1Z1RT1
80,000-115,000 0.84 0.81 3,600 changes by less than 10% (for single and two stage compres-
115,000-145,000 0.84 0.81 2,800 sors). The more stages the compressor has, the less deviation is
145,000-200,000 0.84 0.81 2,500 acceptable (Kurz and Fozi, 2002). The fan law is based on the
fact that if for two operating points A and B all velocities change
by the same factor (which in particular means that none of the
flow angles change), then the compressor will show the follow-

FIG. 13-23
Example Centrifugal Compressor Showing Nomenclature of Key Parts

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Engineering and Service.

siadmi.com
TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

ing relations between two different operating points : system, such as pipeline application where pressure increases
with capacity.
QA QB Eq 13-23a
= Fig. 13-28 shows a higher compression ratio. The range of
NA NB
stable operation is reduced because of the larger compression
HisA HisB Eq 13-23b ratio. This is indicated by the surge line in Fig. 13-28 being fur-
= ther to the right than in Fig. 13-27.
NA2 NB2
A = B Estimating Performance
and therefore Figs. 13-29 through 13-36 may be used for estimating com-
pressor performance. These curves are only suitable for estimat-
GHPA GHPB Eq 13-24
= ing only and are not intended to take the place of a “wheel-by-
NA3 NB3 wheel” selection by the compressor manufacturer, nor should
This does not imply that the system within which the com- the curves be used to calculate performance using field data in
pressor operates will force the compressor to operate along the an attempt to determine a variance from predicted performance
fan line. In general, the system will enforce a head and flow based on manufacturer’s data. Fig. 13-29 is used to convert scfm
relationship that is not (at least not exactly) following the fan to icfm. All centrifugal compressors are based on flows that are
law. The intersection of the new resulting system pressure (not converted to inlet or actual cubic feet per minute. This is done
described by the fan law), and the new operating condition of because the centrifugal wheel is sensitive to inlet volume, com-
the compressor (as described by the fan law) sets the new oper- pression ratio (i.e., head), and specific speed.
ating condition of the system. Fig. 13-30 is a useful curve to find inlet (actual) cfm when
Fig. 13-27 depicts typical performance curves with a small the weight flow in lb/min is known. Actual cfm and inlet cfm
compression ratio. The system resistance has been superim- both denote the gas at suction conditions. These terms are of-
posed on the chart: Line A represents typical system resistance ten used interchangeably. This curve can be used in reverse to
of a closed system, such as a refrigeration unit where there is determine mass flow.
a relatively constant discharge pressure. Line B is an open-end

FIG. 13-24
Typical Centrifugal Compressor Cutaway

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Fig. 13-31 is used to determine the approximate discharge Find: Discharge temperature
temperature that is produced by the compression ratio. Dis-
charge temperatures above the 400°F range should be checked Answer: t2 = 230°F (approximately) from Fig. 13-31.
since mechanical problems as well as safety problems may ex- Note: for a natural gas with k = 1.30 t2 = 480°F (excessively
ist. This curve includes compressor efficiencies in the range of high).
60 to 75%.
Fig. 13-33 gives the approximate horsepower required for
Example 13-4 — Given: r = 10.0; Q1 = 10,000 icfm the compression. It includes overall compressor efficiencies in
k = 1.15; t1 = 0°F the range of 60 to 70%.

FIG. 13-25
Centrifugal Compressor Cross Section

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Example 13-5 — Given: Weight flow, w, = 1,000 lb/min

FIG. 13-26
head = 70 000 ft-lb/lb
Compressor Head
Find: Horsepower
Answer: GHP = 3,000 from Fig. 13-33.
Fig. 13-36 predicts the approximate number of compressor
wheels required to produce the head. If the number of wheels is
not a whole number, use the next highest number.

Calculating Performance
When more accurate information is required for compressor
head, gas horsepower, and discharge temperature, the equa-
tions in this section should be used. This method applies to a
gas mixture for which a P-H diagram chart is not available.
To calculate the properties of the gas, see Figs. 13-6 and 13-7.
All values for pressure and temperature in these calculation
procedures are the absolute values. Unless otherwise specified,
volumes of flow in this section are actual volumes.

FIG. 13-27 FIG. 13-28

Compressor Performance, Low Compression Ratio Compressor Performance, Higher Compression Ratio

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-29
ICFM to SCFM
Z=1

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 Compressors | Tailor Made | Global Service

Visit us at www.lmf.at, call +43 2256 9001-0

or email [email protected] for more information.

since 1850 worldwide compressor technology

THE INNOVATIVE
SOLUTIONS PROVIDER
TECH CORNER
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FIG. 13-30
Mass Flow to Inlet Volume Flow
Z=1

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-31
Approximate Discharge Temperature
Z=1

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-32
Head
Z=1

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Copyright 2022 Baker Hughes Company. All rights reserved.

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-33
Approximate Horsepower Determination

FIG. 13-34
Efficiency Conversion

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

To calculate the inlet volume: which also can be written in the form:
(w) (1,545) (T1) (Z1) 1545 ZavgT1 P2 (n – 1)/n Eq 13-34b
MW (n – 1)/n   P1  
Q= Eq 13-25 Hp = –1
(MW) (P1) (144)
If we assume the compression to be isentropic (reversible (w) (Hp) Eq 13-35
adiabatic, constant entropy), then: GHP =
( p) (33,000)
ZRT P2 (k – 1)/k Eq 13-26
MW (k – 1)/k   P1  
His = –1 Polytropic and isentropic head are related by

Since these calculations will not be wheel-by-wheel, the

head will be calculated across the entire machine. For this, use FIG. 13-35
the average compressibility factor:
Mechanical Losses
Z1 + Z2
Zavg =
2 Max Flow (inlet Nominal Speed
Casing Size
acfm) (rpm)
The heat capacity ratio, k, is normally determined at the
average suction and discharge temperature (see Figs. 13-7 and 1 7,500 10,500
13-8). 2 20,000 8,200

Isentropic Calculation 3 33,000 6,400

4 55,000 4,900
To calculate the head:
5 115,000 3,600
ZavgRT1 P2 (k – 1)/k Eq 13-27a
MW (k – 1)/k   P1  
His = –1 6 150,000 2,800

which can also be written in the form: a. Bearing horsepower losses

1545 ZavgT1 P2 (k – 1)/k

Eq 13-27b 80
MW (k – 1)/k   P1  
His = –1 70
60
The gas horsepower can now be calculated from: 50 ,#
6
ze

(w) (His) Eq 13-28 40

si

GHP =
#5
ng
Bearing loss, hp

( is)
(33,000) 30
si
Ca

#4

#1
The approximate theoretical discharge temperature can be

#3

d
an
calculated from: 20

#2
P2 (k – 1)/k
  P1  
ideal = T1 –1
Eq 13-29
T2 = T1 ideal Eq 13-30 10
The actual discharge temperature can be approximated:
7
P2 (k – 1)/k – 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
  P1   Eq 13-31 Shaft speed, N, thousand rpm
actual = T1
is b. Oil-seal horsepower losses
T2 = T1 + Tactual Eq 13-32 70
60
Polytropic Calculation 50
40
6

Sometimes compressor manufacturers use a polytropic path

,#
ize

#5

instead of isentropic. Polytropic efficiency is defined by:

Oil-seal loss, hp

#4
gs

30
1
d#
#3
sin

n k
 (k – 1) 
an

= Eq 13-33
Ca

p
#2

(n – 1)
20
(See Fig. 13-34 for conversion of isentropic efficiency to poly-
tropic efficiency.)
The equations for head and gas horsepower based upon
polytropic compression are: 10

ZavgRT1 P2 (n – 1)/n Eq 13-34a

MW (n – 1)/n   P1  
Hp = –1 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
Shaft speed, N, thousand rpm

Courtesy Chemical Engineering Magazine

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 75

RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION
TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

His p
Hp = Eq 13-36
is

The approximate actual discharge temperature can be calcu-

lated in an analagous manner to Equations 13-29 through 13-32
but replacing (k–1)/k and is with (n–1)/n and poly respectively.

Mechanical Losses
After the gas horsepower has been determined by either
The essential website for method, horsepower losses due to friction in bearings, seals,
and speed increasing gears must be added.
packagers, purchasers
Fig. 13-35 shows losses related to the shaft speed and casing
and training providers. size for conventional multistage units.
Bearings and seal losses can also be roughly computed from
Scheel’s equation:
Mechanical losses = (GHP)0.4 Eq 13-37
To calculate the total compressor horsepower:
BHP = GHP + mechanical losses Eq 13-38
The mechanical losses of centrifugal compressors (including
windage, bearings) are typically between 1 and 2% of the total
power, with the lower number for larger machines. Gearbox
losses are usually 2 to 3%, for parallel shaft gearboxes, with the
higher number for higher gearbox ratios, especially for gear-
boxes with an idler gear.

Compressor Speed
The basic equation for estimating the speed of a centrifugal
compressor is:

 (No. of wheels) (H max/wheel)

H total Eq 13-39
N = (Nnominal)

where the number of wheels is determined from Fig. 13-36.

Nominal speeds to develop 10,000 feet of head/wheel can be
determined from Fig. 13-22. However, to calculate the maxi-
mum head per wheel, the following equation based on molecu-
lar weight (or more accurately, density) can be used.
The COMPRESSORTECH2 H max/wheel = 15,000 – 1,500 (MW)0.35 Eq 13-40
SOURCING GUIDE WEBSITE is This equation will give a head of 10,000 ft for a gas when
MW = 30 and 11,000 ft when MW = 16.
a key reference and training
P-H Diagram
tool for the gas compression
When a P-H diagram is available for the gas to be com-
industry, incorporating pressed, the following procedure should be used. Fig. 13-37 rep-
resents a section of a typical P-H diagram.
comprehensive information
For the given inlet conditions, the enthalpy can be shown
on compressor and driver as point 1 on the P-H diagram. For a single compression stage,
starting from Point 1 follow the line of constant entropy to the
specifications, compressor required discharge pressure (P2), locating the isentropic dis-
charge state point (2is). With these two points located the differ-
fundamentals, reference ential isentropic enthalpy can be calculated from the following
materials, products and gas equation:
= h2is – h1 Eq 13-41
compressor packagers. is

To convert to isentropic head, the equation is:

His = his (778 ft lb/Btu) Eq 13-42
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industry online at
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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

To find the discharge enthalpy:

his
h2 = + h1 Eq 13-43
is
TAILOR MADE COMPRESSOR PACKAGES
The actual discharge temperature can now be obtained from
the P-H diagram. The gas horsepower can be calculated using MADE IN GERMANY SINCE 1948
Eq 13-28 and Eq 13-35.
From Fig. 13-36 and Equations 13-39 and 13-40, the speed
and number of wheels can be estimated.
To convert to polytropic head it will be necessary to assume
a polytropic efficiency. See Fig. 13-22 for an efficiency corre-
sponding to the inlet flow. Fig. 13-34 will give a corresponding
adiabatic efficiency. The polytropic head may now be deter-
mined from Equation 13-36.
When a P-H diagram is available, it is the fastest and most
accurate method of determining compressor horsepower and
discharge temperature.

Centrifugal Refrigeration Compressors

Compression ratio per wheel will vary on the order of 1.5 to
2.75 per wheel depending on the refrigerant and speed.
Due to the ease of applying external side loads to centrifugal
machines, it is quite common to flash refrigerant from the con-
denser en route to the evaporators and/or to accept side loads
Our performance and experience
from product being cooled by refrigerant at higher pressures = Your benefit
than the lowest evaporator level.
Since side-loading is the practice rather than the exception, n Oil-free process gas compressor
it is common to let the centrifugal compressor manufacturer
obtain the desired performance characteristics from the follow-
packages
ing data: evaporator temperature levels; refrigeration loads re-
quired in MMBtu/hr; heat rejection medium (air or water); and
n In accordance with all relevant
type of driver. regulations and standards (API 618,
ASME, PED)
GENERAL n All process gases
Flow Limits
n Customized according to client’s
Two conditions associated with centrifugal compressors are
surge (pumping) and stone-wall (choked flow). specifications
At some point on the compressor’s operating curve there ex-
ists a condition of minimum flow/maximum head where the de-
n Engineering and manufacturing
veloped head is insufficient to overcome the system resistance. including PLC, all from one single source
This is the surge point. When the compressor reaches this point,
the gas in the discharge piping back-flows into the compressor. n Over 1000 compressors in worldwide
Without discharge flow, discharge pressure drops until it is with-
in the compressor’s capability, only to repeat the cycle. operation
The repeated pressure oscillations at the surge point should
be avoided since it can be detrimental to the compressor. Surg- n Best maintainability with highest
ing can cause the compressor to overheat to the point the maxi-
mum allowable temperature of the unit is exceeded. Also, surg-
availability combined with easy access
ing can cause damage to the thrust bearing due to the rotor to all wear parts
shifting back and forth from the active to the inactive side.
“Stonewall” or choked flow occurs when sonic velocity is

Köhler & Hörter GmbH

reached at any point in the compressor. When this point is
reached for a given gas, the flow through the compressor can-
not be increased further. 58089 Hagen / GERMANY
+49 (2331) 9357-50
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.koho-kompressor.de
www.compressortechsg.com
TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-36 FIG. 13-37

Wheels Required P-H Diagram Construction

discharged from the compressor casing after one or more stages

Interstage Cooling of compression and, after being cooled, is returned to the next
stage or series of stages for further compression.
Multistage compressors rely on intercooling whenever the
inlet temperature of the gas and the required compression ra- Intercoolers usually are mounted separately. When there
tio are such that the discharge temperature of the gas exceeds are two or more compressor casings installed in series, indi-
about 300°F. vidual machines may or may not be cooled or have intercoolers.
In some cases, it may be advantageous to use an external cooler
There are certain processes that require a controlled dis- to precool gas ahead of the first wheel.
charge temperature. For example, the compression of gases
such as oxygen, chlorine, and acetylene requires that the tem- Journal and Thrust Bearings
perature be maintained below 200°F.
Radial journal bearings are designed to handle high speeds
The thermal stress within the horizontal bolted joint is the and heavy loads and incorporate force-feed lubrication. They
governing design limitation in a horizontally split compressor are self-aligning, straight sleeve, multi-lobe sleeve, or tilting
case. The vertically split barrel-type case, however, is free from pad type, each sized for good damping characteristics and high
the thermal stress complication. stability.
Substantial power economy can be gained by precooling the Tilting pad bearings have an advantage over the sleeve type
gas before it enters the interstage impellers. Performance calcu- as they eliminate oil whip or half-speed oil whirl which can
lations indicate that the head and the horsepower are directly cause severe vibrations.
proportional to the absolute gas temperature at each impeller.
Bearing sleeves or pads are fitted with replaceable steel-
The gas may be cooled within the casing or, more commonly, backed babbitted shells or liners.
in external heat exchangers.
Axial thrust bearings are bidirectional, double faced, piv-
Two methods of cooling within the casing are used — water oted-shoe type designed for equal thrust capacity in both direc-
cooled diaphragms between successive stages and direct liquid tions and arranged for force-feed lubrication on each side.
injection into the gas.
Thrust bearings are sized for continuous operation at maxi-
Diaphragm cooling systems include high-velocity water cir- mum differential pressure including surge thrust loads, axial
culation through cast jackets in the diffuser diaphragms. The forces transmitted from the flexible coupling and electric motor
diaphragm coolers are usually connected in series. thrust.
Liquid injection cooling is the least costly means of control- On units where the thrust forces are low, a tapered land
ling discharge temperatures. It involves injecting and atomizing thrust bearing may be used but must be selected for proper
a jet of water or a compatible liquid into the return channels. In rotation direction. At times a combination of pivoted-shoe and
refrigeration units, liquid refrigerant is frequently used for this tapered land is recommended.
purpose. Injected liquid also functions as a solvent in washing
the impellers free of deposits. Nevertheless, the hazards of cor- Compressor designs with impellers arranged in one direc-
rosion, erosion, and flooding present certain problems resulting tion usually have a balance drum (piston) mounted on the dis-
in possible replacement of the compressor rotor. charge end of the shaft to minimize axial loads on the thrust
bearing.
External intercoolers are commonly used as the most effec-
tive means of controlling discharge temperatures. The gas is

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Fig. 13-38 illustrates typical journal and thrust bearings Advantages

generally used in horizontally and vertically split casings.
Reduced space/weight requirements due to elimination
Bearing supports are cast integral with, or bolted to, the of the need for a bearing lube oil system
case with isolated bearing chambers to prevent lubricating oil
leakage into the gas system or contamination of the oil or the Reduced long term costs for maintenance and repairs
gas. Bearing housings are horizontally split and readily acces- Reduced bearing-related losses (near zero friction)
sible for inspection and maintenance. Provisions are made to
accommodate pick-ups and sensors for vibration and tempera- Increased reliability and availability
ture monitoring. Improved machine monitoring/diagnostic capabilities
Magnetic Bearings Higher speeds possible.
Magnetic bearings are a relatively new development that
are gaining in popularity. An active magnetic bearing compris- Limitations
es two main components — a mechanical part and an electronic
part. The mechanical parts of the bearing are similar to an elec- Generally physically larger than “conventional” bearings
tric motor with a rotor and stator. An iron core in the stator Higher complexity
is wound with coils through which is fed an electric current,
thereby inducing a magnetic field. This magnetic field produces Requires electrical power
the forces that support the compressor shaft.
See Fig. 13-39 for a schematic of a typical magnetic bearing
The electronic part of the active magnetic bearing is the digi- arrangement.
tal control system. It includes sensors that measure the exact
position of the shaft. Deviations from the desired position of the Shaft Seals
shaft will trigger the software in the control system to adjust Shaft seals are provided on all centrifugal compressors
the current flowing through the electromagnets that determine to limit, or completely eliminate, gas leakage along the shaft
the strength of the magnetic field. The currents are adjusted ac- where it passes through the casing.
cording to a set algorithm that corrects the deviation. Magnetic
bearings are available in radial and axial/thrust designs. With the wide range of temperature, pressure, speed, and
operating conditions encountered by compressors, there can
be no one universal seal, or seal system, to handle all applica-
tions.
FIG. 13-38
Journal and Thrust Bearing Assembly Basically, the designs of seals available are: labyrinth (gas),
restrictive ring (oil or gas), liquid film (oil), and mechanical
(contact) (oil or gas).
A mechanical (contact) seal, Fig. 13-40, has the basic ele-
ments similar to the liquid film seal. The significant difference
is that clearances in this seal are reduced to zero. The seal oper-
ates with oil pressure 35 to 50 psi above internal gas pressure
as opposed to 5 psi in the liquid film seal.
The mechanical (contact) seal can be applied to most gases,
but finds its widest use on clean, heavier hydrocarbon gases,
refrigerant gases, etc.
A mechanical gas seal uses the process gas as working fluid
to eliminate the seal oil system. See Figs. 13-41 through 13-46.
The liquid film seal, Figs. 13-44 and 13-45, was also devel-
oped for the severe conditions of service but requires higher oil
circulation rate than the mechanical (contact) type.
The seal consists of two sleeves which run at close clearance
to the shaft with a liquid injected between the sleeves to flow
to the seal extremities. The sleeves are lined with babbitt or a
similar non-galling material which is compatible with the prop-
erties of the compressed gas and the sealing liquid.
The sealing liquid, usually a lubricating oil, is introduced
between the two rings at a controlled differential pressure of
about 5 psi above the internal gas pressure, presenting a bar-
rier to direct passage of gas along the shaft. This fluid also per-
forms the very important functions of lubricating the sleeves
and removing heat from the seal area.

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 79

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© Howden Group Ltd. All rights reserved. 2022

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-39 FIG. 13-40

Active Magnetic Bearing System Mechanical (Contact) Shaft Seal

FIG. 13-41
Single Gas Seal

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-42
Double Gas Seal

FIG. 13-43
Tandem Gas Seal

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 83

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Dry Gas Seals lift-off pressure is 689 kPad (100 psid). Seal leakage is the same
as, or less than, that during rotating conditions. This is the typ-
Dry gas seals are used to prevent process gas from leaking ical occurrence with pressurized equipment prior to start-up.
along the rotating shaft of the compressor into the environment.
Each seal consists of two rings, one of them a spring loaded seal Rotation, Case is Unpressurized: The seal faces re-
face, the other a seat. main in contact up to lift-off speed, which normally occurs at
150 rpm. Separation is caused by hydrodynamic effect due to
One ring is stationary with the compressor casing, the other the groove configuration in the face of the rotating seal mem-
rotates with the shaft. Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, tungsten ber. This is the typical condition in an unpressurized seal at
carbide or carbon are typical materials for the seal rings.2 The start-up.
flat faces of the seal rings form the seal. Grooves, measuring
a few microns in depth, are machined into one of the rings. Rotation, Case Is Pressurized: The seal faces will
When the machine is at stand-still the axially moveable seal maintain an equilibrium gap depending on the speed and pres-
ring is pressed on the other ring by the springs. Parting of the sure conditions.
two faces is affected by the pressure differential across the seal
For tandem dry gas seals, which are most commonly used in
faces, and the rotation of the shaft. During operation of the com-
natural gas compression, we have two seals combined:
pressor, the forces from the springs, and the aerodynamic force
created by the grooves due to gas flowing through the seal, are The primary face seal is exposed to the high-pressure seal
in equilibrium, and maintain a very narrow gap between the gas on one side and approximately atmospheric pressure on the
stationary and rotating face. Therefore, very low leakage can be other, while the seal gas pressure is held slightly higher than
maintained, while the fact that there is no mechanical contact the compressor suction pressure. By taking the full pressure
between the rings avoids any seal deterioration, as long as the drop, this seal provides the main sealing function. Filtered seal
seal gas is free of solids and liquids. gas is injected between the process gas and the primary seal at
a pressure nominally higher than the suction pressure. Most of
The seals see, in general, 4 (four) modes of operation:
the seal gas leaks into the compressor through the labyrinths
No Rotation, Case is Unpressurized: The seal faces at the shaft into the compressor suction flow. This portion of
are held in contact by spring load. the primary seal gas is not lost, but is recycled. The quantity
of this recycled gas is quite small (less than 0.1%) when com-
No Rotation, Case Is Pressurized: The seal faces re- pared to the compressor inlet flow; yet, it provides an important
main in contact up to a certain pressure differential. At this protective barrier for the dry seal. An even smaller portion of
pressure and above, the seal faces separate as the pressure the primary seal gas leaks across the face seal to the primary
overcomes the spring force between the faces. Normally, this seal vent. This leakage is lost to vent or flare. Both leakage
rates, i.e., flow through the labyrinth and through the face seal,
decrease as a fraction of compressor flow with increasing com-
FIG. 13-44 pressor frame size.
Liquid Film Shaft Seal with Pumping Bushing
FIG. 13-45
Liquid Film Shaft Seal with Cylindrical Bushing

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

The secondary face seal acts as a backup to the primary face Gas/Oil Interface. One of the main reasons for the inter-
seal. It is similar to the primary seal and becomes active when est in compressors with dry seals is that there is no process
the primary seal fails. It operates at near zero pressure-differ- gas/lube oil interface. For transmission service, a dry seal sys-
ential during normal running conditions. In order to protect the tem eliminates the addition of oil to the gas in the pipeline. For
secondary face seal from failure, the secondary vent pressure wellhead or field gas service, it eliminates sour gas carryover
should never be allowed to exceed the primary vent pressure. into lube oil tanks, oil degradation, and lube oil tank explosive
It is not necessary to inject seal gas ahead of the secondary seal mixture levels.
as primary seal gas that leaks through the primary seal has
already been filtered. Pressurized Hold. Pressurized holds of longer time are
possible. As environmental limits become stricter, it will be in-
Some tandem dry seals also have an intermediate labyrinth creasingly advantageous to leave the compressor pressurized
seal located between the primary and secondary seals . The instead of blowing to vent at every shutdown.
function of this intermediate labyrinth is to facilitate the use
of a secondary seal gas. Secondary seal gas, usually an inert Degassing. Degassing flues/tank connections on wet
gas like nitrogen, may be injected between the secondary seal seal units have a 127 mm (5 in.) of water column limit, while
and the intermediate labyrinth. This gas also requires the same dry seal vent connections have a 34.5 kPag (5 psig) limit. This
cleanliness as the primary seal gas. makes it much easier to capture and run leakage gas into a
flare system.
The seal gas is usually process gas that has been filtered,
and conditioned in the dry gas seal system. The dry gas seal Seal Gas Quantity. The seal gas flow to the dry seal cavi-
system is set up to provide clean, filtered process gas to the ties is easier to limit and is less than buffer gas flows on wet
seals. A typical dry gas seal system is designed to: seal compressors. The parasitic power requirement to compress
seal gas is less with a dry gas seal system.
Provide clean and dry seal gas to the face of the dry seal
to prevent contamination and early failure of the seal. And disadvantages:
Monitor the leakage past the primary dry seal and alarm The cost of dry seals is higher in comparison to oil seals.
or shutdown if abnormal conditions exist. The dry seal cavities must have clean, dry gas to avoid
Provide clean air or nitrogen to the separation seals. contaminating the seals.
Optionally, provide clean nitrogen to the intermediate Lubrication and Seal-oil Systems
labyrinth when needed .
On all centrifugal compressors that have force-feed lubricat-
Dry gas seals need to be protected from lube oil migrating ed bearings, a lubrication oil system is required. When oil-film
from the bearings of the compressor to the dry gas seals. This or mechanical (contact) seals are used, a pressurized seal-oil
is accomplished by a separation seal (often referred to as buf- system must be provided.
fer seal). This separation seal uses separation (or buffer) gas,
usually air or nitrogen to avoid lube oil migration into the dry Each system is designed for continuous operation with all
gas seal. the elements (oil reservoir, pumps with drivers, coolers, filters,
pressure gauges, control valves, etc.) piped and mounted on a
Compared with oil seal systems, dry gas seal systems have flat steel fabricated base plate located adjacent to the compres-
the following advantages : sor. The compressor manufacturer normally supplies both sys-
tems in order to have overall unit responsibility.
The dry gas seal system does not require external power
source . Depending on the application, lubrication and seal-oil sys-
tems may be furnished as combined into one system, or as one
lubrication system having booster pumps to increase the pres-
FIG. 13-46
sure of only the seal oil to the required sealing level. In service
Combined Seal-Oil and Lube-Oil System involving heavily contaminated gases, separate lube-oil and
with External Sweet Buffer Gas seal-oil systems should be used.
The lubrication system may supply oil to both compressor
and driver bearings (including gear), couplings (if continuously
lubricated), as well as turbine governor, trip and throttle valve,
and hydraulic control system.
A single lubricant shall be used in all system equipment,
usually an oil, having approximate viscosities of 150 Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SUS) at 100°F and 43 SUS at 210°F.
In addition to all the elements of a common pressurized lu-
brication system, the seal oil system requires a collection system
for the oil. Depending on the gas composition, a degassing tank
may be installed in the seal oil trap return line to remove the
oil-entrained gas prior to return of the seal oil to the common
oil reservoir. The flow past the outer sleeve passes through an
atmospheric drain system and is returned to the reservoir. The
relatively low flow through the inner sleeve is collected in a drain
trap or continuous drainer and may be returned to the reservoir or

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discarded, depending upon the degree and type of contamination Drivers — Centrifugal compressors can be driven by a wide
which occurred while it was in contact with the internal gas. variety of prime movers including electric motors, steam tur-
bines, gas combustion turbines, and gas-expander turbines.
Compressors using only liquid film seals should be provided Each driver has its own design parameters. A motor drive pres-
with a seal-oil system which incorporates an overhead surge ents limitations in operation of the compressor due to constant
tank. The surge tank provides seal-oil capacity for coastdown and low speed. The constant speed restriction is minimized by
of the machine and blowdown of the gas present in case of a suction or discharge throttling. The low speed restriction is cor-
compressor shutdown. rected by introduction of a speed increasing gear. A steam tur-
In combined seal-oil and lube-oil systems when large bine, on the other hand, has variable speed capability that allows
amounts of contaminants are present in the process gas, the more control of the compressor capacity or discharge pressure,
seal-oil design may call for buffer gas injection to form a barrier and its high speed permits the compressor to be directly con-
between the compressed gas and the seal oil. nected to the driver. In the case of a single-shaft gas turbine,
the power output is limited at a reduced speed.
Fig. 13-46 shows clean sweet buffer gas being injected into
the center of a labyrinth seal preceding the oil film seal with
seal oil supplied between the two sleeves. Part of the seal oil
flows across the inner sleeve and mixes with buffer gas and then CONTROL SYSTEMS
drains into the seal oil trap. The other part of the seal oil flows
across the outer sleeve, mixes with the bearing lube oil drain Centrifugal compressor controls can vary from the very ba-
flow, and returns to the common lube- and seal-oil reservoir. sic manual recycle control to elaborate ratio controllers. The
driver characteristics, process response, and compressor oper-
ating range must be determined before the right controls can
FIG. 13-47 be selected.
Pressure Control at Variable Speed The most efficient way to match the compressor characteris-
tic to the required output is to change speed in accordance with
the fan laws (affinity laws, see Equations 13-23 and 13-24):

FIG. 13-50
Volume Control at Constant Speed

FIG. 13-48
Volume Control at Variable Speed

FIG. 13-51
Effect of Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes
on Compressor Performance

FIG. 13-49
Pressure Control at Constant Speed

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

The final element is a suction throttle valve (STV) that re-

N1 Q1 H1 Eq 13-44
= = duces the flow of gas into the compressor.
N2 Q2 H1
A process pressure increase over a set value would cause a
One of the principal advantages of using steam or gas tur-
signal to reach the suction throttle valve (STV) and would par-
bines as drivers for compressors is that they are well suited to
tially close the valve in order to reduce the inlet pressure.
variable-speed operation. With such drivers, the speed can be
controlled manually by an operator adjusting the speed gover- Volume Control at Constant Speed
nor on the turbine or, alternatively, the speed adjustment can
be made automatically by a pneumatic or electric controller that The control scheme for this arrangement is shown in Fig.
changes the speed in response to a pressure or flow signal. 13-50.

Pressure Control at Variable Speed The flow transmitter (FT) senses the process flow using an
orifice or venturi as the primary flow element (FE), converts
The control system operates as follows: this to a signal that is proportional, and sends this signal to
the flow controller (FC). The flow controller amplifies the trans-
The pressure transmitter (PT) in Fig. 13-47 senses the pro-
mitter signal and sends a modified signal to the final element.
cess discharge pressure. It converts this signal to a signal propor-
Reset and derivative controller actions may be required.
tional to the process pressure and sends it to the pressure control-
ler (PC). The final element is the compressor guide-vane mechanism.
The guide vanes are adjusted by means of a positioning cylin-
The pressure controller amplifies the transmitter signal and
der. This cylinder is operated by a servo-valve (SRV) that re-
sends a modified signal to the final control element. Depending
ceives a signal from the flow controller.
on system requirements the controller may require additional
correction factors called integral (reset) and rate. Here, an increase in flow above the set point causes a signal
to reach the final element, which will result in the required de-
The final element in this case is speed control. This var-
gree of closing of the guide vanes to decrease flow.
ies the turbine-governor speed setting within a predetermined
range. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes — The use of adjustable
inlet guide vanes is the most efficient method of controlling a
As the load decreases, the discharge pressure will rise. An
constant speed compressor. The vanes are built into the inlet of
increase in process pressure above the set-point value will
the 1st stage, or succeeding stages, and can be controlled through
cause the signal to reach the governor and reduce the speed,
the linkage mechanism either automatically or manually.
maintaining the desired system discharge pressure.
The vanes adjust the capacity with a minimum of efficiency
Volume Control at Variable Speed loss and increase the stable operating range at design pressure.
If the nature of the process requires constant volume de- This is accomplished by pre-rotation of the gas entering the
livered, then the arrangement shown in Fig. 13-48 would be impeller which reduces the head-capacity characteristics of the
used. machine. Fig. 13-51 illustrates the effect of such control at vari-
ous vane positions.
Here, the flow transmitter (FT) senses the process flow, con-
verts the signal to a signal proportional to the process flow, and Prior to control selection, the economics of inlet guide vanes
sends it to the flow controller (FC). must be considered because of their higher initial cost, complex
mechanism, maintenance, and requirement for frequent adjust-
The flow controller amplifies the transmitter signal and ment.
sends a modified signal to the final element. Integral (reset)
and rate correction factors may be needed. Anti-surge Control
The final element is speed control, which is accomplished Surge Control systems are by nature surge avoidance sys-
by a mechanism that varies the turbine-governor speed setting. tems. In general, the control system sensors measure the gas
An increase in flow over set point would cause a signal to reach flow through the compressor and the head it generates. To de-
the governor and reduce the speed to maintain the desired sys- termine compressor head, pressure and temperatures at suc-
tem flow. tion and discharge are measured. The knowledge of head and
flow allows the comparison of the present operating point of the
When using electric motors as constant speed drivers (Fig. compressor with the predicted surge line (Fig. 13-52). If the pro-
13-49), the centrifugal compressor is normally controlled by a cess forces the compressor to approach the surge line, a recycle
suction throttling device such as butterfly valve or inlet guide valve in a recycle line is opened. This allows the actual operat-
vanes. Throttling the suction results in a slightly lower suction ing point of the compressor to move away from surge ( Kurz and
pressure than the machine is designed for, and thus requires a White, 2004).
higher total head if the discharge pressure remains constant.
This can be matched to the compressor head-capacity curve, i.e., One of the complications is, that the calculation of head and
higher head at reduced flow. In throttling the inlet, the density flow from pressure differentials over a flow element, and suc-
of the gas is reduced, resulting in a matching of the required tion and discharge pressures and temperatures (as described
weight flow to the compressor inlet-volume capabilities at other earlier), requires the knowledge of the gas composition. In
points on the head/capacity curve. many applications, the gas composition can change. However,
by normalizing the flow and the head appropriately (White and
Pressure Control at Constant Speed Kurz,2006) a surge limit line can be defined that is invariant to
changes in gas composition.
The control system shown in Fig. 13-49 has the pressure sig-
nal sensed and amplified in a similar manner as described in A key issue in surge control is the accuracy of the flow mea-
the scheme for variable speed control (Fig. 13-47). surement. It is therefore recommended to use properly installed

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-52
Typical Compressor Map (Variable Speed)

Courtesy of Solar Turbines Incorporated

orifices or venture flow meters. Using the pressure differential 4. Recycle valve correctly selected for the compressor: the
between compressor flange and impeller eye is also a very effec- valves must fit the compressor. They must be capable of
tive method. Properly installed ultrasonic flow meters have also large and rapid, as well a small and slow, changes in ca-
been used successfully. It is not recommended to use pitot type pacity.
or elbow flow meters for flow measurements in surge control
systems because the signals tend to be weak, with a low signal- 5. Recycle valve correctly selected for the system volumes:
to-noise ratio. The valve must be fast enough and large enough to en-
sure the surge limit is not reached during a shutdown.
A surge avoidance system determines the compressor op- The piping system is the dominant factor in the overall
erating point using the pressure, temperature and flow data system response. It must be analyzed and understood.
provided by the instrumentation. The system compares the Large volumes will preclude the implementation of a
compressor operating point to the compressor’s surge limit. The single valve surge avoidance system.
difference between the operating point and the surge limit is the
control error. A control algorithm (P+I+D) acts upon this differ- It must be understood that the anti-surge control system
ence, or “error,” to develop a control signal to the recycle valve. must be designed to operate under three, very different, sce-
When opened, a portion of the gas from the discharge side of the narios:
compressor is routed back to the suction side and head across 1. Unit Startup: In this condition the recycle valve is typi-
the compressor is prevented from increasing further. When the cally kept at a fixed position to allow the compressor to
operating point reflects more flow than the required protection start, and ultimately reach the discharge pressure nec-
margin flow, the surge control valve moves toward the closed essary to open the check valve, and feed gas in to the
position and the compressor resumes normal operation. process.
There are 5 essentials for successful surge avoidance: 2. Process Control: with a properly sized recycle valve, a
1. A precise surge limit model: It must predict the surge centrifugal compressor can stay on-line even at a no-flow
limit over the applicable range of gas conditions and condition. Well-designed surge control systems can al-
characteristics. low reduction of the process flow to zero while keeping
the compressor on line. This will also make the transition
2. An appropriate control algorithm: It must ensure surge from fully closed recycle valve to an increasingly open re-
avoidance without unnecessarily upsetting the process. cycle valve smooth and without upset to the process.
3. The right instrumentation instruments must be selected 3. Emergency shutdown: During certain emergency situ-
to meet the requirements for speed, range, and accuracy. ations, the compression units have to be shut down in-
stantly. To that end, the fuel supply, electricity supply,

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

or steam supply to the driver are cut instantly. In this and driver, also consider monitoring vibration at the gear shaft
situation, the compressor will decelerate rapidly under bearings.
its inertia. Typical a compressor may lose 30% of its
speed in the first second. Because the speed reduction The main system components are: variation transducer(s),
also reduces the head-making capability of the compres- signal amplifier(s) with d-c power supply, and vibration moni-
sor, the recycle valve has to open quickly to relieve the tor and/or analyzer.
pressure on the discharge side of the compressor. Vibration transducers fall into three categories: displace-
In some instances it is necessary to use multiple loops or ment probe, velocity pick-up, and accelerometer.
multiple valves in parallel to accomplish a system that both al- The displacement probe is most commonly used for equip-
lows the necessary accuracy in flow control for process control, ment with high value, as it can measure shaft vibration relative
as well as the fast reaction for an emergency shutdown. to bearing housing. Output signal from each transducer is small
A typical anti-surge control system is shown in Fig. 13-53 and, therefore, it must be amplified before being transmitted to
a vibration monitor or analyzer.
The usual method for surge avoidance (“anti-surge control”)
consists of a recycle loop that can be activated by a fast acting Fig. 13-54 shows a vibration severity chart for use as a guide
valve (“anti-surge valve”) when the control system detects that in judging vibration levels as a warning of impending trouble.
the compressor approaches its surge limit. For more information on vibration monitoring systems, see
API Standard 670, Noncontacting Vibration and Axial Position
Vibration Control System Monitoring System, and API Standard 678, Accelerometer-
This control system may be provided to monitor the driver Based Vibration Monitoring System.
behavior at the shaft bearings for detection of excessive lateral Torsional analysis is also recommended for centrifugal com-
vibration and axial movement and for protection against possi- pressors. The analysis is not as complex as for that required for
ble machinery failure through alarm and/or shutdown devices. reciprocating compressors due to the limited operating envelop
The system may protect not only the compressor but also of centrifugal compressor, and the fact that the energy sources
the driver, such as a steam or gas turbine, that usually runs at are not as great as those within reciprocating compressors. Ref-
the same high speed as the compressor. When a speed increas- erence the discussion of torsional analysis in the Reciprocating
ing or reducing gear unit is furnished between the compressor Compressor section for additional information.

FIG. 13-53
Example Anti-Surge Control System courtesy of Solar Turbines Incorporated

ENGINE COMPRESSOR
W
SV AFTERCOOLER DV

TT FT PT PT TT
LV
SCRUBBER

ANTI-SURGE SV = SUCTION VALVE

CONTROLLER LV = LOADING VALVE
LIMIT VV = VENT VALVE
SWITCH DV = DISCHARGE VALVE

4-20mA TT = TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER

POSITION FT = FLOW TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER PT = PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
SOLENOID 4-20mA
ENABLE
24VDC

FAIL OPEN

ANTI-SURGE
CONTROL VALVE

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Successful rotor design is the result of accurate calculation

of critical speeds. A critical speed occurs at a condition when the
Rotor Dynamics and Critical Speeds rotor speed corresponds to a resonant frequency of the rotor-
bearing support system. Under no circumstances should the
The demand for smooth-running turbomachinery requires compressor be allowed to run at a critical speed for a prolonged
careful analysis of rotor dynamics taking into account bearing length of time as the rotor vibrations amplified by this condition
performance, flexibility, critical speed, and rotor response. can cause machinery failure.
Equally important is to analyze the dynamic behavior of the
compressor for sudden changes in load due to start-up, shut- Critical Speed Map
down, or loss of power supply. A critical speed map is one of various methods used to pre-
dict the operational behavior of the rotor. First, the critical
speeds for a given rotor geometry are calculated for a range of
FIG. 13-54 assumed bearing-support stiffness values. The result is a map
Vibration Severity Chart1 like that shown in Fig. 13-55. The bearing stiffness character-
istics are determined from the geometry of the bearing support
system, and cross-plotted on the critical speed map.
The map depicts the values of the undamped critical speeds
and how they are influenced by bearing stiffness. The intersec-
tions of the bearing stiffness curve and the critical speed lines
represent the undamped critical speeds. The intersection points
generally indicate margins between the criticals and the oper-
ating speed range.
However, the use of this map is very limited because it is
based on a simplified undamped, circular synchronous analysis
with no cross-coupled or unbalance effects. It is a good trending
tool showing a machine’s basic dynamic characteristics. It may
not accurately depict peak response frequencies.
The critical speed map is used extensively because it en-
ables determination of bearing or support stiffness by correlat-
ing test-stand data.

Unbalance Response Analysis

This method predicts rotor-bearing system resonances to
greater accuracy than the critical speed map. Here, bearing
support stiffness and damping are considered together with
synchronous vibration behavior for a selected imbalance distri-
bution. A computer is normally required to solve the resulting
differential equations. Satisfactory results depend on the accu-
rate input of bearing stiffness and damping parameters.
Several runs are usually made with various amounts and
locations of unbalance. The plot of results of a typical unbalance
response study is shown in Fig. 13-56. Each curve represents
FIG. 13-55 the rotor behavior at a particular station or axial location such
Undamped Critical Speed Map
FIG. 13-56
Unbalanced Response Plot
Vibration Levels - mils

Rotational Speed - RPM Courtesy of Solar Turbines International

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

as those corresponding to the midspan, bearings, and over- 2. Intermediate conditions (if applicable)
hangs.
a. Pressure at intermediate nozzles, psia
No rotor can be perfectly balanced and, therefore, it must be
relatively insensitive to reasonable amounts of unbalance. b. Temperature at intermediate inlet flange, °F

The unbalance-response results predict the actual ampli- c. Flow (actual, mass flow, std flow) and gas composition
tudes that permit calculations of the unbalance sensitivity. at intermediate inlet flange if side stream is added or
This is expressed in mils of vibration amplitude per ounce-inch liquid drop-out occurs in the interstage cooler.
or gram-inch of unbalance. 3. Discharge Conditions (at the compressor discharge
The peaks of the response curves represent the critical speed flange):
locations. Fig. 13-57 shows limits of placement of critical speeds a. Pressure, psia
as specified in the API Standard 617, Centrifugal Compressors
for General Refinery Services. b. Temperature, oF
Critical speeds should not encroach upon operating speed 4. Control setting (depending on the type of compressor
ranges, and the separation margin of encroachment (SM) from controls)
all lateral modes is required to be at least: a. Compressor speed, rpm
1. Twenty (20) percent over the maximum continuous b. Guide vane setting
speed for rigid shaft rotor systems.
5. Driver Power
2. Fifteen (15) percent below any operating speed and
twenty (20) percent above the maximum continuous a. If available, determine driver power output indepen-
speed for flexible shaft rotor system. dently of compressor power measurement

Troubleshooting
FIG. 13-57 Operational troubles occurring in service may be due to a
Rotor Response Plot variety of causes.
If the trouble cannot be traced to adverse gas flow conditions
or liquid “slugs” present in the system, Fig. 13-58 can be used
as a guide for troubleshooting frequently encountered problems.
Careless operation and maintenance needs little comment.
Lack of proper care of any machine is bound to result in a suc-
cession of minor troubles eventually leading to a major break-
down.

INTEGRALLY GEARED COMPRESSORS

An integrally geared compressor utilizes a central driven
bull gear with typically 2–4 high speed pinion-driven shafts.
One or two impellers can be mounted on each pinion shaft. See
Figures 13-59 and 13-60. This forms a compact unit for the mul-
tistage compression of a wide range of gases.
Integrally geared compressors offer the following potential
advantages:
low power consumption due to different impeller speeds,
tailored aerodynamics and optimized auxiliaries.
wide operating range and improved part-load efficien-
cies due to adjustable inlet guide vanes at the first or at
Field Performance all compression stages.
Once the compressor has been installed, it is often desirable multiservice capability.
to measure its performance. The following parameters needs to
be determined: packaged designs available. A package includes the
compressor, process coolers, lube oil console, process
1. Inlet conditions (at the compressor inlet flange): piping and all tubing and wiring.
a. Flow (scfm, acfm, or lb/min) Design requirements of integrally geared compressors are
covered by API Standard 617.
b. Gas composition
c. Pressure, psia AXIAL COMPRESSORS
d. Temperature, °F Axial compressors are basically high-flow, low-pressure ma-
chines, in contrast to the lower flow, high-pressure centrifugal
compressors (the axial compressors used in gas turbines are of-

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

ten designed for higher pressures and compression ratios). Axial rotor to the gas in order to generate an increase in gas pressure.
compressors are generally smaller and significantly more effi- A multistage axial flow compressor has two or more rows of
cient than comparable centrifugal compressors. The character- rotating blades operating in series on a single rotor in a sin-
istic feature of an axial compressor, as its name implies, is the gle casing. The casing contains the stationary vanes (stators)
axial direction of flow through the machine. An axial flow com- for directing the air or gas to each succeeding row of rotating
pressor requires more stages than a centrifugal due to the lower blades. These stationary vanes, or stators, can be fixed or vari-
pressure rise per stage. In general, it takes approximately twice able angle, or a combination of both.
as many stages to achieve a given pressure ratio as would be re-
quired by a centrifugal. Although the axial compressor requires A cross-sectional view of a typical axial flow compressor is
more stages, the diametral size of an axial is typically much shown in Fig. 13-61.
lower than for a centrifugal. The axial compressor’s capital cost Performance Capabilities — The volume range of the
is usually higher than that of a centrifugal but may be justified axial compressor starts at approximately 30,000 cfm with a
based on efficiency and size. typical upper end of the flow range at 400,000 cfm. Much larger
The axial compressor utilizes alternating rows of rotating axial machines have been built. As can be seen in Fig. 13-3, the
and stationary blades to transfer the input energy from the flow range for the axial overlaps the higher end of the range for

FIG. 13-58
Probable Causes of Centrifugal Compressor Trouble

Trouble Probable Cause(s) Trouble Probable Cause(s)

1. Compressor not up to speed. 1. Inadequate or restricted flow of
2. Excessive compressor inlet lube oil to bearings.
temperature. 2. Poor conditions of lube oil or dirt
Low Discharge High Bearing Oil Tem-
3. Low inlet pressure. or gummy deposits in bearings.
Pressure perature
4. Leak in discharge piping. 3. Inadequate cooling water flow to
5. Excessive system demand from Note: lube oil cooler.
compressor. Lube oil temperature leav- 4. Fouled lube oil cooler.
1. Inadequate flow through the ing bearings should never 5. Wiped bearing.
compressor. be permitted to exceed 6. High oil viscosity.
180°F.
2. Change in system resistance due 7. Excessive vibration.
to obstruction in the discharge 8. Water in lube oil.
Compressor Surge
piping or improper valve posi- 9. Rough journal surface.
tion. 1. Improperly assembled parts.
3. Deposit buildup on rotor or dif- 2. Loose or broken bolting.
fusers restricting gas flow. 3. Piping strain.
1. Faulty lube oil pressure gauge 4. Shaft misalignment.
or switch. 5. Worn or damaged coupling.
2. Low level in oil reservoir. 6. Dry coupling (if continuously
3. Oil pump suction plugged. lubricated type is used).
4. Leak in oil pump suction piping. Excessive Vibration 7. Warped shaft caused by uneven
5. Clogged oil strainers or filters. Note: heating or cooling.
6. Failure of both main and auxil- Vibration may be trans- 8. Damaged rotor or bent shaft.
iary oil pumps. mitted from the coupled 9. Unbalanced rotor or warped
7. Operation at a low speed machine. To localize
Low Lube Oil vibration, disconnect cou- shaft due to severe rubbing.
without the auxiliary oil pump pling and operate driver 10. Uneven build-up of deposits on
Pressure
running (if main oil pump is alone. This should help to rotor wheels, causing unbalance.
shaft-driven). indicate whether driver or 11. Excessive bearing clearance.
8. Relief valve improperly set or driven machine is causing
vibration. 12. Loose wheel(s) (rare case).
stuck open. 13. Operating at or near critical
9. Leaks in the oil system. speed.
10. Incorrect pressure control valve 14. Operating in surge region.
setting or operation. 15. Liquid “slugs” striking wheels.
11. Bearing lube oil orifices missing 16. Excessive vibration of adjacent
or plugged. machinery (sympathetic vibra-
1. Piping strain. tion).
2. Warped bedplate, compressor or 1. Condensation in oil reservior.
driver. Water In Lube Oil 2. Leak in lube oil cooler tubes or
Shaft Misalignment 3. Warped foundation. tube-sheet.
4. Loose or broken foundation
bolts.
5. Defective grouting.

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Fields of Application

Well head gas

Vapour recovery

Boil Off Gas

Ammonia Vapour System

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SCA Series ITA-HP Series ITA-TS

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Max Discharge pressure: 15 barg 25 barg (360 psig) 25 barg (360 psig)
(220 psig) Suction pressure: up to 8 barg Power: up to 260 kW (350 hp)
Power: up to 900 kW (1200 hp) (115 psig) Flow: up to 27 m3/min
Flow: up to 90 m3/min Power: up to 350 kW (470 hp) (950 cfm)
(3200 cfm) Flow: up to 36 m3/min (1260 cfm)

NG Series Compact SCG Series

Oil Injected Gas-ends Oil Injected Gas-ends Semi- Oil Injected Gas-ends
Mechanical seal Integrated Mechanical seal
Gear ratio integrated Oil separator, oil filter, thermo & Gear ratio integrated
Max Discharge pressure: mp valve Max Discharge pressure: 24 barg
20 barg (290 psig) Gear ratio integrated (350 psig)
Power: up to 900 kW (1200 hp) Max Discharge pressure: Power: up to 110 kW (150 hp)
Flow: up to 90 m3/min 15 barg (220 psig) Flow: up to 13 m3/min (450 cfm)
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CONTACT US
TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

typical centrifugal compressor coverage. At the lower end of the ments. Efficiencies for axial compressors are high, especially
axial’s flow range, a thorough evaluation of axial vs centrifugal for larger machines, and can reach 90% (adiabatic).
must normally be made. However, at the higher end flows, the
axial compressor often becomes the obvious choice. As stated Design requirements for centrifugal compressors are cov-
previously, the physical size of the axial is far smaller than the ered by API Standard 617.
comparable centrifugal machine that would be required, and
the efficiency of the axial is usually better. In many high flow SCREW COMPRESSORS
applications, the axial is often a better match for the drivers
Screw compressors, also known as helical lobe compressors,
that would typically be selected.
fall into the category of rotary positive displacement compres-
Because of the low pressure rise per stage, axial compres- sors. Fig. 13-62 shows a cutaway cross-section of a typical ro-
sors are always manufactured as multistage machines. Axial tary screw compressor.
compressors are in general low pressure machines. Typical dis-
Rotary screw compressors are available in oil-free (dry) or
charge pressures are usually less than approximately 100 psig.
oil-injected designs. Oil-free compressors typically use shaft-
They are very commonly utilized in refineries and other indus-
mounted gears to keep the two rotors in proper mesh without
trial processes for high volume, low pressure air supply appli-
contact. Applications for oil-free compressors include all pro-
cations. The most common application of axial compressors,
cesses that cannot tolerate contamination of the compressed
besides aircraft jet engine use, is in gas turbines. In gas turbine
gas or where lubricating oil would be contaminated by the gas.
applications, the axial air compressor is often designed to oper-
Oil-injected screw compressors are generally supplied without
ate at final discharge pressures of up to around 500 psig.
timing gears. The injected lubricant provides a layer separat-
Horsepower requirements for axial flow compressors in pro- ing the two screw profiles as one screw drives the other. Oil-
cess service typically range from 3,000 to 65,000 HP for single injected machines generally have higher efficiencies and utilize
casing units, depending on flow and pressure ratio require-

FIG. 13-59
Typical Integrally Geared Compressor Showing Nomenclature of Key Parts

13-43
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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-60
Typical Integrally Geared Compressor Arrangement Showing Nomenclature of Key Elements

FIG. 13-61
Typical Axial Compressor Showing Nomenclature of Key Parts

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-62
Rotary Screw Compressor

FIG. 13-63
Working Phases of Rotary Screw Compressor

(a) (b) (c)

Suction intake. Gas enters through the Compression process . As rotation of the Discharge . The compression process is
intake aperture and flows into the heli- rotors proceeds, the air intake aperture completed, the final pressure attained,
cal grooves of the rotors which are open. closes, the volume diminishes and pres- the discharge commences.
sure rises.

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

the oil for cooling as well, which allows for higher compression Rotary screw compressors in use today cover a range of suc-
ratios in a single screw compressor stage. tion volumes from 180 to 35,000 acfm, with discharge pressures
up to 750 psig. Typical adiabatic efficiency will be in the range
If an oil-injected compressor is used, the downstream oil of 70 to 80%.
separation is critical and often the cause for operating prob-
lems. A standard design should have primary separation and Design requirements for screw compressors are covered un-
secondary separation using coalescing filters. Depending upon der API Standard 619.
the process service, the oil content of the compressed vapor may
need to be removed down to 100 ppb levels. ROTARY-SLIDING VANE
Although originally intended for air compression, rotary COMPRESSORS
screw compressors are now compressing a large number of gases
in the hydrocarbon processing industries. In particular, screw Rotary-sliding vane compressors (Fig. 13-64) are positive
compressors are widely used in refrigeration service and are displacement machines. They have several applications, includ-
gaining in popularity in the gas production business in booster ing vapor recovery and vacuum service. Each unit has a rotor
and gas gathering applications. eccentrically mounted inside a water jacketed cylinder. The ro-
tor is fitted with blades that are free to move radially in and
Gas compression is achieved by the intermeshing of the ro- out of longitudinal slots. These blades are forced against the
tating male and female rotors. Power is applied to the male rotor cylinder wall by centrifugal force. Fig. 13-65 illustrates how in-
and as a lobe of the male rotor starts to move out of mesh with the dividual pockets are thus formed by the blades, and how the
female rotor a void is created and gas is taken in at the inlet port. gas inside these pockets is compressed as the rotor turns. Oil
As the rotor continues to turn, the intermesh space is increased is injected into the flow stream to lubricate the vanes, and is
and gas continues to flow into the compressor until the entire in- recovered via a downstream scrubber and recycled to the inlet.
terlobe space is filled. Continued rotation brings a male lobe into
the interlobe spacing compressing and moving the gas in the di- Sliding vane compressors are available in single- and multi-
rection of the discharge port. The volume of gas is progressively stage configurations. Typical single-stage capacities are ranging
reduced as it increases in pressure. Further rotation uncovers through 3200 cfm and 50 psig; two-stage compressors deliver
the discharge port and the compressed gas starts to flow out of pressures from 60 to 150 psig and flows up to approximately
the compressor. Continued rotation then moves the remaining 1800 cfm. Most applications of rotary-sliding vane compressors
trapped gas out while a new charge is drawn into the suction in oil and gas service involve fairly small units, normally under
of the compressor into the space created by the unmeshing of 150 HP.
a new pair of lobes as the compression cycle begins again. Fig.
13-63 provides a sequence of drawings showing the compression
Jet Pump Technology1,2
process. Screw compressors are usually driven by constant speed Jet pumps, also known as jet compressors, eductors or ejec-
motors, with capacity control normally achieved via an internal tors, are simple devices that use a high pressure (HP) fluid to
regulating device known as a slide valve. By moving the slide in increase the pressure of a lower pressure fluid (LP). In gas pro-
a direction parallel to the rotors, the effective length of the rotors duction, jet pumps have been successfully used in the following
can be shortened. This provides smooth control of flow from 100 applications: boosting production of gas wells, preventing flar-
percent down to 10 percent of full compressor capacity. ing of LP gas (vapor recovery), de-bottlenecking compressors,
eliminating intermediate compressors, preventing HP wells
from imposing back pressure on LP wells, and de-liquefication
of liquid-loaded wells. In general, jet pumps are less efficient
FIG. 13-6 fluid movers as compared to a compressor or multi-phase com-
Sliding Vane Compressor and Principal Components: pressor but their attractiveness is their low cost, tolerance to
Rotor and Shaft (1), Bearings (2), Blades (3), presence of some liquids in gas and their simplicity compared
Mechanical Seals (4), Cylinder and Housing (5),
Heads and Covers (6), Gaskets (7),
Lube Supply Line (8), Coupling (9) FIG. 13-6
Operating Principle of Sliding Vane Compressor

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

to other systems such as compressors. If there is a local high available LP/HP flow ratio is dependent upon the field installa-
pressure source, or a compressor with excess capacity or in a tion and the HP source availability, but often it is 1:1 or less.
recycle mode, a jet pump can provide a cost effective solution
to increase or maintain production or boost the pressure of low The performance of gas-gas jet pumps deteriorates if there
pressure (LP) processed gas. The primary components are a are liquids present in the LP fluid. The reduction in perfor-
nozzle on the HP fluid side, a LP fluid inlet nozzle, a mixing mance is a result of the additional energy required to boost the
tube and a diffuser, as shown in Fig 13-66. pressure of the liquid phase, which has significantly more mass
than the gas phase. In addition, increasing liquids in the LP
In most gas production applications, the high pressure stream can choke the flow of the jet pump due to the rapid de-
source is gas. The high pressure gas flows through the nozzle crease of the sonic velocity of the combined stream. The impact
where some of the pressure (potential) energy is converted into of liquids on performance is typically minimal up to 2 volume %
kinetic energy (velocity). As a result, a low pressure zone is liquid at operating pressure and temperature. Presence of liq-
produced in front of the nozzle, at which point the low pres- uids in the HP source is also problematic, as the liquids restrict
sure fluid is introduced. The combined stream flows through flow through the nozzle. Gas-liquid separators, or other facility
the mixing tube to transfer momentum and energy between the separators such as a test separator or a compact separator, may
two streams. The fluid is then expanded in a diffuser where be used to separate the phases to achieve acceptable jet pump
the velocity of the fluid is reduced and pressure of the system performance.
is increased.
In vapor recovery applications, the high pressure source is
sometimes a liquid. For example in well field applications, the
produced water can be pumped up to high pressure and used to
boost the LP gas pressure to gas pipeline pressures. The high FIG. 13-66
pressure vapor and water stream are then separated, the vapor
flows into the outlet gas pipeline, and the water is recycled for General Configuration of a Jet Pump
jet pump use.
The primary factors governing jet pump performance are
the HP/LP pressure ratio (PR), and the LP/HP mass flow ra-
tio. Other operating conditions, such as temperature and fluid
physical properties will factor into the performance of the jet
pump, but to a lesser extent. The resulting discharge pressure
is primarily a function of the downstream production and pro-
cess system.
Figure 13-67 provides typical performance of a jet pump un-
der a range of gas pressures and flow ratios. In general, the LP
pressure can be increased from a few percent up to five fold with
a single jet pump. In “typical” applications the discharge pres-
sure is 1.5 to 3 time greater than the low pressure source. The

FIG. 13-67
HP to LP Pressure Ratios

Courtesy of CALTEC, Limited

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Turboexpanders
The use of turboexpanders in gas processing plants began expansion. The outlet temperature and pressure would be high-
in the early sixties. By 1970, most new gas processing plants er than that accomplished in the expander (nearly isentropic)
for ethane or propane recovery were being designed to incor- expansion process.
porate the particular advantages characteristic of an expander
producing usable work and lower temperatures. This is due to Note that the pressure at Point 4 is not as low as that at-
the expander following an isentropic path as compared to an tained by flow through the expander (Point 3). This is because it
isenthalpic path of a JT valve, and thereby provide more ef- has been assumed for this example that, without the expander
fective cooling for a given pressure drop. The trend in the gas running (therefore the brake compressor also not running), the
processing industry continues toward increased use of the tur- process cannot restore the demethanizer overhead vapor to the
boexpander. residue gas pressure using the separate recompressor alone.
Current turboexpander process applications include: Hy- Also, because the path to Point 4 is adiabatic without the
drocarbon Dewpoint, NGL and LPG Recovery, LNG, Nitrogen gas doing work, the gas does not cool to as low a temperature as
Rejection, Helium Recovery, Air Separation Units, and Nitro- the path to Point 3. That is, the path (2) to (3) is isentropic ex-
gen Refrigeration Cycles. Section 16, Hydrocarbon Recovery, pansion producing work and thereby cooling the gas more than
provides descriptions of a number of common turboexpander the simple isenthalpic (J-T) expansion path.
process applications for hydrocarbon recovery.
The higher temperature at Point 4 results in a reduction of
Selection of a turboexpander process cycle is indicated when product recovery. The use of the expander brake compressor
one or more of the following conditions exist: to boost the residue gas pressure will allow a lower expansion
pressure without the use of more residue compression.
1. “Free” pressure drop in the gas stream.
2. High ethane recovery requirements (i.e., over 30% eth-
ane recovery). THERMODYNAMICS
3. Compact plant layout requirement. A turboexpander (often just referred to as ‘expander’) recovers
useful work from the expansion of a gas stream. The expander
4. Flexibility of operation (i.e., easily adapted to wide varia- operates isentropically in the ideal case and produces something
tion in pressure and products). less than the theoretical work in the real case. In the process of
producing work, the expander lowers the bulk stream tempera-
There are multiple factors in addition to the ones listed ture which can result in partial liquefaction of the bulk stream. A
above that affect a final process selection. If two or more of the simple schematic of an expander is given in Fig. 13-70.
above conditions are coexistent, generally a turboexpander pro-
cess selection will be the best choice. An example calculation of an expander operating on pure
methane is provided to demonstrate the thermodynamic prin-
Fig. 13-68 shows a typical low temperature turboexpander ciples of expanders.
process for recovering ethane and heavier hydrocarbons from a
natural gas stream. Gas inlet conditions (t1, P1) to the expander are generally set
by upstream conditions. The outlet pressure P2 from the expand-
Fig. 13-69 represents the pressure-temperature diagram
er is often set by the desired NGL recovery and recompressor
for this expander process. The solid curve represents the plant
power considerations. Fig. 13-71 gives an example calculation.
inlet gas. The solid line on the right is the dew point line. At
a fixed pressure and, if the temperature of the gas is to the Outlet conditions for the expander processing a multi-com-
right of this dew point line, the gas is 100 percent vapor. If the ponent stream must be determined by trial-and-error calcula-
gas is cooled, liquid starts to condense when the temperature tions if one were to do them by hand.
reaches the dew point line. As cooling continues, more liquid
is condensed until the bubble point line is reached — the solid For multicomponent streams, such as natural gas, the hand
line on the left. At this point, all of the gas is liquid. Additional calculations are iterative, tedious, and are only close approxi-
cooling results in colder liquid. mations for expander performance. Expander and compressor
performance is typically modeled using current process simula-
Downstream of the gas treating facilities, the inlet gas is tors.
represented by point 1 on both Fig. 13-68 and 13-69. As the gas
is cooled by the gas/gas exchangers and demethanizer side ex- In many applications the loading device for the turboex-
changer, its temperature moves along the dotted line to point 2 pander is a centrifugal compressor. Shaft and bearing losses
(Fig. 13-69). At 2, the gas enters the expander inlet separator in the order of 2% are usually deducted to calculate net power
where the condensed liquid is separated from the vapor. This input to the driven end from the expander.
vapor now has its own pressure-temperature diagram, as rep-
resented by the dashed curve. At the expander inlet, the gas is
on its dew point line. MECHANICAL
As the gas flows through the expander, its pressure-temper- Mechanical design of the turboexpander is the business of
ature path is shown by the dashed line from point 2 to point 3. several manufacturers. Any specific information must come
Point 3 represents the outlet of the expander. The importance from such supplier.
of using the expander as a driver for a compressor can be seen Of the various general turbine types available, the radial
in Fig. 13-69. If the gas had been expanded without doing reaction turbine design is dominant in cryogenic turboexpander
any driver work, the expansion path would be from point 2 to natural gas plant applications. These units operate over wide
point 4. This is called a Joule-Thomson, or constant enthalpy ranges of inlet flow and pressure conditions, by utilizing vari-

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

able inlet guide vanes. They operate at very high rotating speeds 3. Normally a quick closure shutoff valve is required on
and thus are subject to the design and operating cautions com- the expander inlet. Selection of this valve and actuator type
mon to similar sophisticated rotating equipment. must take into account start-up, operating, and shutdown con-
ditions.
The most common configuration is a turboexpander-com-
pressor where the expander power is used to compress gas in 4. Vibration detection instrumentation is useful but not
the process. In this case, the compressor wheel operates on mandatory. Its application is normally an owner and vendor
the same shaft as the expander wheel. Other applications of option and influenced by operating economics.
the power recovery are expander-pump or expander-generator
drives. These normally require gearing to reduce the expander 5. Loading of the flanges by the process piping system must
speed to that required for the driven unit. be within prescribed limits to avoid distortion of the case, re-
sulting in bearing or wheel rubbing problems.
Since power recovery and refrigeration effect are primary
benefits of expander applications, rotating speeds are set to op- 6. Failures due to mechanical resonance have occurred in
timize the expander efficiency. This will usually result in a com- turboexpanders. Even though the manufacturer will exert his
promise in the compressor end design and lower compressor ef- best efforts at the manufacturing stage to avoid this problem,
ficiencies. Usual efficiencies quoted for radial type units are 80 in-plant operation may uncover an undesirable resonance. This
to 83% for the expander and 68 to 70% for the compressor. must be solved in conjunction with the manufacturer and may
involve a redesign of the wheels, bearing modifications, vane or
Some areas requiring extra attention in the installation of diffuser redesign, etc.
turboexpanders are listed below. The list is by no means compre-
hensive, but these items require more than the normal amount The installation of a turboexpander-compressor unit also
of concern in designing the installation of a turboexpander unit requires the proper design of a lube system, instrumentation,
for cryogenic operation. etc., in common with other industrial rotating equipment. It is
common practice to install a turboexpander-compressor with no
1. The expander inlet gas stream must be free of solid or liq- special anti-surge instrumentation for the compressor unit. This
uid entrainment. Liquids are removed in a high pressure sepa- is acceptable if it can be determined that the gas flow through
rator vessel. An inlet screen of fine mesh is usually required the compressor is balanced with flow through the expander and
for solids removal. Monitoring of the pressure drop across this the two will vary simultaneously.
screen is recommended. Formation of solids (ice, carbon diox-
ide, amines, heavy oils) will often occur here first and can be Auxiliary Systems
detected by an increase in pressure drop across the screen.
Both lubricated and non-lubricated turboexpander designs
2. Source of the seal gas, particularly during start-up, is an are available.
important consideration. The stream must be clean, dry, sweet,
Lubrication System — The lubrication system circulates
and of sufficient pressure to meet the system requirements.
cooled and filtered lube oils to the turboexpander bearings as
shown on Fig. 13-72. The principle components of the system

FIG. 13-68
Example Expander Process

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TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

are monitored on the lube console and normally consist of two The lube-oil reservoir serves as a surge tank to enhance
electric motor-driven lube oil pumps, an oil cooler, a dual filter pump suction as well as to serve as a degassing drum permit-
valve, a bladder type with switching coastdown accumulator, ting process seal gas to be released from the oil. If necessary,
and a pressurized reservoir with mist eliminator. the reservoir should be equipped with a heater to bring the oil
up to temperature for a “cold” start.
The lube oil pumps (one stand-by) must maintain a constant
flow to the radial and thrust bearings. Absence of oil, or im- Seal Gas System — The seal gas system prevents loss of
proper filtration, can cause bearing damage. Most manufactur- process gas and assures protection against entry of lube oil into
ers recommend a light turbine oil (315 SSU at 100°F) for best process gas areas. To accomplish this, a stream of “seal gas” is
machine performance. injected into each labyrinth shaft seal at a pressure higher than
that of the process gas. The leaking seal gas is collected in the
The lube oil cooler is an integral part of the system to reject oil reservoir, then returned through a mist eliminator to the
heat that is generated across the bearings. It can be of a fan air fuel gas system, or put back into the compressor suction end.
cooled type or shell and tube design, water cooled. If the cool-
ing water is scale forming, duplicate coolers (one stand-by) are The system for seal gas injection consists of a liquid collec-
recommended. tor, electric heater (if required), twin filters, and differential
pressure regulators.
Lube oil filtration is extremely important due to close toler-
ances between bearing surfaces. If recompression is necessary for the gas processing plant,
sales gas is ideal for use as seal gas. If no recompression is pro-
vided, a stream can be taken from the expander inlet separator,
warmed and used as seal gas. A minimum seal gas temperature
FIG. 13-69 (about 70°F) is required to prevent oil thickening.
Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Expander Process Seal gas filtration is essential because of close clearances
provided between the shaft and seals.

FIG. 13-71
Expander Example Calculation

Flow: 60 MMscfd T1 = –60°F

P1 = 900 psia
P2 = 300 psia
Composition: 100% C1
MMscfd//1d/1 lbmol lbmol/16 lb lb
60 = 6588 = 105408
24 hr/379.5 scf hr/lbmol hr

Using Fig. 24- for Enthalpy & Entropy values.

At Inlet conditions
BTU BTU
h1 = 295 , s1 = 1.0
lb lb°F
At P2 = 300 psia and assuming 100% efficiency (ideal)
BTU
s2 = 1.0 T2 ideal –160°F
lb°F
BTU
h2 ideal 260
lb
BTU BTU
ideal = (295 – 260) = 35
FIG. 13-70 lb lb
Simple Expander Assume 80% expander efficiency:

actual = (0.80) 35 (
BTU
lb
= 28 )
BTU
lb
T2 actual –157°F

Work produced = (
28 BTU
lb
) (
105408
lb
hr
)
BTU
= 2951424
hr
BTU
Horsepower = 2951424 = 1160 HP
hr
BTU
2545
HP

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 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

Seal gas flow requirements are determined by the expander Generally an oil flow bypass valve is included to permit ex-
manufacturers as a part of their performance rating. cess flow to bypass the expander bearings and return to the
reservoir.
Control Systems
For temperature control, the oil must be cooled to prohibit
Process — Control of the process streams begins with prop- heat buildup which occurs through the bearings. Also, a tem-
er dehydration and filtering. Generally a final protective screen perature control bypass is included in the circuit for an extra
upstream of the expander is designed into the piping system to measure of control to keep the oil from getting too cool.
form a protective barrier against carbon dioxide or water freez-
ing. Seal Gas — Use a suitable gas stream with filtering and
pressure control to maintain proper gas pressure at the shaft
As a further protection against water freezing, methanol in- seals.
jection connections are incorporated into the system upstream
of the expander. If the seal gas is delivered from a cold supply point (expander
inlet separator) then a means of heating the gas is necessary.
Machine — The expander speed is established by the man-
ufacturer, given the process conditions. The expander manu- The seal gas should be introduced before the lube oil system
facturer determines the wheel diameter and specific speed for is started because there might be a pressure upset which would
maximum efficiency. put enough oil into the process to cause a problem.

As plant operating conditions change, the expander speed Each of the main rotating components (radial bearings,
may change. Fig. 13-73 shows the change in efficiency as a func- thrust bearings, and shaft seals) can be damaged or eroded by
tion of change in design flow rate. improper oil filtration, lack of oil flow, improper gas dehydra-
tion, and improper seal gas filtration.
Gas entering the expander is directed by adjustable nozzles
into the impeller. About one-half of the pressure drop across the Shutdown — A number of conditions during the operation
expander takes place in the nozzles, imparting kinetic energy to of expanders justify prompt shutdown to avoid serious dam-
the gas which is converted to shaft horsepower by the expander age.
wheel. Pressure reductions are normally limited to 3-4 ratios. Some of these conditions are:
Greater ratios reduce expander efficiency to the extent that 2-
stage expansion may be advisable. High Vibration
The adjustable inlet nozzles function as pressure control Low Lube Oil Flow
valves. A pneumatic operator takes a split range signal (3 to
High Inlet Separator Level
9 psi) to stroke the nozzles. On increasing flow beyond the full
open nozzle position, a 9 to 15 psi signal from a pressure con- High Inlet Screen Pressure Drops
troller opens a bypass control valve. This valve is called the J-T
(Joule-Thomson) valve. High Thrust

Thrust bearing force imbalance is caused by difference in High Lube Oil Temperature
pressures between the expander discharge and compressor suc-
tion. With a differential of the order of 20 psi, the thrust loads
are usually within the capabilities of the thrust bearings. At FIG. 13-72
higher pressure differentials, it is essential that steps be taken
Lube Oil Schematic
to control the thrust loads against each other, thereby the net
thrust load will not exceed the thrust bearing capacity.
This is done by providing a force-measuring load-meter on
each thrust bearing, Fig. 13-74, and a thrust control valve
which controls the thrust by control of pressure behind the
thrust balancing drums or behind one of the seals. These two
load-meters indicate thrust bearing oil film pressure (propor-
tional to bearing load) and the third shows the pressure behind
the balancing drum as controlled by the valve in its vent as a
means of adjusting the thrust load.
Vibration comes from an unbalanced force on one of the ro-
tating components, or it could come from an outside source such
as pipe vibration or gas pulsation.
Most expanders are supplied with monitoring and shutdown
devices for shaft vibration. These devices are set to shut down
the expander before damage occurs.
Lube Oil — The lube oil must be filtered. Most systems use a
primary and secondary filtering system. Controls are provided
to ensure oil flow to bearings at proper pressure and tempera-
ture. Two (2) lube oil pumps are furnished, the second pump
serving as a standby. The standby oil pump is controlled au-
tomatically to cut in to provide oil pressure upon failure of the
main pump or reduction in pressure for other reasons.

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 105

TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

FIG. 13-73 Low Lube Oil Pressure

Example Change in Efficiency with Flow Rate High Speed
Two primary actions of a shutdown signal are to block gas
flow to the expander and the compressor. This is accomplished
by actuating quick acting shutdown valves at the expander in-
let and outlet and the compressor inlet. Simultaneously, a pres-
surized bladder supplies oil to the bearings during the expander
coast down. The expander bypass valve (J-T) opens automati-
cally and is positioned by the split-range pressure controller to
keep the plant on-line in the J-T mode.
Field Performance — Field measurements can be made
to check efficiencies and horsepower of the expander. The pro-
cess of calculations is just the reverse of selecting a machine
performance.
Knowing the gas composition, mass flow (lbs/hr), inlet and
outlet conditions (pressure, temperature) for the expander, the
actual difference in enthalpy can be determined for each unit.>
actual = ht2P2 – ht1P1
h actual
=
h ideal
lbs/hr
EPactual =
2,545

FIG. 13-74
Typical Expander/Compressor Cross-Section with Thrust Balancing Schematic

106 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 TECH CORNER
COMPRESSORS AND EXPANDERS

REFERENCES Gas Machinery Research Council, “Application Guideline for Centrifu-

gal Compressor Surge Control Systems,” 2008 .
1 Sarshar, M.M, Beg, Dr. N.A., “Applications of jet pump technology
to enhance production from gas fields”, Offshore Gas Processing, Gas Machinery Research Council,”Guideline for Field Testing of Recip-
Feb. 2009. rocating Compressor Performance,” 2009 .

2 Sarshar, M.M, Beg, Dr. N.A., “The applications of Jet Pump Tech- Gibbs, C. W., “Compressed Air and Gas Data,” Ingersoll Rand Co.
nology to Boost Production from Oil and Gas Fields”, Gastech, International Organization of Standardization Standard ISO 13631:
March 2011. 2002 — Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries — Packaged Recipro-
cating Compressors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Kurz, R., “The Physics of Centrifugal Compressor Performance,” Pipe-
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 614 — “Lubrication, line Simulation Interest Group, 2004.
Shaft-Sealing and Control Oil Systems for Special-Purpose Applica-
Kurz, R., and Fozi, A. A., 2002, “Acceptance Criteria for Gas Compres-
tions.”
sion Systems,” ASME Paper GT2002–20282.
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 617 — “Axial and
Mokhatab, S., Poe, W. A., Speight, J. G., “Handbook of Natural Gas
Centrifugal Compressors and Expander Compressors for Petroleum,
Transmission and Processing,” Gulf Publishing, 2006.
Chemical and Gas Industry Services.”
Neerken, R. F. “Compressor Selection for the Process Industries,”
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 618 — “Reciprocating
Chemical Engineering, Jan. 1975.
Compressors for General Refinery Services.”
Perry, R. H./Chilton, C. H., “Chemical Engineers Handbook,” Fifth Edi-
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 619 — “Rotary Type
tion, Section 6, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, New York.
Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Industry Services.” Poling, B. E., Prausnitz, J. M., O’Connell, J. P., “The properties of Gases
and Liquids,” 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2001.
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 670 — “Non-Contact-
ing Vibration and Axial Position Monitoring System .” Rasmussen, P., Kurz, R.,“Centrifugal Compressor Applications: Up-
stream and Midstream,” 38th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston,
American Petroleum Institute Standards — API 678 — “Accelerometer
. 2009
Texas,
Based Vibration Monitoring Systems.”
Reid, C. P., “Application of Transducers to Rotating Machinery Monitor-
Bergmann, D./Mafi, S., “Selection Guide for Expansion Turbines,” Hy-
ing and Analysis,” Noise Control and Vibration Reduction, Jan. 1975.
drocarbon Processing, Aug. 1979.
Scheel, L. F., “Gas and Air Compression Machinery,” McGraw-Hill
Bloch, Heinz P., “A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology,” Mc-
Book Co., Inc., New York, New York.
Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, New York .
Swearingen, J. S., “Turboexpanders and Expansion Processes for In-
Brown, R. N., “Control Systems for Centrifugal Gas Compressors,”
dustrial Gas,” Rotoflow Corp., Los Angeles, California.
Chemical Engineering, Feb. 1964.
White, R. C., Kurz, R., “Surge Avoidance for Compressor Systems,” 35th
Criqui, A. F., “Rotor Dynamics of Centrifugal Compressors,” Solar Tur-
Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, Texas, 2006.
bines International, San Jose, California.
Gas Machinery Research Council, “Guideline for Field Testing of Gas
Turbine and Centrifugal Compressor Performance,” 2006.

RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION

2023
The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,
purchasers and training providers

www.compressortechsg.com

www.compressortechsg.com

purchasers and training providers

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 107

HIGHEST GAS PURITY AND
LOW ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Process Gas
Compressor inside
Diaphragm
Compressor inside

Burckhardt Compression offers a complete portfolio of compressor solutions for hydrogen fuel stations and power-to-x applica-
tions. Our oil-free diaphragm (900 bar) and piston compressors (550 bar) stand for the highest gas purity at high pressures with
low energy consumption and reduced maintenance costs. In addition, Burckhardt Compression has a global network of local
service centers that enables us to offer local support with a quick response rate.
Learn more: burckhardtcompression.com/hydrogen
 PRIME MOVERS
HELPING OUR CUSTOMERS SUCCEED BY
REDUCING EMISSIONS
Reduced carbon footprint using hydrogen or carbon neutral fuels.
Carbon reduction through equipment upgrades.
Emissions reduction solutions to help customers achieve near-zero
methane targets.
Energy optimization to minimize lifecycle costs.
SoLoNOx™ combustion system to reduce NOx emissions.

For more information, visit us at

www.solarturbines.com, call +1-619-544-5352 or
email [email protected]
 WE WERE
ALREADY
THERE
PRIME MOVERS

PROVIDING COMPLETE ENERGY

SOLUTIONS FOR MORE THAN 65 YEARS
Solar Turbines has been providing energy solutions to our customers for more than 65
years. And our eye is on the future as we continue to develop innovative, sustainable
energy solutions that help our customers to succeed.
When you need reliable, durable equipment with a proven track record, call us.

More than 16,000 gas turbines installed

More than 3 billion operating hours
More than 100 countries

For more information, visit us at

www.solaturbines.com, call +1-619-544-5352 or
email [email protected]
 NATURAL GAS ENGINES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

Output Rated Speed

Per Cylinder Range Output Range

www.compressortechsg.com
Range (kW) (rpm) Rating System &
Bore Stroke hp kW Standard No.

Catalog Page Reference

Displacement Per
Cylinder (L/cyl)
Number Of Cylinders
& Configuration
L: In-Line
V: Vee-Type
H: Horizontal
O: Opposed
Maximum Brake Mean
Effective Pressure (bar)
MANUFACTURER Engine Model (mm) (mm) min max min max min max min max ISO - SAE - DIN - Other
ARROW ENGINE CO. * K-6 102 116 0.9 1L 4.5 400 800 7.1 6 5 EPA Certified
C Series 127 to 159 to 2 to 10.8 1L, 2L 8.7 to 49 300 to 600 to 5.6 to 6 9 to 7 to EPA Certified
190.5 216 450 800 65.7 49
L-795 190.5 228 6.5 2L 24.3 300 600 3.7 65 49
A Series 98 to 118 to 150 0.9 to 3L, 6L, 12L 6 to 35.8 900 to 1200 to 5.8 to 9 22 to 16 to
150 2.65 1200 2200 215 160
CATERPILLAR INC. * GCM34 340 420 38.13 16V, 12V 381.25 381.25 750 750 16 (232) 6135 8180 4575 6100
G Series 121 to 152 to 1.75 to 17.8 to 26.2 to 10 to 95 to 211 to 71 to 157 to
300 300 21.2 8 to 8L; 8 to 20V 233 249 1000 1000 to 13.3
1800 (142 1875 5350 1398 3990
to 193)
CG137 137 152 2.250 8V,12V 37.25 37.25 1800 1800 11 (160.1) 400 600 298 447
COOPER MACHINERY * Ajax DPC Series 330 to 406 36.15 to 2L, 3L, 4L 78 to 110 110 to 158 265 440 4.3 to 104 to 148 to 82 to 110 to ANSI PTC 17-1974
SERVICES 381 46.33 4.8 592 846 441 630
Ajax E-565 216 254 9.29 L 21 30 315 525 3.67 28 40 21 30 ANSI PTC 17-1974
Superior Series 254 267 13.52 12V, 16V 82, 83 124 600 900 12.26 1333 to 2000 to 994 to 1491 to ANSI PTC 17-1974, DEMA
1766 2650 1317 1976
Cooper-Bessemer 2400 to 3000 to 1789 2237
Series 457 508 26.55 6V to 16 V 299 374 270 330 8.13 6400 8000 to to ANSI PTC 17-1974, DEMA
4772 5965
CUMMINS INC. * KTA19GCE 159 159 3.17 6L 31.5 52.2 1200 1800 N/A 254 420 189 313 SAE J1995
G855 140 152 2.33 6L 13.0 23.3 1000 1800 N/A 104 188 78 140 SAE J1995
QSL9G 114 145 1.48 6L 11.7 21.7 1200 1800 N/A 90 175 67 130 SAE J1995
G8.3 114 135 1.38 6L 6.8 16.8 1000 2200 N/A 55 135 41 101 SAE J1995
G5.9 102 120 0.98 6L 3.3 12.3 1000 2200 N/A 27 99 20 74 SAE J1995
GTA Series 102 to 120 to 0.98 to 6L, 12V 96 to 14.4 to 1000 to 1800 N/A 48 to 116 to 36 to 87 to SAE J1995
159 159 3.17 35.4 47.2 1350 570 760 425 567
INNIO - WAUKESHA GAS * 275GL+/16V 275 300 17.82 16V 175 233 750 1000 15.7 2796 3729
ENGINES
275GL+/12V 275 300 17.82 12V 175 233 750 1000 15.7 2097 2796
VHP/P9394 S5 238 216 7.92 to 6L, 12V, 16V 38.2 to 85.75 to 800 to 1200 9.6 to 368 to 552 to
9.58 87.4 118 1000 12.3 1399 1865
VGF Series 152 165 3 6L, 8L, 12V, 16V 19.8 to 55 1100 to 1800 12.2 119 to 330 to
38.3 1400 530 880
WÄRTSILÄ * W Series 340 to 400 to 32.17 to 480 to 460 to 500, to 12,337 4050 9200
500 580 114 9L, 12V to 20V 1045 1070 720 514, 750 20 to 23 5431 to
22,931 25,828 to to ISO 3046; Gas Engine or Dual-Fuel
18,810 19,260

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 111

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 MECHANICAL DRIVE GAS TURBINES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

Continuous Output At
ISO Conditions Heat Rate
Maximum Output Shaft

Catalog Page Reference

MANUFACTURER Model Number bhp kW Btu/hph kJ/kWh Pressure Ratio Speed (rpm)
BAKER HUGHES 73, 87 NovaLT12 17,400 12,975 6914 9783 19 8900

112 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

NovaLT16-2 23,467 17,499 6784.5 9600 19 7800

PGT25 31,195 23,262 6793 9612 17.9 6500

PGT25+ 41,750 31,133 6280 8886 21.5 6100

PGT25+G4 45,160 33,676 6280 8886 23.2 6100

PGT25+G5 51,390 38,322 6187 8755 25.1 6100

LM2500 31,235 23,292 6797 9618 18.7 3600

LM2500+ 41,775 31,152 6523 9230 23.7 3600

LM2500+G4 45,077 33,614 6450 9127 24.3 3600

LM2500+G5 50,420 37,598 6070 8589 25 3600

LM6000PC 59,662 44,490 6028 8530 30.1 3600

LM6000PF 59,655 44,485 6018 8515 30 3600

LM6000PG 70,787 52,786 6042.4 8550 33.8 3930

LM6000PF+ 72,238 53,868 6052 8564 33.7 3930

LM9000 98,565 73,500 5783 8183 33 3429

LMS100-PB+ 147,512 110,000 5783 8183 44 3429

LMS100-PB 140,475 104,752 5719 8092 42 3429

Frame 5-2C 38,000 28,337 8701 12,312 9,1 4670

Frame 5-2D 45,570 34,000 8410 11,900 11 4670

Frame 5-2E 45,300 33,800 6884 9741 17,4 5714

Frame 6B 59,004 44,000 7591 10,741 12.7 5163

Frame 7EA 122,033 91,000 7501 10,614 13 3600

Frame 9E 177,012 132,000 7754 10,972 13.1 3000

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 MECHANICAL DRIVE GAS TURBINES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

Continuous Output At

www.compressortechsg.com
ISO Conditions Heat Rate
Maximum Output Shaft

Catalog Page Reference

MANUFACTURER Model Number bhp kW Btu/hph kJ/kWh Pressure Ratio Speed (rpm)
GTR & PC "ZORYA"-"MASHPROEKT" * UGT3000 (DE76) 4500 3360 8210 11615 13.5 9700
UGT6000 (DT71) 8990 6700 8080 11430 14.0 7330
UGT8000 (DT70) 11130 8300 7665 10845 16.0 8200
UGT10000 (DN70) 14080 10500 7270 10285 18.5 4800/6500
UGT15000 (DG90) 22400 16700 7270 10285 19.5 5200
UGT16000 (DJ59L2) 22400 16700 7955 11250 13.0 5200
UGT25000 (DU80) 34870 26000 7070 10000 21.5 5000
UGT25000 (DN80) 35800 26700 6975 9865 21.5 3700
UGT32000 (DU32) 43990 32800 6525 9230 22.8 5500
MAN ENERGY SOLUTIONS 56-57 MGT6000 9250 - 11,130 6900 - 8300 7270 - 7480 10,290 - 10,590 15 12,600
THM 1304-10N 14,080 10,500 8370 11,840 10 9450
THM 1304-12N 16,090 12,000 8210 11,610 11 9450
MITSUBISHI * MFT-8 35,910 26,780 6582 9313 21 5000
ASE-40 3038 2265 10,259 14,518 8.4 15,400
SIEMENS ENERGY * SGT Series 7644 to 54,994 5700 to 41,100 6121 to 7656 8661 to 10,832 13.8 to 24.3 6405 to 13,650
SGT-A35 Series 37,464 to 51,092 27,940 to 38,100 6289 to 6819 8893 to 9648 20.6 to 25.2 3600 to 5093
SOLAR TURBINES INCORPORATED Titan 250 31,900 23,790 6360 9000 24.1 7000
Titan 130 23,470 17,500 6800 9620 16.1 8855
Mars 100 15,900 11,860 7395 10,465 17.1 9500

Inside Back Cover

PRIME MOVERS TAB,
Mars 90 13,220 9860 7655 10,830 16.3 9500
Taurus 70 11,110 8290 7190 10,170 16.5 11,605
Taurus 60 7700 5740 7950 11,250 12.2 14,300
Centaur 50 6150 4590 8485 12,000 10.3 16,500
Centaur 40 4700 3500 9100 12,870 10.3 15,500
Saturn 20 1590 1185 10,360 14,655 6.7 22,300

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 113

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Cycle Frame
Type Configuration

Output Range
Maximum Inlet Maximum Inlet Maximum Speed
kW hp Steam Pressure Temperature Steam Flow Range (rpm)

SF = Single Flow
DF = Double Flow

Condensing
Back Pressure
E = Extraction
I = Injections

Catalog Page Reference

Number Frame Sizes
MANUFACTURER Model Type min max min max bar PSI °C °F kg/s lb/s min max

BAKER HUGHES 73, 87 SNC 2000 100,000 2,680 134,100 X I SF 140 2030 565 1050 180 400 2000 16,000

114 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

SANC 2000 100,000 2,680 134,100 X E/I SF 140 2030 565 1050 180 400 2000 16,000

SC 2000 150,000 2,680 201,153 X I SF 140 2030 565 1050 220 485 2000 16,000

SAC 2000 150,000 2,680 201,153 X E/I SF 140 2030 565 1050 220 485 2000 16,000

SDFC 5000 80,000 6,705 107,282 X I DF 30 435 300 570 100 660 2000 16,000

SGNC 2000 35,000 2,680 46,900 X I SF 30 435 300 570 180 400 2000 16,000

SGC 2000 60,000 2,680 80,500 X I SF 30 435 300 570 180 400 2000 16000

SGDFC 5000 60,000 6,705 80,500 X I DF 30 435 300 570 100 660 2000 16,000

C 500 6000 670 8050 X E/I SF 90 1305 500 932 3000 15,000

P 500 6000 670 8050 X E/I SF 90 1305 500 932 3000 15,000

BFPT 5000 30,000 6705 40,230 X SF 280 4060 575 1070 3000 6,000

MC 2000 45,000 2000 60,300 X E/I SF 140 2030 540 1004 3000 15,000

MP 2000 40,000 1350 53,600 X E/I SF 140 2030 540 1004 3000 15,000

ELLIOTT GROUP * YR 1 2600 1.00 3500 X X SF 5 103 1500 538 1000 15 34 500 7100

K, R, Q, N 745 130,000 1000 175,000 X X E/I SF/DF 4 151 2200 565 1050 303 670 1500 16,000

MYR 10,400 14,000 X X E SF 5 62 900 482 950 18 40 500 8500

E, B 336 8950 450 12000 X X SF/DF 2 65 950 510 950 29 63 2000 14,500

HOWDEN 80-81 KK&K BASE AF 30 750 40 1000 yes no no SF 2 101 1485 500 930 3 7 5000

KK&K BASE BF 2 350 3 475 yes no no SF 3 101 1485 500 930 4 9 4500

KK&K MONO 300 6000 400 8000 yes yes no SF 10 131 1925 530 985 40 88 25,000

combina-
tions of
KK&K TWIN 1000 12,000 1350 16,100 yes yes E, I SF, DF KK&K 131 1925 530 985 45 99 1500 3000
MONO
frames

KK&K MONO 300 4500 400 6000 yes no no SF 1 53 769 440 824 40 88 9000
CBA

www.compressortechsg.com
 MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
Cycle Frame
Type Configuration

Output Range

www.compressortechsg.com
Maximum Inlet Maximum Inlet Maximum Speed
kW hp Steam Pressure Temperature Steam Flow Range (rpm)

SF = Single Flow
DF = Double Flow

Condensing
Back Pressure
E = Extraction
I = Injections

Catalog Page Reference

Number Frame Sizes
MANUFACTURER Model Type min max min max bar PSI °C °F kg/s lb/s min max
MAN ENERGY SOLUTIONS 56-57 MST 010 500 1,500 670 2010 x x E, I SF 45 653 450 842 8000 16500

MST 020 1000 5000 1340 6700 x x E, I SF 130 1885 530 986 13000 13000

MST 040 3000 15000 4020 20100 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 4164 14206

MST 050 5000 30000 6700 40200 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 3559 11365

MST 060 15000 55000 20100 73700 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 2546 10166

MST 080 25000 75000 33500 100500 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 2038 7274

MST 100 40000 140000 53600 187600 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 1536 5819

MST 120 70000 180000 93800 241200 x x E, I SF 140 2030 540 1004 1536 4655

MITSUBISHI * EBL or EBH 2000 80,000 2700 107,300 X E SF 10 142 2060 560 1040 167 368 2600 25,000

MXL or MXH 2000 80,000 2700 107,300 X I SF 10 142 2060 560 1040 83 183 2600 19,000

EL or EH 2000 120,000 2700 160,000 X E SF 10 142 2060 560 1040 220 485 2600 19,000

BL or BH 2000 80,000 2700 107,300 X SF 10 142 2060 560 1040 167 368 2600 25,000

MITSUBISHI HEAVY *
INDUSTRIES COMPRESSOR 150,000 201,000 X X E,I SF, DF 170 2465 565 1050 14 30 20,000
INTERNATIONAL

SHIN NIPPON * C 50,000 50,000 67,000 67,000 X E/I SF/DF 7 130 1885 540 1004 14,000

B 50,000 50,000 67,000 67,000 X E/I SF 6 130 1885 540 1004 16,000

SIEMENS ENERGY * 20,000 2, 4, 8000 to

SST Series to X X E, I SF/DF Modular 30 to 165 430 to 2395 400 to 565 750 to 1050 18,000
200,000

D-R Series 750 to 1000 to X X E, I SF 25 63 to 125 915 to 1508 482 to 550 890 to 1022 6000 to
25,000 33,500 15,000

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 115

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

Voltage Speed Range

Output Range Range Motor For VFD A/A=Air/Air
A/W=Air/Water

Frequency Hz
VFD Operation
Explosion Proof
Available

Frame Size (kW) Poles (kV) Type Operation

Model R=Rib-Coated

Catalog Page Reference

(IM, SM) (50, 60) (Y/N)

Motor Efficiency (%)

At Rated Operating Point
Normal Power Factor
(cos Phi) At Rated
Operating Point

MANUFACTURER Designation min max min max (2, 4, 6) min max min max (Y/N) O=Open
BALDOR * Varies 143 to 184 to 1, 3, 4 4 to 22 4 200 230 to 60 N 89 85 Y A/A
183 286 575

116 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

CATERPILLAR INC. * CN Series 450 to 1119 to 6, 8 4/4.16 IM 60 Y 600 900, 1200 WPII
560 3729
CN2785 630 2700 8 10 IM 50 Y 750 IC611
ELIN MOTOREN GMBH * HKG (IC411) 355 560 200 2500 2 to 18 11 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y R
HKR (IC511) 710 1250 400 8000 2 to 24 15 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y A/A
HKL (IC611) 500 1250 400 16,000 2 to 24 15 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y A/A
HKH(IC7A0W7) 355 560 130 2500 2 to 8 11 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y W
MKH (IC7A0W7) 200 630 37 3000 2 to 10 0 1 IM 50, 60 Y 0 10,000 Y W
HKM (IC81W ) 450 1250 300 35,000 2 to 24 15 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y A/W
HRM Slip Ring 500 1250 500 25,000 2 to 8 15 IM 50, 60 98 Y A/W
Special Motors 355 1400 35,000 2 to 30 15 IM 50, 60 Y 98 Y
GE POWER CONVERSION * FL 280 450 200 800 2 to 8 3 11 IM 50, 60 Y 1 3600 97 0.92 N R
F3 355 560 500 2500 2 to 12 3 11 IM 50, 60 Y 1 5000 97.5 0.92 N A/A A/W O
AKG 355 560 200 1800 2 to 12 3 11 IM 50, 60 Y 1 3600 97.5 0.9 Y R

N Series 450, 630 1250, 500 to 8000 to 2 to 30 3 14 IM 50, 60 Y 1 3600, 97.8 0.93 N A/A A/W O
1600 4000 40,000 5000
MS 800 1600 7500 50,000 4 to 30 3 14 SM 50, 60 Y 1 1800 98 1 N A/A A/W O
TM 1000 1800 15,000 100,000 2 6 11 SM N/A Y 500 6500 98.5 1 N A/W
MGV 450 800 1500 20,000 2 3 9 IM N/A Y 3000 15,000 97.5 0.85 N INTEGRATED
HITACHI INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS, * HyMD 400 710 265 8500 2 to 12 3 14 IM 50, 60 Y 5 60 95 90 Y A/A, A/W, O
LTD.
JF2000 250 500 55 2250 2 to 12 3 6 IM 50, 60 Y 5 60 95 90 Y R
TECO WESTINGHOUSE * PDH 215T 405T 7.5 74.9 4 230 600 IM 60 Y 3 120 92.4 88 Y R
TMEIC * High-Speed 400 Special 500 to 70,000 to 2 2 14 IM 50 and up Y 3000 12000 98 1 Y TEAAC, TEWAC
Custom 10,000 100,000
High-Power 630 Special 10,000 25,000 to Any 2 14 IM or SM 50, 60 Y 1 3600 98 1 Y TEAAC, TEWAC
Custom 70,000

TM 21 Series 315 1200 160 25,000 Any 2 14 IM 50, 60 Y 1 3600 98 1 Y TEFC, WPII, TEAAC,
TEWAC
WEG * W22 215T 405T 7.5 74.9 4 230 600 IM 60 Y 3 120 92.4 83 Y R

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* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES 2023 BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

Step
Drive Number Of
Output Type Inverter Motor

www.compressortechsg.com
Range (kW) Rectifier Type Output Semiconductors Type Cooling
(VSI,
Model (6, 12, 18, 24, CSI, (6,12, 24 A=Air
(IM, SM)

Catalog Page Reference

Max. Motor Voltage (kV)
Inverter W=Water

Max. Output Frequency

(Hz)
MANUFACTURER Designation min max 36 Pulse, AFE) LCI) Pulse System) Rectifier
GE POWER CONVERSION * MV Series 3800 to 3.3 to 300 12 Puls to 36 Puls, VSI 3 Level Diode or IGBT IM or SM A or W
27,000 10 AFE IGBT
2xMV7927 54,000 10 300 2 x 36 Puls VSI 5 Level Diode IGBT IM or SM W

3xMV7927 81,000 10 300 3 x 36 Puls VSI 7 Level Diode IGBT IM or SM W

SD Series 4000 to 1.5 to 11 100 6 or 12 Puls LCI 6 or 12 Puls Thyristor Thyristor SM A or W

80,000
MV Series 250 To 4.1 to 75 to 90 36 Puls or AFE VSI 5 level Diode or IGBT IM or SM A
5500 6.6 IGBT
NIDEC ASI * Silcovert TN 1300 21,600 3300 140 12p, 24p, AFE VSI 6 Diode/IGBT IGBT IM A, W

Silcovert GN 10,000 24,000 3300 70 12p, 24p, AFE VSI 6 Diode/IGCT IGCT IM, SM W

Silcovert TH 290 42,400 2400 - 300 18p, 24p, 30p, 36p VSI 6 Diode IGBT IM, SM A, W
7200
Silcovert TH+ 1400 60,200 10.000 - 300 24p, 30p, 36p VSI 6 Diode IGBT IM, SM A, W
13.800
Silcovert FH 400 2500 3.300 - 100 AFE transformerless VSI 6 IGBT IGBT IM A
6.600
Silcovert S 1500 45,000 3.300 - 70 6p, 12p, 24p LCI 6, 12 Thyristor Thyristor SM A, W
6.600
VOITH TURBO * any is oper-
Variable speed 1000 50,000 motor motor
ated direct N/A N/A N/A N/A IM, SM A, W
planetary gear pos- online
sible
any is oper-
Geared variable speed 1000 30,000 motor motor
ated direct N/A N/A N/A N/A IM, SM A, W
coupling pos- online
sible
any is oper-
Variable speed 100 10,000 motor motor
ated direct N/A N/A N/A N/A IM, SM A, W
coupling pos- online
sible

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 117

* This company is not represented in the 2023 Sourcing Guide with a section describing its products.
TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

The following section covering Prime Movers for Mechanical Drives has been reproduced, by
permission, from the GPSA Engineering Data Book, 14th edition, published by GPSA. The complete
GPSA Engineering Data Book can be ordered by visiting GPSAmidstreamsuppliers.org/.

Prime movers for mechanical drives

“Prime movers for mechanical drives ” is a common term Single Stage/Multi-Stage
for machines made for transferring mechanical energy to pumps
and compressors, including: In a single-stage turbine, steam is accelerated through one
• cascade of stationary nozzles and guided into the rotating
• Steam turbines blades or buckets on the turbine wheel to produce power. A Ra-
• teau design has one row of buckets per stage (Fig. 15-2). A Cur-
• Gas turbines
• tis design has two rows of buckets per stage and requires a set
• Electrical motors of turning vanes between the first and second row of buckets to
• redirect the steam flow (Fig. 15-3). A multi-stage turbine uti-
• Internal combustion engines
lizes either a Curtis or Rateau first stage followed by one or
Special considerations for the use of prime movers as drives more Rateau stages.
for generators are not included in this chapter.
Single-stage turbines are usually limited to about 2500
horsepower although special designs are available for larger
STEAM TURBINE TYPES units. Below 2500 horsepower the choice between a single and
a multi-stage turbine is usually an economic one. For a given
Mechanical drive steam turbines are major prime movers
shaft horsepower, a single-stage turbine will have a lower capi-
for compressor, blower, and pump applications. Steam turbines
tal cost but will require more steam than a multi-stage turbine
are available for a wide range of steam conditions, horsepower,
because of the lower efficiency of the single-stage turbine.
and speeds. Typical ranges for each design parameter are:
Inlet Pressure, psig 30 – 2000 Condensing/Non-Condensing
Inlet Temperature, °F saturated – 1000 The energy available in each pound of steam which flows
Exhaust Pressure, psig saturated – 700 through the turbine is a function of the overall turbine pressure
Horsepower 5 – 100,000 ratio (inlet pressure/exhaust pressure) and inlet temperature.
Speed, rpm 1800 – 14,000 Condensing turbines are those whose exhaust pressure is below
Steam turbines used as process drivers are usually required atmospheric. They offer the highest overall turbine pressure
to operate over a range of speeds in contrast to a turbine used to ratio for a given set of inlet conditions and therefore require the
drive an electric generator which runs at nearly constant speed. lowest steam flow to produce a given horsepower. A cooling me-
Significant hardware differences exist between these two ap- dium is required to totally condense the steam.
plications. Only variable speed process drivers will be covered Non-condensing or back-pressure turbines exhaust steam at
here. pressures above atmospheric and are usually applied when the
Mechanical drive steam turbines are categorized as: exhaust steam can be utilized elsewhere.
•
• Single-stage or multi-stage Extraction/Admission
•
• Condensing or non-condensing exhausts Some mechanical drive steam turbines are either extraction
• or admission machines. Steam is extracted from, or admitted
• Extraction or admission
• to, the turbine at some point between the inlet and exhaust
• Impulse or reaction (Fig. 15-4). Admission or extraction units may be either con-
trolled or uncontrolled. An uncontrolled turbine accepts or pro-
vides steam based only on the characteristics of the steam sys-

FIG. 15-1
Nomenclature

N = number of power strokes per min

A = area, sq in. P = number of magnetic poles in motor
ASR = actual steam rate, lb/(hp • hr) s = specific entropy of superheated steam, Btu/(lb • °F)
• •
BMEP = brake mean effective pressure, psi sf = specific entropy of saturated water, Btu/(lb • °F)
•
D = diameter, in. sg = specific entropy of saturated steam, Btu/(lb • °F)
•
F = steam low, lb/hr S = piston stroke, ft
f = frequency, Hz TSR = theoretical steam rate, lb/(hp • hr)
•
h = specific enthalpy of superheated steam, Btu/lb v = velocity, ft/sec
hf = specific enthalpy of saturated water, Btu/lb ρ = density, lb/cu ft
ρ
hg = specific enthalpy of saturated steam, Btu/lb

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FIG. 15-2 FIG. 15-3

Rateau Design Curtis Design

tem to which the extraction or admission line is connected. A

controlled turbine will control the flow of extraction or admis-
sion steam based on some process measurement such as pres-
sure or flow. In general, if the horsepower associated with the fully open and its primary function is to shut off the steam
extraction or admission flow is greater than 15% of the total supply in response to a trip (shutdown) signal. In addition a
turbine horsepower, a controlled extraction (or admission) tur- trip-and-throttle valve can be used to modulate the steam flow
bine is used. during start-up and can be either manually or hydraulically
positioned from zero lift to 100% lift. The stop valve can only be
Impulse/Reaction positioned either in the closed or fully open positions. In order
Turbines are further categorized by the philosophy em- to minimize the pressure drop through the trip-and-throttle
ployed in the steam path design and are divided into two major valve, maximum inlet velocities are usually limited to 150 ft/
design concepts: impulse and reaction. In an impulse turbine sec. Velocities above this level will usually result in high pres-
the pressure drop for the entire stage takes place across the sure drops which will reduce turbine efficiency.
stationary nozzle. In reaction designs, the pressure drop per
stage is divided equally between the stationary nozzles and the Inlet Control Valves
rotating blades (Fig. 15-5). For given horsepower, speed and The primary function of the inlet control valve(s) is regula-
steam conditions, a reaction turbine will, in general, employ ap- tion of the steam flow to provide the appropriate horsepower
proximately three times more stages than an impulse turbine and speed. These valves may also close in response to a shut-
in the same turbine span. Most U.S. mechanical drive steam down signal. Throttling which occurs across the control valve(s)
turbines are of the impulse type. reduces the thermal performance of the turbine. This efficiency
loss is a function of the control valve design and overall turbine
STEAM TURBINE COMPONENTS pressure ratio. For a given amount of throttling, turbines with
large pressure ratios suffer smaller efficiency losses than tur-
Trip and Throttle Valve/Stop (Block) Valve bines with smaller pressure ratios (Fig. 15-7).
A trip-and-throttle valve or stop valve, or both, may be posi- Multi-stage turbines may have a single inlet control valve or
tioned between the steam supply and the turbine inlet control several control valves to regulate the inlet steam. Typical multi-
valve(s) (Fig. 15-6). During normal operation this valve remains valve steam turbines will have from three to eight control valves

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FIG. 15-4
Extraction/Admission Flow Turbines

FIG. 15-5 FIG. 15-6

Turbine Types Single Valve with Hand Valves

Nozzles/Blades (Buckets)
On constant speed turbines a design objective is to avoid all
bucket resonances at the operating speed. On variable speed
turbines, although the design objectives remain the same, it is
seldom possible to avoid all blade resonance because of the wide
operating speed range. In these cases it is important to identify
(Fig. 15-8). Multi-valve turbines have higher efficiencies at re-
all blade resonance and to verify that all stresses are well below
duced loads because only the flow through one of the control
the material strength.
valves is incurring a throttling loss (Fig. 15-9).
Turbines with a single control valve will often employ hand Exhaust Casings
valves to improve efficiency at reduced loads. For the turbine Turbine exhaust casings are categorized by pressure service
shown in Fig. 15-6 both hand valves would be open at or near (condensing or non-condensing) and number of rows of the last
full load. As the load on the unit is reduced one or both of these stage buckets (single flow, double flow, triple flow). Non-con-
hand valves can be closed to reduce throttling loss. Fig. 15-10 densing exhausts are usually cast steel with most of the appli-
shows the efficiency advantage at reduced loads. cations between 50 and 700 psig exhaust pressure. Most con-

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FIG. 15-7 FIG. 15-9

Loss in Available Energy of Steam due to 10% Throttling Multi-Valve vs Single-Valve Performance Characteristic
(Typical Non-Condensing Turbine)
Turbine Pressure Ratio = 8.0

FIG. 15-8
Multi-Valve Inlet

FIG. 15-10
Single-Valve with Hand Valves Performance
Characteristic (Typical Non-Condensing Turbine)
Turbine Pressure Ratio = 8.0

densing exhausts are steel fabrications although some utilize

cast iron construction. Maximum exhaust flange velocities are
typically 450 ft/sec. Velocities above this level will usually re-
sult in substantial increases in exhaust hood losses and will
decrease turbine efficiency. ternal to the turbine, can be used to remove a large percentage
of the moisture, improving the turbine efficiency and reducing
Moisture Protection the impact erosion on the buckets. Stainless steel moisture
As steam expands through the turbine both the pressure shields can also be used to minimize the impact erosion of the
and temperature are reduced. On most condensing and some stationary components.
non-condensing exhaust applications, the steam crosses the
saturation line thereby introducing moisture into the steam Control Systems
path. The water droplets which are formed strike the buckets Mechanical governors were the first generation control sys-
and can cause erosion of the blades. In addition, as the water is tems employed on mechanical drive turbines. Shaft speed is
centrifuged from the blades, the water droplets strike the sta- sensed by a fly-ball governor with hydraulic relays providing
tionary components, also causing erosion. Where the moisture the input to the control valve. A second generation control sys-
content is greater than 4%, moisture separators, which are in- tem was developed and utilized analog control circuitry with

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the fly-ball governor replaced by speed pick-ups and the hy- Operation at Part Load
draulic relays with electronic circuit boards. A third generation
control system was developed and replaced the electronic cir- Most equipment driven by steam turbines are centrifugal
cuitry with digital logic. A microprocessor is used and the con- machines where horsepower varies as the cube of speed. Part
trol logic is programmed into the governor. The major advan- load efficiency varies as a function of speed, flow, and the num-
tage of this system is the ability to utilize two governors ber of stages. By assuming horsepower to vary as the cube of
simultaneously, each capable of governing the turbine alone. If speed the turbine part load efficiency can be approximated as a
the primary governor incurs a fault, the back-up governor as- percentage of the design efficiency (Fig. 15-11).
sumes control of the turbine and provides diagnostic informa-
tion to the operator. EXAMPLES
Figs. 15-11 through 15-19 and 24-30 and 24-31 allow esti-
STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCY mates to be made of steam rate, turbine efficiency, number of
stages, and the inlet and exhaust nozzle diameters. The follow-
Factors Affecting Efficiency ing examples illustrate the use of these figures:
The objective of the steam turbine is to maximize the use of Example 15-1 — Given a steam turbine application with the
the available steam energy where the available steam energy is following characteristics:
defined as the difference between the inlet and exhaust ener-
gies (enthalpies) for a 100% efficient constant entropy (i.e., isen- Inlet Pressure 600 psia
tropic) process. There are numerous loss mechanisms which Inlet Temperature 750°F
reduce the efficiency from the isentropic such as throttling loss-
es, steam leakage, friction between the steam and the nozzles/ Exhaust Pressure 2 psia
buckets, bearing losses, etc. Efficiency can range from a low of Required Horsepower 6000 hp
40% for a low horsepower single-stage turbine to a high ap- Speed 7000 rpm
proaching 90% for a large multistage, multi-valve turbine.
Determine:
Techniques to Improve Efficiency • The actual steam rate (ASR).
Various techniques are employed to maximize turbine effi-
ciency, each designed to attack a specific loss mechanism. For • The inlet and exhaust nozzle diameters.
example, the number of stages utilized can range from the few- • The approximate number of stages.
est possible to develop the load reliably to the thermodynami-
cally optimum selection. Spill bands can be utilized to minimize • The steam rate at a partial load of 4000 hp and 6100 rpm.
throttling losses. High efficiency nozzle/bucket profiles are
available to reduce friction losses. Exhaust flow guides are Solution Steps
available to reduce the pressure within the exhaust casing. Using Figs. 24-30 and 31, the theoretical steam rate (TSR)
The specific features employed on a given application are may be determined from the difference in the inlet enthalpy
usually based on the trade-off between capital investment and and the theoretical exhaust enthalpy (i.e. isentropic exhaust
the cost to produce steam over the life of the turbine.
FIG. 15-12
Basic Efficiency of Multi-Valve,
Multi-Stage Condensing Turbines

FIG. 15-11
Part Load Efficiency Correction Factor vs Percent
Power Multi-Valve Steam Turbines

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enthalpy), but first the inlet and exhaust states should be con- 24-31 instead of 24-30 would be applicable.
firmed. Fig. 24-31 for superheated steam indicates that the in-
let is superheated (i.e., 750°F is above the saturation tempera- Inlet conditions at 600 psia and 750°F (the average of the
ture of 486.2°F), and gives an inlet entropy of 1.6109 Btu/(lb • values at 700°F and 800°F on Fig. 24-31):
°F). From Fig. 24-30, for saturated steam at the turbine exhaust s = 1.6109 Btu/(lb • °F)
pressure of 2 psia absolute, the liquid and vapor entropies are
0.1750 and 1.9200 Btu/(lb • °F). Since the inlet entropy is within h = 1379.4 Btu/lb
this range, the theoretical exhaust must be two-phase. Had the Exhaust conditions at 2.0 psia:
exhaust-vapor entropy been equal to the inlet entropy, the ex-
haust would be single-phase vapor (i.e. at its dewpoint). Had sf = 0.1750 Btu/(lb • °F)
the exhaust-vapor entropy been below the inlet entropy, the as-
sumed two-phase exhaust would have been incorrect and Fig. sg = 1.9200 Btu/lb • °F)
hf = 94.03 Btu/lb
FIG. 15-13
hg = 1116.2 Btu/lb
Basic Efficiency of Multi-Valve, Multi-Stage
Non-Condensing Turbines Letting x equal the liquid fraction in the exhaust, and equating
the inlet and exhaust entropies:
1.6109 = x (0.1750) + (1 – x)(1.9200)
x = 0.1771
1 – x = 0.8229 (vapor fraction in the exhaust)
Exhaust enthalpy = (0.1771)(94.03) + (0.8229)(1116.2)
= 935.2 Btu/lb
Enthalpy change = 935.2 – 1379.4
= –444.2 Btu/lb
Substituting Btu = (hp • hr)/2544:
Enthalpy change = (–444.2/2544) = (–1/5.727)(hp • hr)/lb
TSR = the absolute value of the inverse of the enthalpy
change = 5.727 lb/(hp • hr)
Basic efficiency = 0.729 (Fig. 15-12)
Inlet saturation temperature = 486.2°F (first column
Fig. 24-31)
Inlet superheat = 750 – 486 = 264°F
Superheat efficiency-correction factor = 1.03 (Fig. 15-14)

FIG. 15-14 FIG. 15-15

Superheat Efficiency Correction Factor Superheat Efficiency Correction Factor
for Condensing Turbines for Non-Condensing Turbines

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Speed efficiency-correction factor = 0.957 (Fig. 15-16) A 30 in. exhaust nozzle would be selected.
Corrected efficiency = (0.729)(1.03)(0.957) = 0.719 The number of stages may be estimated using Fig. 15-18.
Drawing a horizontal line from the 7000 RPM indicates that
ASR = 5.727/0.719 = 7.97 lb/(hp • hr) between 1.5 and 2 stages per 100 Btu/lb of available energy
F = (6000 hp) 7.97 lb/(hp • hr) would be acceptable.

= 47,800 lb/hr Available Energy (theoretical)(i.e., the isentropic enthalpy

change calculated above)
The inlet and exhaust diameters may be estimated from the
equation: = 444.2 Btu/lb


Number of Stages
(0.051) (F)
D= Eq 15-1 (1.5) (444)
(ρv) = = 7 (approximately)
(100)
A reasonable rule of thumb for maximum velocity of the in-
let steam is 150 (ft/sec). or, Number of Stages
ρ = 0.88 lb/ft @ 600 psia and 750°F
3 (2) (444)
= = 9 (approximately)
(100)


(0.051) (47,800)
D= Nine stages would provide increased efficiency but at addi-
(0.88) (150) tional cost.
D = 4.3 in. At partial load of 4000 hp and 6,100 RPM and assuming
A 4 in. NPS (minimum) inlet nozzle would be selected. seven stages from Fig. 15-11, a part load efficiency factor of ap-
proximately 0.96 is obtained. From Fig. 15-12, the basic effi-
For exhaust sizing a maximum steam velocity of 450 ft/sec ciency at 4000 hp and 6,100 RPM is estimated to be 0.71.
is a reasonable rule of thumb.
Efficiency = (0.96) (0.71) = 0.68
ρ = 0.0057 lb/ft3 @ 2 psia
Actual Steam Rate = 5.73/0.68 = 8.43 lb/(hp • hr)

 (0.0057) (450)
(0.051) (47,800) F = (4000) (8.43) = 33,700 lb/hr
D=
Example 15-2 — Determine the ASR and total steam require-
D = 30.8 in. ments for a multi-stage turbine and a single-stage turbine at
the following conditions:
FIG. 15-16 Inlet Pressure 250 psig
Speed Efficiency Correction Factor for Condensing Outlet Pressure 100 psig
and Non-Condensing Turbines Inlet Temperature 500°F
Horsepower 900 hp
Speed 5000 rpm

FIG. 15-17
Pressure Ratio Efficiency Correction
Factor, Non-Condensing Turbines

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Solution Steps TSR = the absolute value of the inverse of the enthalpy
change = 33.5 lb/(hp • hr)
For a multi-stage turbine:
Basic efficiency = 66% (Fig. 15-13)
Examining Figs. 24-30 and 31 in the same way as in Exam-
ple 15-1, the turbine inlet is superheated, and the exhaust is Inlet saturation temperature = 406.0 °F (interpolating
two-phase. between 260 and 280 psia
on Fig. 24-31)
Inlet conditions at 250 psig (264.7 psia) and 500°F (interpolat-
ing linearly between 240 and 260 psia on Fig. 24-31): Inlet superheat = 500 – 406 (Fig. 24-31) = 94°F
s = 1.5873 Btu/(lb • °F) Efficiency-correction factor for superheat = 0.99 (Fig. 15-15)
h = 1261.8 Btu/lb Efficiency-correction factor for speed = 1.01 (Fig. 15-16)
Exhaust conditions at 100 psig (i.e. 114.7 psia). From Fig. 24-30 Pressure ratio = (114.7 psia)/(264.7 psia) = 0.433
interpolating linearly between 89.64 psia at 320°F and 117.99
psia at 340°F, get the following for 114.7 psia: Efficiency-correction factor for pressure ratio = 0.97 (Fig.
15-17)
sf = 0.4872 Btu/(lb • °F)
ASR = [33.5 lb/(hp • hr)]/[(0.66) (0.99) (1.01) (0.97)]
sg = 1.5918 Btu/(lb • °F)
= 52.3 lb/(hp • hr)
hf = 308.9 Btu/lb
F = [52.3 lb/(hp • hr)] (900 hp)
hg = 1189.5 Btu/lb
= 47,100 lb/hr
Letting x equal the liquid fraction in the exhaust, and equating
the inlet and exhaust entropies: For a single-stage turbine

1.5873 = x (0.4872) + (1 – x) (1.5918) ASR = [75 lb/(hp • hr)] (0.93) (Fig. 15-19)
x = 0.0041 = 70 lb/(hp • hr)
1 – x = 0.9959 (fraction vapor in exhaust) F = [70 lb/(hp • hr)] (900 hp)
Exhaust enthalpy = (0.0041)(308.9) + (0.9959)(1189.5) = 63,000 lb/hr
= 1185.9
Enthalpy change = 1185.9 – 1261.8 = –75.9 Btu/lb
Substituting 1 Btu = (hp • hr)/2544:
FIG. 15-19
Enthalpy change = (–75.9/2544) = (–1/33.5)(hp • hr)/lb) Single-Stage Application

FIG. 15-18
Stages Required per 100 Btu/lb of Available Energy
as a Factor of Normal Turbine Speed

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GAS TURBINES tion levels, etc.). This can often be done by an operator at a
location remote from the actual turbine installation.
General
Installation
Gas turbines are extensively used in all phases of the gas industry
as a source of shaft power. They are used to drive compressors, The relatively light weight, compact size, and simple design
generators, and other equipment required to produce, process, of gas turbines make them an attractive choice where power
and transport natural gas. The main advantages of gas turbines must be quickly installed in the field. The gas turbine is often
are: delivered on an integral one-piece baseplate with all auxiliary
equipment installed and tested by the manufacturer. Thus, con-
• Compact, light weight design. struction and start-up time are minimized.
• Minimal maintenance.
GAS TURBINE TYPES
• Short installation time.
The gas turbine was first widely used as an aircraft power
Compact, Lightweight Design plant. However, as they became more efficient and durable,
they were adapted to the industrial marketplace. Over the
The compact, lightweight design of gas turbines makes them years the gas turbine has evolved into two basic types for high-
ideally suited for offshore platform installations, portable gen- power stationary applications: the industrial or heavy-duty de-
erating sets, remote sites, or any application where size and sign and the aircraft derivative design.
weight are important considerations.
Heavy Duty
Maintenance
The industrial type gas turbine is designed exclusively for
Once installed, the gas turbine requires a minimum of rou- stationary use. Where high power output is required, 35,000 hp
tine maintenance. It is important to monitor the operating pa- and above, the heavy duty industrial gas turbine is normally
rameters of the turbine (pressures, temperatures, speed, vibra- specified. The industrial gas turbine has certain advantages

FIG. 15-20
Typical Gas Turbine Skid Layout

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which should be considered when determining application re- • Lighter and more compact, an asset where weight limita-
quirements. Some of these are: tions are important such as offshore installations.
• Less frequent maintenance. Single Shaft/Split Shaft
• Can burn a wider variety of fuels. Gas turbine designs are also differentiated by shaft configu-
• Available in larger horsepower sizes. ration. In a single shaft design, all rotating components of the
gas turbine are mounted on one shaft. In a split shaft design,
Aircraft Derivative the air compressor rotating components are mounted on one
shaft, and the power turbine rotating components are mounted
An aircraft derivative gas turbine is based on an aircraft on another shaft. The driven equipment is connected to the
engine design which has been adapted for industrial use. The power turbine shaft. The single shaft design is simpler, requir-
engine was originally designed to produce shaft power and later ing fewer bearings, and is generally used where the speed range
as a pure jet. The adaptation to stationary use was relatively of the driven equipment is narrow or fixed (as in generator
simple. sets). It requires a powerful starting system since all the rotat-
Some of the advantages of the aircraft derivative gas tur- ing components (including the driven equipment) must be ac-
bines are: celerated to idle speed during the start cycle.

• Higher efficiency than industrial units. A split shaft design is advantageous where the driven equip-
ment has a wide speed range or a high starting torque. The air
• Quick overhaul capability. compressor is able to run at its most efficient speed while the

FIG. 15-21
Gas Turbine Internals

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power turbine speed varies with the driven equipment. The FIG. 15-22
split shaft design allows a much smaller starting system since
only the air compressor shaft is accelerated during the start Ideal Brayton Cycle
cycle.

GAS TURBINE CYCLES

The basic gas turbine cycle is termed the Brayton cycle. The
ideal Brayton cycle is a closed cycle consisting of an isentropic
compression process; a constant pressure external heating pro-
cess; an isentropic expansion process; and finally a constant
pressure external cooling process which returns the working
substance to the inlet state of the compression process. A sche-
matic and TS diagram of the ideal Brayton cycle are shown in
Fig. 15-22. The turbomachinery used in the process includes an FIG. 15-23
axial flow or centrifugal compressor and an axial or radial flow
turbine. Simple Open Cycle

Simple Open Cycle

The simple open cycle gas turbine takes atmospheric air
into the compressor as the working substance. Following com-
pression, the air enters the combustion chamber where the tem-
perature is raised by the combustion of fuel. The gaseous com-
bustion products are then expanded back to the atmosphere
through a turbine. A diagram of this cycle is shown in Fig. 15-
23. The turbine in this system derives enough power from the
high temperature gas to drive both the compressor and load.

Regenerative Ideal Brayton Cycle

The use of a regenerator in an ideal Brayton cycle acts to
reduce the amount of available energy lost by external heat ex-
change. The system schematic is illustrated in Fig. 15-24. This FIG. 15-24
available energy loss is due to irreversible heat input and is il-
lustrated in Fig. 15-25. A heat exchanger or regenerator is Regenerative Ideal Brayton Cycle
placed in the system to transfer heat internally from the hot
exhaust gas to the cooler air leaving the compressor. This pre-
heating of the combustion air thus reduces the amount of exter-
nal heat input needed to produce the same work output.

Combined Cycle
Instead of using the hot exhaust gas for regeneration, this
approach uses exhaust gas to generate steam. This steam can
be used either as a supplement to the plant steam system or to
generate additional horsepower in a Rankine cycle. In the basic
Rankine cycle, the hot exhaust gas passes successively through
the superheater, evaporator, and economizer of the steam gen-
erator before being exhausted to the atmosphere. The steam
leaving the boiler is expanded through a steam turbine to gen-
erate additional power. The cycle is closed by the addition of a FIG. 15-25
condenser and feed water pump completing a basic Rankine
Ideal Brayton Cycle Available Energy
cycle. Since the steam cycle does not require any additional fuel
to generate power, the overall thermal efficiency is increased.
Fig. 15-26 shows schematically a typical installation and its TS
diagrams.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Lube Systems
Two types of oils are used in lubricating gas turbine equip-
ment. They are mineral and fire-resistant synthetic based oils.
The oil type used depends on the bearing construction of the
particular turbine.
Babbitt type sleeve and thrust bearings, typical of heavy
duty turbines, use a mineral based oil. Driven equipment such

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as compressors, gear, and generators also use this type oil, thus There are various types of filters. The main types are as fol-
a common, combined lube system can be provided for the train. lows:
Aircraft derivative gas generators all incorporate anti-fric- Inertial — This type removes the larger particulates from
tion type ball and/or roller bearings. A synthetic oil is used in the inlet air.
this service and is provided in a separate system from the min-
eral oil system used to lubricate the driven equipment. An oil Prefilters — These are medium filters usually made of cot-
scavenging system is also typical of these gas generators. En- ton fabrics or spun-glass fibers, used to extend the life of a high
gine mounted pumps are used to scavenge oil from the main efficiency filter further downstream.
bearing pumps and return it to the reservoir. Coalescers — These filters are used to remove moisture
from the inlet air system.
Air Filtration
High Efficiency Media — These filters remove smaller
The primary reason for inlet air filtration is to prevent un- dirt particles from the inlet air.
wanted dirt from entering the gas turbine. By reducing the con-
taminants which contribute to corrosion, erosion, and fouling, Marine or Demister — These filters are used in marine
the gas turbine life is extended. environments to remove both moisture and salt.
Self-Cleaning — These filters are composed of a number of

FIG. 15-26
Combined Cycle

15-12
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high efficiency media filter “banks.” Air is drawn through the sary to provide gas and fire detection and fire extinguishing
media at a low velocity and, at a predetermined pressure drop equipment inside the enclosure.
across the system, a reverse blast of air removes built-up dirt on
the filter and lowers the pressure drop. This filter can be used The last major source of noise to be silenced is the gas tur-
in any environment. It is particularly useful in colder climates bine exhaust noise. Since most turbines exhaust vertically,
where ice build-up is a problem. The reverse blast of air also there is generally no need for an elbow. However, a silencer
removes any ice that has built up on the filter. with acoustic baffles is needed and the exhaust ducting should
be sound insulated.
Another method of eliminating icing problems is to install
an anti-icing system. In this system, heated air from the gas GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE
generator discharge is introduced through distribution mani-
folds immediately downstream of the inlet air silencer. The performance of a gas turbine is usually expressed in
terms of power and heat rate. Power is the net power available
The selection of a filtration system is largely dependent on at the output shaft of the turbine after all losses and power
the site location and operating conditions. Fig. 15-27 suggests take-offs have been subtracted.
filtration for various types of environments.
Heat rate is a measure of thermal efficiency or the amount
Since filters do protect the gas turbine and help extend its of heat energy (in the form of fuel) which must be input to the
useful life, some type of filtration is always recommended. gas turbine to produce the output power. Heat rate is usually
expressed in terms of Btu/(hp • hr) or Btu/(kW • hr) based on the
Acoustics lower heating value of the fuel. Heat rate and thermal efficiency
The noise created by a gas turbine engine is considerable are related as follows:
and must be reduced to protect plant personnel and minimize 2544
environmental impact. The main sources of noise in a gas tur- Thermal efficiency =
bine installation are the intake, the exhaust, and casing radi- Btu (LHV)
Heat Rate,
ated noise. hp • hr
The noise associated with the intake is characterized as 3414
=
high frequency noise. This type of noise is the loudest and most Btu (LHV)
disturbing to the ear since it is in a range where hearing is most Heat Rate,
kW • hr
sensitive. The second most objectionable noise is produced by
the gas generator and power turbine and is radiated from the Power and heat rate both vary depending on environmental
casing. Although the exhaust noise contains more energy, the conditions such as ambient air temperature, altitude, baromet-
casing noise is more objectionable since it contains more noise ric pressure, and humidity. Therefore, when performance is
in a frequency range where the ear is most sensitive. The ex- stated for a gas turbine, the ambient conditions must be de-
haust noise is a low frequency noise which is only slightly au- fined. In order to compare different gas turbines, a set of stan-
dible. It does, however, possess a considerable amount of energy dard conditions known as ISO (International Standards Orga-
which results in a detectable pressure change. nization) conditions have been defined as follows:
A variety of methods can be used to attenuate noise. The ISO Conditions: Ambient Temperature = 59°F = 15°C
most common are the use of silencers and enclosures. The inlet Altitude = 0 ft (sea level)
noise is the first area considered since this is where the largest Ambient Pressure = 29.92 in. Hg
amount of sound power is produced. Inlet noise is the loudest Relative Humidity = 60%
directly in front of the inlet opening. Consequently, the least All gas turbine performance is stated in ISO conditions. To
expensive method for obtaining some of the required noise re- arrive at site rated horsepowers, the ISO conditions must be
duction is to place an elbow at the inlet. Additional silencing is corrected for the following:
usually necessary and can be attained by the use of acoustic
baffles before the elbow. Altitude (Fig. 15-28)
Inlet Losses (Fig. 15-29)
Casing radiated noise can be reduced by using an acoustical Exhaust Losses (Fig. 15-30)
enclosure over the turbine. If an enclosure is used, it is neces- Temperature (Fig. 15-31)
Humidity (below)
FIG. 15-27
For changing relative humidity, the power output does not
Gas Turbine Air Filtration change, and the heat rate changes only slightly. For example,
for an increase in relative humidity from 60 to 100 percent, a
Type of Environment Suggested Filtration typical correction factor for the heat rate is 1.0016. For a de-
Rural Country High Efficiency Media
crease to zero percent, a typical correction factor is 0.9979.

Urban/Industrial Inertial & High Efficiency Media Performance is also affected by other installation variables
including power take-offs and type of fuel used. Inlet loss is the
Desert Inertial and Media or Self- pressure drop which occurs as the outside air passes through
Cleaning the inlet filters and plenum. Similarly, exhaust loss is the pres-
Tropical Inertial & Media sure drop through the exhaust stack, silencers, and heat recov-
Arctic High Efficiency Media with
ery equipment (if any) which creates a back pressure on the
Anti-Icing or Self-Cleaning
turbine. Power take-offs include any devices such as oil pumps,
generators, etc. which are directly driven from the gas turbine
Offshore Demisters output shaft and thus reduce the available output power. Some-
times it is necessary to correct power and/or heat rate for the

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type of fuel used in the gas turbine. The turbine manufacturer’s FIG. 15-28
performance brochure should be consulted for necessary correc- Altitude Correction Factor
tions.
The following example shows the method of calculating per-
formance for a gas turbine at site conditions using data typi-
cally supplied in the manufacturer’s performance brochure.
Example 15-3 — Calculate maximum available site power and
heat rate for the example gas turbine at the following condi-
tions:
Turbine ISO Horsepower = 27,500
Turbine ISO Heat Rate = 7,090 Btu/(hp • hr)
Ambient Temperature = 80°F
Altitude = 1000 ft (above sea level)
Inlet Pressure Drop = 4 in. H2O
Exhaust Pressure Drop = 2 in. H2O
Relative Humidity = 60%
Fuel = Natural Gas

Solution Steps
Find the power altitude correction factor from Fig. 15-28.
For 1000 ft altitude, the correction factor is 0.965.
Find power inlet loss correction factor from Fig. 15-29. For
4 inches of water, the correction factor is 0.984.
Find power exhaust loss correction factor from Fig. 15-30.
For 2 inches of water, the correction factor is 0.9965.
Find the power ambient temperature correction factor from
Fig. 15-31. For 80°F the correction factor is 0.915. FIG. 15-29
Since relative humidity is 60% and fuel is natural gas, no Inlet Loss Correction Factor
corrections are required.
Calculate the maximum available site power by multiplying
maximum-no-loss power by each of the correction factors.
Power (site) = power (0.965) (0.984) (0.9965) (0.915)
Power (site) = 27,500 (0.965) (0.984) (0.9965) (0.915)
Power (site) = 23,800 hp
For the heat rate find the inlet loss correction factor, ex-
haust loss correction factor, and ambient temperature correc-
tion factor from Figs. 15-29, 15-30, and 15-31, respectively.
(Note: Heat rate is not affected by altitude.)
Inlet loss factor = 1.0065
Exhaust loss factor = 1.003
Temperature factor = 1.03
Calculate site heat rate by multiplying no-loss heat rate by
the correction factors.
Heat rate (site) = (Heat rate) (1.0065) (1.003) (1.03)
Heat rate (site) = [7090 Btu/(hp • hr)](1.0065)(1.003)(1.03)
Heat rate (site) = 7370 Btu/(hp • hr)
The above calculation procedures may vary slightly with dif-
ferent manufacturers but will follow the same principles.
Basic specifications for some of the commonly used gas tur-
bine engines are shown in Fig. 15-32.

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FIG. 15-30 Gas Turbine Emissions

Exhaust Loss Correction Factor The gas turbine, in general, is a low emitter of exhaust gas
pollutants relative to other heat engines in similar service. This
is because the fuel is burned with ample excess air to ensure
complete combustion at all but minimum load conditions. It is
unique in its ability to burn a wide variety of fuels making each
application unique in terms of exhaust emissions. However, gas
turbine engine emissions recently have become a major factor
in the design, selection, and operation of the unit. Various fed-
eral, state, and local authorities have issued standards and
codes to control pollution of the atmosphere.
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions occur because of incom-
plete combustion of fuel carbon. CO emissions for distillate and
other liquid fuels are generally higher than for natural gas.
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) are formed by the incom-
plete combustion of fuel. Like CO emissions, they are directly
related to combustion efficiency. However, because most gas
turbine units on the market today have good combustor designs,
the CO and UHC emissions are of secondary importance to NOx
emissions.
Sulfur oxides (SOx) exhausted from gas turbines are a direct
function of sulfur content in the fuel.
The high temperature and oxygen content during combustion
tends to favor the formation of SO3 and SO2 at equilibrium. Sulfur
oxide emissions from pipeline natural gas are virtually zero while
wellhead gases, process gases, coal gases, and other fuels may con-
tain significant quantities of sulfur in the form of H2S.
Gas turbine particulate emissions are influenced by the fuel
properties and combustion conditions. Particulates generally
refer to visible smoke, ash, ambient non-combustibles, and
products of erosion and corrosion in the hot gas path. Particu-
FIG. 15-31 late and smoke emissions are usually small when burning natu-
Ambient Temperature Correction Factor ral gas, but are a significant consideration when operating on
liquid fuels.
Of the exhaust components the most significant are the ox-
ides of nitrogen (NOx). The amount of NOx produced is a func-
tion of the fuel burned, firing temperature, compressor dis-
charge temperature, and residence time in the combustion zone.
Since the trend towards high turbine efficiencies leads to higher
pressure ratios and firing temperatures, the emission rates of
NOx are higher for these units.
Nitrogen oxides are categorized into two areas according to
the mechanism of formation. NOx formed by oxidation of free
nitrogen in the combustion air or fuel is called “thermal NOx,”
while that due to oxidation of organically bound nitrogen in the
fuel is referred to as “organic NOx.” As implied by the name,
thermal NOx are mainly a function of the stoichiometric flame
temperature. The formation of thermal NOx is on the order of
parts per million (by volume) or ppmv; however, the conversion
of organic NOx is virtually 100%. Efforts to reduce thermal NOx
by reducing flame temperatures have little effect on, and actu-
ally may increase, organic NOx.
UHC emissions can be reduced by proper combustor design
for maximum efficiency. Sulfur oxides can be eliminated by re-
moving sulfur compounds from the fuel. Similarly, particulates
can be minimized by appropriate fuel treatment. However, re-
duction of NOx formation also produces increased inefficiency.
Two general approaches are used for NOx reduction:
• The use of an inert heat sink such as water or steam in-
jection.

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FIG. 15-32
2011 Basic Specifications — Gas Turbine Engines (Mechanical Drive)

Power At ISO RATING CONDITIONS

Rating Heat Rate Power
Pressure
Model (ISO (LVH) Shaft Turbine Inlet Exhaust Flow Exhaust
Ratio
Rating) Btu/hp-hr RPM Temp. °F lb/s Temp °F
hp
Dresser- Rand
VECTRA 30G 31,469 6816 17.9 6510 1530 149.7 1017
VECTRA 40G 42,102 6347 22.4 6510 1521 190.2 979
VECTRA 40G4 45,902 6316 23.6 6510 1571 198.4 1006
DR-63G PC 59,436 6042 27.9 3780 1578 280.0 855
DR-63G PG 66,822 6054 29.7 3930 1666 259.3 907
GE Oil & Gas
GE10-2 DLE 15907.2 7762.2 15.8 7900 103.6 912
GE10-2 16288.1 7620.9 15.6 7900 103.6 901
PGT16 19143.1 7042.7 20.1 7900 103.8 928
PGT20 SAC 24300.4 6974.1 19.7 6500 138.0 895
PGT20 DLE 24926.9 6984.7 19.8 6500 137.3 915
PGT25 DLE 31194.9 6793.2 17.9 6500 151.0 983
PGT25 SAC 31205.6 6756.4 17.9 6500 151.9 971
MS5002C 37950.9 8700.9 8.8 4670 274.0 963
MS5002C POWER
39520 8714 9.1 4670 270.0 1004
CRYSTAL
PGT25+DLE 41673.6 6207.2 21.5 6100 184.7 934
PGT25+SAC 42070.7 6187.4 21.5 6100 185.8 932
MS5002E 42912.7 7052.6 17 5714 225.5 947
MS5002D 43717.3 8411.1 10.8 4670 311.7 948
PGT25+G4 DLE 45164.3 6207.2 23 6100 197.3 955
PGT25+G4 SAC 45492.8 6208.7 23 6100 198.4 954
MS5002D POWER
45553 8413 10.4 4670 308.0 993
CRYSTAL
LM6000 PD 58809.2 5985.3 28.3 3600 274.9 851
LM6000 PF 58809.2 5985.3 28.3 3600 274.9 851
MS6001B 58955.4 8140.4 12.3 5160 322.3 1016
LM6000 PC SAC
59384.5 5971.9 27.9 3600 276.9 850
FIXED IGV
LM6000 PC SAC OPEN IGV 59558.8 5976.1 28.2 3600 278.9 846
LM6000 PC SAC
59663.4 5967.6 28.1 3600 278.2 849
VARIABLE IGV
MS7001EA 121362 7584.1 12.9 3600 662.0 1011
LMS100 134370 5767.6 40 3600 456.1 783
MS9001E 175272 7357.9 12.8 3000 926.6 1001
MAN Diesel & Turbo SE
THM 1203A 8046 10870 7.8 7800 1724 78.0 959
THM 1304-10R 12606 7011 10 9030 1787 100.0
THM 1304-10 13008 8715 10 9030 1787 100.0 932
THM 1304-11 15019 8206 10.8 9030 1823 108.0 941

Data reproduced by permission from Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide Catalog, courtesy of Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications.

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FIG. 15-32 (Cont’d)

2011 Basic Specifications — Gas Turbine Engines (Mechanical Drive)

Power At ISO RATING CONDITIONS

Rating Heat Rate Power
Pressure
Model (ISO (LVH) Shaft Turbine Inlet Exhaust Flow Exhaust
Ratio
Rating) Btu/hp-hr RPM Temp. °F lb/s Temp °F
hp
THM 1304-12 16226 8001 11 9030 108.0 959
THM 1304-14 17701 7881 11 9030 108.0 1013
FT8 34690 6615 19.5 5775 188.5 856
MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH
LM2500-PE 30180 6784 17.9 3600 152.0 975
LM2500-PH 36210 5986 19.3 3600 167.0 932
LM2500+(PK) 41840 6440 22 3600 192.0 959
LM6000 60346
Rolls-Royce
501-KC5 5500 8495 9.4 34.2 1060
501-KC7 7400 7902 13.5 46.2 968
Avon2648 21923 8323 9.6 179.0 799
Avon2656 22807 8022 9.6 179.0 788
RB211 - G62 39600 6705 20.8 209.0 916
RB211 - GT62 41450 6585 21.7 214.0 918
RB211 - GT61 44650 6285 21.7 210.0
RB211 - H63 50848 6134 23 235.0
RB211 - H63 59005 6247 25.1 254.6
Trent 60 DLE 70418 5939 34 337.8 824
Trent 60 WLE 79120 6074 35.3 358.6
Siemens AG Energy Sector
SGT-100 7640 7738 14.9 13650 43.4 1009
SGT-200 10300 7616 12.6 11525 64.9 919
SGT-300 11000 7738 13.3 63.9 928
SGT-400 18000 7028 16.8 10000 86.8 1031
SGT-500 26177 7373 13 215.9 696
SGT-600 34100 7250 14 8085 177.0 1009
SGT-700 42960 6805 18 6930 208.0 982
SGT-750 49765 6362 23.8 6405 249.8 864
Solar Turbines Incorporated
Saturn 20 1590 10370 6.7 22300 14.3 968
Centaur 40 4700 9125 10.3 15500 41.8 833
Centaur 50 6130 8500 10.3 16500 41.5 959
Taurus 60 7700 7965 11.5 13950 47.7 950
Taurus 70 10310 7310 16.5 11400 58.6 923
Mars 90 13220 7655 16.3 9400 88.5 869
Mars 100 16000 7370 17.7 9500 93.1 905
Titan 130 20500 7025 16.1 8500 110.3 941
Titan 250 30000 6360 24.1 7000 150.4 869

Data reproduced by permission from Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide Catalog, courtesy of Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications.

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• Modifications of fuel-air ratios and combustor design. match the requirements of the driven load and the available
power supply. Starting, pull-in, and pull-out torques can be se-
In addition to these two methods, catalytic combustion is lected over a wide range. Power factor improvement is available
being researched. with rated power factor of unity, leading, or even lagging.
Water or Steam Injection — Water or steam injection is
an effective way to reduce NOx exhaust emissions. Two areas of ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
caution in the design of this system must be considered. The
first is the dynamic effect that water injection has on the com- Induction Motors
bustion zone in terms of flame stability and dynamic pressures.
Inadequate design could adversely affect hardware life. Also In general, induction motors tend to draw more starting cur-
the rate of CO emissions increases with the rate of water injec- rent at a lower power factor than synchronous motors of the
tion. It is not effective in reducing organic NOx emissions and same size and speed. This results in a greater voltage drop on
may actually contribute to them. the system when the motor is started. If the motor is driving a
high inertia load, such as a fan or compressor, the lower termi-
Modification of Fuel-Air Ratio and Combustor Design nal voltage will increase the temperature rise of the squirrel
An increased number of gas turbines are available with low cage winding during acceleration. As a rule of thumb, voltage
NOx design based on modifications to fuel-air ratio and combus- drops on starting greater than 20% may require special motor
tor design. NOx content in flue gas as low as 10–25 ppm can be designs. These designs may reduce the full load efficiency of the
achieved by this method. motor during normal operation by one or two percent. It is best
to furnish a power supply that will limit the voltage drop to 20%
Different vendors have different approaches to effectively or less when starting the largest motor on a fully loaded bus.
control the fuel-air ratio to reduce NOx content. However, low
NOx turbines are available, both for single-fuel and dual-fuel Once started the induction motor is a stable machine. Most
systems from most vendors. motors can easily ride through a 25 to 30% dip in system volt-
age caused by external faults or switching. Overall system sta-
Low NOx designs make the gas turbines more complex, es- bility and continuity may be achieved by using large induction
pecially for dual-fuel systems. It is therefore recommended to motors. This is, however, accomplished at the expense of lower
carefully review the need for dual-fuel low NOx machines. power factor and efficiency.
In summary, the characteristics of gas turbine emissions
must be considered for each application, since each is unique to Synchronous Motors
the turbine, installation, fuel, and operation. All these factors The synchronous motor is usually easier to start than an
are important in matching the gas turbine to the job. induction machine. The system voltage drop on starting is less
for a given horsepower motor. However, synchronous motors
ELECTRIC MOTORS have less thermal capacity in their windings and may be more
severely taxed when accelerating high inertia loads.
Electric motor drives offer efficient operation and add flexi-
bility to the design of petroleum refineries, petrochemical Once synchronized and running, synchronous motors pres-
plants, and gas processing plants. Electric motors can be built ent special system problems. They may tend to pull out of syn-
with characteristics to match almost any type of load. They can chronism on voltage dips that induction motors can ride through.
be designed to operate reliably in outdoor locations where ex- A gradually increasing load from zero to 125% of rated load will
posed to weather and atmospheric contaminants. be easily accommodated. A suddenly applied load of 125% can
easily cause the motor to pull out of synchronism with the elec-
Proper motor application is essential if reliable performance trical system.
is to be achieved. Critical items to consider are load character-
istics for both starting and running conditions, load control re- When applying large synchronous machines to a system it is
quirements, power system voltage and capacity, and any condi- important to perform a transient load study. This will help as-
tions at the plant site that could affect the type of motor certain if the electrical system is capable of supporting the mo-
enclosure. tor demands under transient conditions.

A-C MOTOR TYPE AND SELECTION Speed

One of the first considerations in motor selection is to choose 3000 to 3600 rpm — Synchronous motors are seldom eco-
between a squirrel cage induction and a synchronous motor. nomical for this range because of the high cost of rotor construc-
The induction motor has the advantage of simplicity. It is a rug- tion. Although large (i.e., greater than 22,000 hp) two-pole
ged machine and has an outstanding record for dependability. 3600 rpm synchronous motors have been built, slower speed
In general it can accelerate higher load inertias than synchro- motors with step-up gears, or squirrel-cage induction motors
nous motors and usually will do so in less time. Induction motor are usually a more economic choice.
control is simple and no excitation equipment is required. Its 900 to 1800 rpm — Synchronous motors above 5000 hp are
principal disadvantages are that it operates at lagging power widely used for pumps and for centrifugal compressors with
factor and has higher inrush (starting) current. Up to about speed increasers. The need for power-factor correction, high ef-
5000 horsepower, induction motors are normally preferred. ficiency, low inrush, or constant speed may favor synchronous
Above this, induction and synchronous motor costs converge, motors below 5000 hp.
and synchronous motors are often chosen.
For applications above 2500 hp requiring speed increasers,
The constant-speed synchronous motor has inherent advan- 1200 rpm unity-power-factor synchronous motors should be
tages that often make it the logical choice for industrial drive evaluated against 1800 rpm motors since the lower-speed mo-
applications at lower power ratings. Load speed can be exact. tors are slightly more energy efficient. For 1200 rpm loads, syn-
Torque characteristics of the motor can be varied by design to chronous motors may be more economical at 1250 hp and above.

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PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

For 900 rpm loads, synchronous motors should be considered at

1000 hp and above. FIG. 15-33
Energy Evaluation Chart
Motor requirements below 500 hp in the 900 to 1800 rpm
NEMA Frame Size Motors, Induction
speed range are normally handled by standard induction mo-
tors.
Approx. Efficiency in
Amperes Based
514 to 720 rpm — Synchronous motors are often selected HP Full Load
on 460V
Percentage at Full
above 1 hp per rpm, such as 800 hp at 720 rpm, 700 hp at RPM Load
600 rpm, and 600 hp at 514 rpm. Standard High Standard High
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
Below 514 rpm — The synchronous motor should be con-
sidered for sizes down to 200 hp because of higher efficiency, 1 1,800 1.9 1.5 72.0 84.0
1,200 2.0 2.0 68.0 78.5
improved power factor, and possible lower cost. At high voltages
(4 kV and above), the synchronous motor becomes more eco-
1-1/2 1,800 2.5 2.2 75.5 84.0
nomical at even lower horsepowers. 1,200 2.8 2.6 72.0 84.0
Motor Voltage 2 1,800 2.9 3.0 75.5 84.0
The proper selection of voltage for a given motor drive can 1,200 3.5 3.2 75.5 84.0
vary from a routine procedure to a complex study requiring a
complete electrical system analysis. In many instances the in- 3 1,800 4.7 3.9 75.5 87.5
plant distribution system is well established at a particular 1,200 5.1 4.8 75.5 86.5
voltage, say 2300 (2.3 kV). The new machine may be small com-
5 1,800 7.1 6.3 78.5 89.5
pared to available system capacity on the 2.3 kV bus so no prob-
1,200 7.6 7.4 78.5 87.5
lem is involved in purchasing a standard motor of that voltage.
In more complicated cases additional substation capacity may 7-1/2 1,800 9.7 9.4 84.0 90.2
be necessary to accommodate the new machine. However, when 1,200 10.5 9.9 81.5 89.5
very large units are to be added, many factors must be consid-
ered. A new distribution voltage level, a new transmission line, 10 1,800 12.7 12.4 86.5 91.0
or a higher voltage transmission from the electric utility might 1,200 13.4 13.9 84.0 89.5
be necessary.
15 1,800 18.8 18.6 86.5 91.0
MOTOR ENCLOSURES 1,200 19.7 19.0 84.0 89.5

Motor enclosure selection should be predicated upon the en- 20 1,800 24.4 25.0 86.5 91.0
vironmental conditions under which the motor must operate. 1,200 25.0 24.9 86.5 90.2
Directly related to this is the amount of maintenance required
to provide long-term reliability and motor life. In general, the 25 1,800 31.2 29.5 88.5 91.7
more open the enclosure is to the atmosphere, the lower the 1,200 29.2 29.1 88.5 91.0
first cost of the machine but the higher the maintenance costs
that may be necessary. Enclosures frequently used in a-c mo- 30 1,800 36.2 35.9 88.5 93.0
tors are listed below. 1,200 34.8 34.5 88.5 91.0

Drip-Proof 40 1,800 48.9 47.8 88.5 93.0

1,200 46.0 46.2 90.2 92.4
These are generally used only indoors or in enclosed spaces
not exposed to severe environmental conditions. Maintenance 50 1,800 59.3 57.7 90.2 93.6
requirements will depend upon general cleanliness of the loca- 1,200 58.1 58.0 90.2 91.7
tion and any chemical contaminants in the area.
60 1,800 71.6 68.8 90.2 93.6
Weather-Protected Type I 1,200 68.5 69.6 90.2 93.0

This is the least costly outdoor machine. It is essentially a 75 1,800 92.5 85.3 90.2 93.6
drip-proof guarded motor with heaters and outdoor bearing 1,200 86.0 86.5 90.2 93.0
seals and is very susceptible to weather and atmospheric con-
tamination. Considerable maintenance may be required to en- 100 1,800 112.0 109.0 91.7 94.5
sure satisfactory winding and bearing life. 1,200 114.0 115.0 91.7 93.6

Weather-Protected Type II 125 1,800 139.0 136.0 91.7 94.1

1,200 142.0 144.0 91.7 93.6
This is the more commonly used outdoor enclosure. It is
more expensive than the WP-I but minimizes the entrance of 150 1,800 167.0 164.0 91.7 95.0
water and dirt. Maintenance is less than for WP-I types. Chem- 1,200 168.0 174.0 91.7 94.1
ical contaminants in gaseous form may be carried into a WP-II
machine with the ventilating air and attack parts that are vul- 200 1,800 217.0 214.0 93.0 94.1
nerable to them. 1,200 222.0 214.0 93.0 95.0

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Totally Enclosed Forced Ventilated (TEFV) The synchronous generator needs precise prime-mover speed
control to maintain its output at correct frequency. When con-
TEFV enclosures can be used indoors or outdoors in dirty or nected to a public utility system such a machine cannot be al-
hazardous environments. Since the motor cooling air is piped in lowed to deviate more than a fraction of a cycle from rated fre-
from a separate source the influx of dirt and gaseous contami- quency without being tripped off the line. However, speed
nants is minimized. Maintenance is minimal depending upon changes do not affect the voltage or power output of the genera-
the cleanliness of the cooling air. tor — only the frequency.
Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air For the induction machine, voltage and frequency remain
Cooled (TEWAC) constant, set by the connected power system, whatever the driv-
en speed. The speed change does directly affect the power out-
The totally enclosed water-to-air cooled machine uses an air put of the generator and therefore the temperature of its wind-
to water heat exchanger to remove heat generated by motor ings. Unless other machines are coupled into the same drive to
losses. It is the quietest enclosure available and will usually dampen speed swings, close control of rpm is almost as neces-
result in the lowest maintenance costs. It will breathe during sary to the induction generator as to the alternator.
shutdown but often a breather filter is used to remove particu-
late contaminants. It is more efficient than a TEFC motor be- Smaller generators (down to 300 kW) are finding many uses.
cause it does not have the external fan to drive. Its first cost is Among them:
greater than WP-II but less than TEFC, excluding any addi- • Recovering energy of compression on the downhill side of
tional capital cost for a cooling water system. Operating costs a natural gas pipeline.
are higher because of the necessity to continuously supply it
with cooling water. • Producing electric power from the expansion of geother-
mal steam.
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)
• Generating power through expansion of compressed gas-
This is the highest degree of enclosure for an air cooled ma- es in cryogenic production.
chine. In large sizes, the TEFC motor has an air-to-air heat ex-
changer. Internal motor air is recirculated around the outside • Recovering energy from single-stage waste steam tur-
of the tubes while outside air is driven through the tubes by a bines in the 5-175 psig inlet pressure range.
shaft driven fan. These motors are quite expensive especially in
large sizes because of the high volume of cooling air required SPEED VARIATION
relative to motor size. These motors are indicated for use in
Because of the continuing increase in the cost of electric en-
very dirty or hazardous locations.
ergy, variable speed drives offer an economical means of reduc-
The TEFC enclosure minimizes the maintenance required ing energy requirements in many areas of operation.
for these very dirty applications. However, the machines will
breathe when shut down and vapor and gaseous contaminants Variable Frequency Electric Motors
can be drawn into them. TEFC motors are usually noisy be- For many years variable speed applications relied on either
cause of the large external fan. d-c motors or a constant speed a-c motor coupled to various me-
chanical systems to provide the range of speeds required. Solid-
Explosion-Proof state electronics provide an effective means of speed control for
An explosion-proof machine is a totally enclosed machine a-c motors by changing the frequency of the electrical signal.
whose enclosure is designed and constructed to withstand an They can be used with both induction and synchronous mo-
internal explosion. It is also designed to prevent the ignition of tors.
combustibles surrounding the machine by sparks, flashes, or
A standard a-c motor operating at 60 hertz will operate at a
explosions which may occur within the machine casing.
constant speed, depending upon the number of magnetic poles
it has in accordance with the formula:
THE INDUCTION GENERATOR
120f
The induction generator can be used as a convenient means rpm = Eq 15-2
P
of recovering industrial process energy that would otherwise be
wasted. Excess steam or compressed gas can often drive such a However, if the input frequency can be varied in accordance
generator to convert useless energy to valuable kilowatts. with the speed requirements, then a wide range of speeds can
be obtained. For example, with a frequency range from 50 to
An induction generator is simply an induction motor driven 120 hertz, a 4-pole motor has a speed range from 1500 through
above its synchronous speed by a suitable prime mover. This 3600 rpm.
results in production rather than consumption of electric ener-
gy. Normally the induction generator does not differ in any as- Fixed Speed Electric Motors
pect of electrical or mechanical construction from an induction
motor. Only the operating speed range separates one mode of With Fluid Couplings
behavior from the other. The speed of an equipment item driven by a fixed-speed
Important differences exist between the induction generator electric motor can be varied with a fluid coupling. This is es-
and the more widely used synchronous generator. These are ba- sentially a pump discharging to a power-recovery turbine, both
sically the same as the differences between induction and syn- in the same casing. The pump is connected to the driver shaft
chronous motors. Besides low cost and simplicity of control an and the turbine to the driven shaft. The turbine speed is varied
important benefit is that the induction machine is instantly by varying the amount of fluid in the casing. Increasing the
convertible from generator to motor operation or vice versa. fluid increases the circulation between the pump and turbine,
thereby increasing the speed of the turbine. A fluid coupling

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 TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

costs less than electronic speed control but is less efficient. For Two-Stroke-Cycle — The four cycle engine requires two rev-
example, the typical efficiency for electronic speed control is olutions of the crankshaft for each power stroke. To get a higher
about 92–95% from minimum to normal speed, but for a fluid output from the same size engine, the two-stroke-cycle was de-
coupling is about 95% at normal speed, and can range from 50 veloped. This cycle is applicable both to compression ignition
to 70% at 50% speed, depending on the coupling make and and spark ignition engines. The two-stroke-cycle is completed
type. in one revolution of the crankshaft and consists of two piston
strokes: the compression stroke and the expansion stroke. Com-
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES bustion air intake occurs at the end of the expansion and the
beginning of the compression stroke. Ignition and combustion
Internal combustion engines are classified according to the occurs at the end of the compression and beginning of the ex-
type of fuel used and the method of fuel ignition. Many subclas- pansion stroke.
sifications are used to describe engines according to their speed,
cycle arrangements, mechanical configuration, and other de- Supercharged Engines — A supercharged engine has a
sign characteristics. compressor to increase the density of the combustion air before
it is inducted into the cylinder. Supercharging increases the
Engine Types power output from a given cylinder size by increasing the en-
gine mean effective pressure.
Spark ignition and compression ignition are the two meth-
ods of initiating combustion used in reciprocating internal com- Two types of supercharging are common: mechanical com-
bustion engines. In practice the ignition method also defines pressors driven by an engine auxiliary output shaft or a sepa-
the fuels or range of fuels used. rate prime mover and exhaust turbine driven compressor which
obtains its power from expansion of the engine exhaust. This
Spark Ignition — Natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas later type of supercharger is commonly called a turbocharger.
(LPG), or gasoline are the fuels used in spark ignition engines.
They are often referred to as gas engines or gasoline engines and Methane Number
resemble in appearance (except perhaps for size) and operation
the engines used in automobiles. High voltage electrical energy Most of the fuels used in internal combustion engines today,
fires one or more spark plugs per cylinder to ignite the air/fuel whether liquid or gaseous, are composed primarily of hydrocar-
mixture. Most spark ignition engines can be easily modified to bons (hydrogen and carbon). Natural gas is the most popular and
burn any of the above fuels. Often the fuel delivery system is the widely used of the petroleum gases. Other gas sources, such as
only part of the engine requiring significant changes. digester gas, or gas derived from coal which contain hydrocar-
bons, are also used in engines with varying degrees of success.
Compression Ignition (Diesel) — Engines that use heat
of compression as the ignition source are almost always referred Natural gas is a mixture of gases, some combustible and
to as diesel engines. A broad range of liquid fuels can be burned some inert. Different sources of natural gas, for example pipe-
in a diesel engine provided proper attention is paid to the han- line natural gas, LNG, CNG, etc. will have different composi-
dling and preparation of the fuel as well as to the design of the tions. Consequently, it is necessary to understand the charac-
engine. The type and quality of the fuel can have a significant teristics and behavior of an individual fuel source. For gaseous
effect on the service life of the engine. Diesel fuels are classified fuels, the methane number is the determining parameter for
under an ASTM designation D-975. This specification covers knock resistance of a gas stream in an internal combustion en-
limits for three grades of fuel which can be purchased commer- gine. It is comparable to the motor octane number of gasoline.
cially (Fig. 15-34). Engine manufacturers may also publish lim- Engine knocking must be avoided as it can cause excessive tem-
its for the fuels they recommend be used in specific engines. peratures and pressures which degrade the components of the
engine.
Dual-Fuel — Dual-fuel engines may operate in one of two
modes. One mode is as an ordinary diesel engine. It may also Typical natural gas streams have a methane number rang-
operate on a gaseous fuel with a pilot injection of liquid diesel ing from 75–98.1 The methane number is a function of gas com-
fuel for ignition. The pilot fuel provides less than 10% of the position, and uses a reference fuel blend of methane, with a
total fuel energy at full load. methane number of 100, and hydrogen, with a methane number
of 0. The determination of methane number is done via a pre-
Four-Stroke-Cycle — Most spark ignition engines use a scribed engine test. The time and cost associated with engine
four-stroke-cycle which is completed in two crankshaft revolu- testing makes this method an impractical approach to deter-
tions and consists of the following piston strokes: mining the methane number of a fuel source. There are a num-
ber of correlations available to determine methane number.
1. An intake stroke to draw the fuel/air mixture into the There are differences in the prediction of methane number, in
engine cylinder. some cases on the order of 10%. Accordingly, the reader is ad-
2. A compression stroke which raises the pressure and tem- vised to access the proprietary methods of their engine manu-
perature of the mixture. facturer to determine the suitability of a gaseous fuel for a par-
ticular application.
3. The expansion or power stroke from the ignition and
combustion of the fuel mixture. Engine manufacturers will specify the minimum methane
number of the fuel source required for their engines, typically
4. An exhaust stroke to free the cylinder of combustion 65 or greater.
products.
Speed
The four cycle diesel engine operates in a similar fashion. Dur-
ing the intake stroke only air is introduced into the cylinder. Com- Most process plant engines are used to drive equipment
pression of air alone causes a higher temperature to be reached in with a limited range of speed requirements, and which can be
the cylinder. The fuel is injected into the cylinder at the very be- selected to operate near the point of highest efficiency. Speed
ginning of the expansion stroke and spontaneously ignites. increasing or decreasing gears may be used to match an engine

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TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

with a particular service. Internal combustion engines are clas- • Heat rejection at a turbo aftercooler if applicable [100 to
sified according to speed in the following broad categories: 500 Btu/(bhp • hr)].
High speed — above 1500 rpm • Heat rejection at the lube-oil cooler [300 to 900 Btu/(bhp
Medium speed — 700 to 1500 rpm • hr)].
Low speed — below 700 rpm
New technologies have reduced specific weights (i.e. lb/bhp),
High speed engines can offer weight and space advantages increased fuel efficiencies, lengthened the periods between
but will usually require more maintenance than a medium or overhauls, and reduced emissions. Precisely programmed elec-
low speed engine. High speed engines are often selected for tronically controlled fuel injection incorporates ambient and
standby or intermittent applications. As a general rule the low- other important operating conditions to minimize fuel consump-
er the speed the longer the service life. Although internal com- tion and emissions over full operating ranges. Many engine de-
bustion engines are usually selected to run over a limited speed signs include pre-combustion chambers that jet flames into the
range, they will operate well over large ranges of speed just as main combustion chambers effectively igniting leaner air/fuel
an automobile engine does. mixtures (i.e. “lean burn”) resulting in higher efficiencies and
lower emissions. New thermal-barrier coatings (TBCs) insulate
PERFORMANCE RATING many engine components from thermal shock and reduce heat
losses that would otherwise decrease thermal efficiencies.
Several measurements of performance can be used to com-
pare engines. Four commonly used measurements are: Engine Energy Balance
1. Specific fuel consumption, (lb or Btu)/(bhp<$E• >hr) A gas engine converts the combustion energy in the fuel to
mechanical power and heat. The combustion energy is usually
2. BMEP, psi distributed as follows:
3. Specific weight, lb/bhp % Range
4. Output per unit of displacement, bhp/cu in. Mechanical power 30–40
The relationship between brake mean effective pressure Heat rejected to cylinder cooling 25–40
(BMEP) and brake horsepower (bhp) is given below. Heat rejected to oil cooler 3–5
(bhp) (33,000) Heat rejected to turbo aftercooler 4–9
BMEP = Eq 15-3
(S) (A) (N) Heat rejected to exhaust 25–30
The value of N is equivalent to RPM for two-stroke-cycle Heat rejected to atmosphere
engines, and RPM divided by two for four-stroke cycle. BMEP (i.e. surface heat loss) 3–6
indicates how much turbocharging increases the brake horse-
power which is the power delivered to the driven equipment by The mechanical power is the sum of the brake horsepower
the engine output shaft. (bhp) (i.e. available shaft power), and the power to drive such
engine auxiliaries as a lube-oil pump, cooling-water pump, ra-
The intended use of the engine will determine the most im- diator fan, and alternator (for a spark ignition engine).
portant measure of performance. For an aircraft engine the first
and third items may be the most important; while for a station- Fig. 15-35 includes engine power ratings, specific fuel re-
ary engine in continuous service with no space or weight limita- quirements (i.e., “heat rates”), heat rejections and exhaust con-
tions, the first item would be of primary importance.
The power delivered is directly related to atmospheric con- FIG. 15-34
ditions. Operation in areas of low atmospheric pressure (high
altitudes) will reduce the power output. High inlet air tempera- Grades of Diesel Fuel, ASTM D-975 (1995) Classification
ture will also reduce the power output. Engines are rated for
various altitudes above sea level (i.e. barometric pressures) and 1-D 2-D 4-D
ambient temperatures (e.g. 1500/3000 feet and 90°F according Flash point, °F Min 100 125 130
to DEMA; 1500 feet and 85°F; and so forth). A rule of thumb for
derating naturally aspirated engines is 3.5% reduction in Carbon Residue, % Max 0.15 0.35 –
power for each 1000 ft above the rating altitude, and 1% reduc- Water and Sediment,
tion for every 10°F above the rating temperature. For exact de- % by Vol Max 0.05 0.05 0.50
ration of naturally aspirated engines, or for turbocharged en-
Ash, % by Wt Max 0.01 0.01 0.10
gines, the manufacturers must be consulted.
Distillation °F
Following are gas-engine design parameters. The values 90% Pt Max 550 640 –
vary considerably depending on the engine type, make and Min – 540 –
model, and on the site conditions, but ranges of typical values
are given. Viscosity at 104°F
Centistokes Min 1.3 1.9 5.5
• Fuel-gas requirements (i.e. heat rate) [6500 to 8500 Btu/
Max 2.4 4.1 24.0
(bhp • hr), LHV].
Sulfur, % by Wt 0.05 0.05 2.0
• Heat rejection at the power-end exhaust manifold [1500
to 3000 Btu/(bhp • hr) with jacket water cooling, or 800 to Cetane No. Min 40 40 30
1500 without]. Aromaticity,
% by Vol Max 35 35 –

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 TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

ditions for a variety of gas engines. The values are based on full AUXILIARIES
design operating power at the speeds noted for various altitudes
above sea level and ambient temperatures. Bearings
An engine’s power efficiency, typically called “thermal effi- Hydrodynamic journal bearings are found in all types of
ciency,” is calculated from the following equation: industrial turbomachinery, which include pumps, electric
motors, steam turbines, electric generators, and gas compressors.
100 x 2544
Thermal Efficiency = The hydrodynamic bearing types most commonly found in
Heat Rate (Btu/(bhp • hr), LHV) turbomachinery are:
The total heat rejected is calculated from the following equa- • Plane cylindrical
tion:
• Pressure dam
Heat Rejected = (Heat Rate – 2544) Btu/(bhp • hr)
• Tilting pad
The heat rejected to the engine exhaust gas is calculated
from the following equation: For all bearing types, the fundamental geometric parame-
ters are journal diameter, pad arc angle, length-to-diameter
Exhaust Heat = Total heat rejected minus the sum of the ratio, and running clearance. Some bearing types, such as tilt-
Btu/(bhp • hr) heat rejected to cylinder cooling, oil ing pad bearings, have additional geometric variations includ-
cooling, turbo aftercooling, and engine- ing number of pads, preload, pad pivot offset angle, and orienta-
surface heat loss to the atmosphere tion of the bearing (on or between pads). The key operating
conditions are oil viscosity, oil density, rotating speed, gravity
It is technically feasible to recover part of the heat. Low tem- load at the bearing, and applied external loads (such as gear
perature heat at about 180°F, for such as space heating, can be mesh or pump volute loadings). A machinery expert should be
recovered from the cooling circuits for cylinder jackets, lube oil consulted for further details concerning types of bearings and
and turbo charged air. Higher level heat at above 300°F can be their applications and designs.
recovered by heat exchange with engine exhaust. Below 300°F
water vapor will condense with CO2 absorption, acid formation, Gears
and resulting corrosion. A heat recovery arrangement is illus-
trated in Fig. 15-36. Technical feasibility depends upon the eco- There are many different types of open gears such as spur,
nomic criteria and improves as the engine size increases. Heat helical, spiral bevel, and worm. This section will focus on en-
recovery can increase the overall thermal efficiency to as high closed high speed helical gear reducers or increasers commonly
as 75%. For example, an engine’s thermal efficiency can be in- used in the natural gas, refinery, and petrochemical indus-
creased from a typical regular value of 33% to 75% by recover- tries.
ing about 60% of the heat normally rejected to the coolant and Speed Increasers and Reducers — Speed increasers are
exhaust. usually used on centrifugal compressors, axial compressors,
Example 15-4 —Calculate the thermal efficiency, total heat re- blowers, and centrifugal pumps driven by motors, turbines, and
jected, and total exhaust heat for a Waukesha L7042GL at 1200 industrial combustion engines. Speed reducers are used on re-
RPM, 77°F and sea level, and its full power rating. ciprocating compressors, rotary positive displacement compres-
sors, centrifugal pumps, generators, and fans driven by turbines
Solutions Steps and motors.
From Fig. 15-35 High Speed Gears — High-speed gears are generally de-
fined as having either or both of the following:
Full Power = 1480 bhp
1. Pinion speed of at least 2,900 rpm.
Heat rate = 7284 Btu/(bhp • hr), LHV
2. Pitch line velocities above 5,000 ft/min.
Heat rejected to water
cooling, oil cooling, turbo = 1953 + 298 + 427 + 189 There are units operating with pitch line velocities in excess
intercooling, and radiation = 2867 Btu/(bhp • hr) of 35,000 ft/min and transmitting 30,000 hp.
Therefore: Gearing — High speed gears can be selected with either
single helical gearing (used extensively in Europe) or opposed
100 x 2544 double helical (i.e., “herringbone”) gearing (predominant in the
Thermal efficiency = = 34.9%
7284 United States). Pros and cons of each type of gear design are
Heat rejected per bhp = 7284 – 2544 = 4740[Btu/(bhp • hr)] numerous with double helical gearing being more efficient be-
cause there is only one thrust bearing required. The thrust
Total heat rejected = 4740 [Btu/(bhp • hr)] 1480 bhp bearing is usually on the low speed shaft.
= 7.0 MMBtu/hr
Surface Finish — High speed gears are classified as preci-
Exhaust heat per bhp = 4740 – 2867 = 1873 Btu/(bhp • hr) sion quality gears. Fig. 15-37 shows a minimum surface finish
and quality required for various pitch line velocities as recom-
Total exhaust heat = 1873 [Btu/(bhp • hr)] 1480 bhp mended in Figure 1, page 14 of AGMA 2001-C95, Fundamental
= 2.77 MMBtu/hr Rating Factors and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and
Helical Gear Teeth.

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 Note: Figures may be approximate due to variations in engine services and are representative of new engines only. Refer to manufacturer for exact information.
Heat Rejection Btu / (bhp · hr)
Cylinder
Cooling
Full Power at Full Fuel Reqmt Turbo Atmosphere i.e. Exhaust
Full Speed Speed Strokes Per BMEP [Btu/(bhp·hr)] Jacket Water Intercooler/ Surface Heat rate Exhaust
TECH CORNER

ENGINE (bhp) (rpm) Cycle (psi) LHV Cooler Oil Cooler Aftercooler Loss [lb/(bhp·hr)] temp °F

Caterpillar
G3304 NA 95 1800 4 Not Avail. 7875 2574 421 N/A 316 6.85 1089
G3304B NA 95 1800 4 Not Avail. 7875 2679 404 N/A 316 7.00 1047
G3306 NA 145 1800 4 Not Avail. 7775 2503 409 N/A 311 6.74 1101
G3306B NA 145 1800 4 Not Avail. 7775 2486 371 N/A 311 6.78 1160

142 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

G3306 TA 203 1800 4 Not Avail. 8098 2673 423 152 324 7.06 1064
G3306B TA 205 1800 4 Not Avail. 8066 2651 395 139 323 7.00 1094
G3406 NA 215 1800 4 Not Avail. 7845 2532 414 N/A 313 7.43 1039
G3406 TA 276 1800 4 Not Avail. 7418 2763 Note (1) 81 297 6.53 1004
G3408 NA 255 1800 4 Not Avail. 7643 2392 378 N/A 305 7.07 1069
G3408 TA 332 1500 4 Not Avail. 7507 2890 Note (1) 45 301 6.50 957
G3408C LE 425 1800 4 Not Avail. 7595 2108 333 402 310 9.96 806
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

G3412 TA 500 1500 4 Not Avail. 7800 2725 431 54 312 6.61 974
G3412C LE 637 1800 4 Not Avail. 7635 2179 344 435 311 9.84 788
G3508 TA 524 1200 4 Not Avail. 7712 2694 402 157 313 6.62 914
G3508 LE 670 1400 4 Not Avail. 7510 1630 258 408 285 9.62 985
G3508B LE 690 1400 4 Not Avail. 7254 938 230 698 304 10.62 931
G3512 TA 790 1200 4 Not Avail. 7824 2812 445 187 277 6.58 892
G3512 LE 860 1200 4 Not Avail. 7402 1933 288 457 254 9.92 823
FIG. 15-35

G3512 LE 1005 1400 4 Not Avail. 7368 1838 274 493 254 9.96 834
G3512B LE 1035 1400 4 Not Avail. 7237 1008 230 617 270 10.39 975
G3516 TA 1050 1200 4 Not Avail. 7700 2789 441 170 260 6.16 912
G3516 LE 1150 1200 4 Not Avail. 7324 1896 283 392 238 9.83 846
G3516 LE 1340 1400 4 Not Avail. 7405 1886 281 427 238 9.80 873
G3516B LE 1380 1400 4 Not Avail. 7301 1018 195 670 266 10.42 992
G3520B LE 1480 1200 4 Not Avail. 7455 1259 195 520 255 10.90 985
Engine Ratings and Operating Parameters

G3520B LE 1725 1400 4 Not Avail. 7205 1056 194 607 255 10.28 989
G3606 LE 1775 1000 4 Not Avail. 6649 604 306 470 238 12.05 847
G3608 LE 2370 1000 4 Not Avail. 6629 605 306 446 238 11.90 857
G3612 LE 3550 1000 4 Not Avail. 6629 614 306 469 238 12.03 838
G3616 LE 4735 1000 4 Not Avail. 6605 607 304 435 237 11.85 856
G12CM34 6135 750 4 Not Avail. 5839 361 383 757 120 6.09 653
G16CM34 8180 750 4 Not Avail. 5839 361 414 757 120 6.00 653

Cummins
G5.9 99 2200 4 99 8454 2051 Not Avail. na 651 Not Avail. 1327
G8.3 118 1800 4 103 8455 2335 Not Avail. na 388 Not Avail. 1342
GTA8.3 175 1800 4 152 7369 1642 Not Avail. 347 388 Not Avail. 1341
QSL9G 175 1800 4 142 8088 2634 Not Avail. 304 700 Not Avail. 1077
G855 188 1800 4 97 8528 2692 Not Avail. na 488 Not Avail. 1179
GTA855 256 1800 4 132 8439 2863 Not Avail. 286 636 Not Avail. 1347
KTA19GC 380 1800 4 144 8091 2317 Not Avail. 208 791 Not Avail. 1341
KTA38GC 760 1800 4 144 7942 3012 Not Avail. 149 404 Not Avail. 1197

www.compressortechsg.com
 Note: Figures may be approximate due to variations in engine services and are representative of new engines only. Refer to manufacturer for exact information.
Heat Rejection Btu / (bhp · hr)
Cylinder
Cooling
Full Power at Full Fuel Reqmt Turbo Atmosphere i.e. Exhaust
Full Speed Speed Strokes Per BMEP [Btu/(bhp·hr)] Jacket Water Intercooler/ Surface Heat rate Exhaust
ENGINE (bhp) (rpm) Cycle (psi) LHV Cooler Oil Cooler Aftercooler Loss [lb/(bhp·hr)] temp °F

www.compressortechsg.com
Wartsila (4)
6L34SG 3,621 750 4 287 5,435
9L34SG 5,431 750 4 287 5,435 725 (5) (6) 295 (5) 233 (5) (7) 94 (5) 9.82 779
12V34SG 7,241 750 4 287 5,435 744 (5) (6) 295 (5) 214 (5) (7) 94 (5) 9.82 779
16V34SG 9,655 750 4 287 5,435
20V34SG 12,069 750 4 287 5,435 700 (5) (6) 295 (5) 240 (5) (7) 92 (5) 9.84 797

Waukesha
F18G 240 1800 4 96 7570 2788 225 — 204 6.45 1064
F18GL 400 1800 4 160 7123 1875 243 473 155 9.37 836
F18GSI 400 1800 4 160 7523 2285 423 195 248 6.57 1116
H24G 320 1800 4 96 7897 2984 234 — 184 6.73 1098
H24GL 530 1800 4 160 7120 1879 242 475 138 9.37 838
H24GSI 530 1800 4 160 7497 2294 423 194 213 6.55 1114
L36GL 800 1800 4 160 7114 1874 241 473 120 9.36 838
L36GSI 800 1800 4 160 7389 2335 371 188 178 6.45 1116
P48GL 1065 1800 4 160 7092 1924 237 472 110 9.33 836
P48GSI 1065 1800 4 160 7373 2318 366 188 157 6.44 1113
F3521G 515 1200 4 96 7336 2470 383 — 336 6.41 1059
F3521GL 738 1200 4 138 7383 2054 314 432 199 10.99 703
F3514GSI 740 1200 4 138 8180 2577 409 162 439 6.97 1169
FIG. 15-35 (Cont’d.)

F3524GSI 840 1200 4 158 8037 2489 376 165 402 6.85 1192
L5790G 845 1200 4 96 7446 2550 378 — 375 6.50 1044
L5774LT 1280 1200 4 146 6961 1670 360 303 277 9.07 842
L5794LT 1450 1200 4 165 6995 1687 337 358 247 9.11 849
L5794GSI 1380 1200 4 158 7665 2249 348 129 438 6.51 1136
Engine Ratings and Operating Parameters

L7042G 1025 1200 4 96 7351 2469 382 — 316 6.42 1058

L7042GL 1480 1200 4 138 7284 1953 298 427 189 10.84 710
L7042GSI 1480 1200 4 138 7833 2430 243 190 401 6.84 1126
L7044GSI 1680 1200 4 158 7919 2350 343 150 389 6.74 1179
P9390GL 1980 1200 4 138 7198 1784 321 446 165 10.72 762
P9390GSI 1980 1200 4 138 7930 2518 262 194 320 6.93 1177
12V275GL+ 3625 1000 4 220 6550 596 262 708 83 11.77 820
16V275GL+ 4835 1000 4 220 6579 620 219 734 81 11.82 812

Notes
(1) The heat rejected to the oil cooler is included with that to the jacket-water cooler.
(2): G3508B LE, G3512B LE, G3516B LE, G3520B LE, G3600, GCM34 and G3300B engine information based on 0.5 gram NOx rating
(3): All G3300, G3400NA, G3400TA and G3500 engine information based on catalyst setting
(4) Performance data is based upon the A2 version at High Efficiency setting and reference conditions in accordance with ISO 3046/1-6
(5) tolerance 10%
(6) Jacket water circuit (HT circuit) includes jacket and HT charge air cooler heat
(7) LT charge air cooler portion only

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PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES
TECH CORNER
TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

FIG. 15-36
Example Engine Heat Recovery Arrangement

Gear Ratings Scuffing Temperatures — The scuffing or flash tempera-

ture index is the calculated temperature of the oil in the gear
Various parameters affecting the durability, strength ratings, mesh. This temperature is arrived at by calculating the tem-
and scoring temperatures include: perature rise of the lubricant in the mesh and adding it to the
Horsepower — The horsepower rating of high speed gears inlet oil temperature. The temperature rise for a given set of
is determined from the durability rating and strength rating on gears increases with the tooth loading, speed, and surface finish
the gear or pinion as specified in AGMA 6011-G92, Specifica- (i.e. increasing roughness).
tions for High Speed Helical Gear Units. In addition, the rating The temperature of the gears will increase as the pitch is
is limited by the scuffing temperature as determined in accor- decreased, pressure angle is decreased, or helix angle is in-
dance with AGMA 217.01, Information Sheet, Gear Scoring De- creased.
sign Guide for Aerospace Spur and Helical Power Gears, and
Annex A of AGMA 2001-C95. Design Factors
Durability — The durability hp rating for a specific gear The following design factors must be considered for high
set is primarily dependent on the speed and allowable contact speed drives.
stress of the gear and does not vary significantly with tooth
size. The allowable contact stress is dependent on the surface Housings — Must be of rugged design for strength and ri-
hardness of the gear or pinion tooth and varies with material gidity to maintain precise alignment of gears and bearings.
composition and mechanical properties. Bearings — Should be split-sleeve, babbitt lined, steel-
Strength — The strength hp rating for a specific gear set backed precision journal bearings with thrust faces for axial
varies mainly with the speed, allowable fatigue stress of mate- loads. Fixed pad or tilting pad (Kingsbury type) should be used
rial, and with tooth thickness. The tooth form, pressure angle, where required. Tilt pad radial bearings may also be required
filet radius, number of teeth, helix angle, and pitch line velocity for high rpm, high load applications.
also affect the strength horsepower rating. Shafts — Precision machined from heat treated, high qual-
Allowable fatigue stress is dependent on the tensile strength ity alloy (4140 is common) steel. Adequately sized to rigidly
of the material and varies with heat treatment and chemical maintain gear alignment and protect from overload.
composition.

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 TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

FIG. 15-37 coming more and more instrumented. Optional monitoring

Gear Quality equipment often specified by users include:
• Vibration probes and proximitors (to measure shaft
Pitch Line Surface Quality vibration).
Minimum Gear
Velocity (RMS) • Keyphasors (provide timing and phase reference).
Quality Number
(ft/min) (micro inches)
• Accelerometers (measure casing acceleration).
Under 8,000 45 10
• Direct reading dial type thermometers in stainless
8,001 – 10,000 32 11
thermowells (measure bearing temperature).
10,001 – 20,000 32 12
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and ther-
20,001 – 30,000 20 12-13 mocouples (measure bearing temperature).
Over 30,000 16 12-14 • Temperature and pressure switches (alarm and
shutdown functions).
Lubrication
Pinions — Normally cut integral with shaft from a The majority of high horsepower, high speed gears are lubri-
high-quality forging that is through hardened or surface cated from a common sump which also lubricates the driving
hardened by carburizing or nitriding. Grinding is the most and the driven equipment. These systems are normally
common finishing method but precision hobbing, shaving, or designed to operate with a high-grade turbine oil with a mini-
lapping are also used. mum viscosity of 150 SSU at 100°F. A good operating pres-
Gears — Usually made from a high-quality forging that sure range for the oil is 25 to 50 psi, with 25 micron filtration.
is through hardened or surface hardened by carburizing Couplings
or nitriding and is separate from the low speed shaft. Gear A coupling is required to connect a prime mover to a piece of
may be integral with the shaft when operating conditions driven machinery. The purpose of a coupling is to transmit
require. Grinding is the most common finish method but rotary motion and torque from one piece of machinery to
precision hobbing, shaving, or lapping are also used. another. A coupling may also serve a secondary purpose
Dynamic Balance — Balance all rotating elements to such as accommodating misalignment of the two pieces of
assure smooth operation at high rpm. equipment. There are two general categories of couplings:
Seals — Shaft seal should be of the labyrinth type, with rigid and flexible.
clearance between shaft and seal of 0.020 to 0.030 inch. To Rigid Couplings — Rigid couplings are used when the
prevent oil leakage through the clearance, the labyrinth is two machines must be kept in exact alignment or when the
made interlocking with grooves machined in the cap to cre- rotor of one machine is used to support the rotor of another
ate air back pressure during rotation to retain the lubricant. machine. Very precise alignment of machine bearings is
High speed gears are usually used on critical process trains necessary when using this type of coupling. Manufacturing
where down time is quite costly and catastrophic failure tolerances are also extremely important. One common ap-
• be avoided at all costs. Therefore, gear drives are be-
must plication for rigid couplings is in the pump industry where

•
•

RATINGS
•S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
■ ■ INFORMATION

2023 •

The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,

purchasers and training providers

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www.compressortechsg.com

purchasers and training providers

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TECH CORNER
PRIME MOVERS FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES

the prime mover, generally an electric motor, is positioned or bearing support. For this application, the proximity probe
vertically above the pump. transducer has proven to be the most reliable indicator of
machinery malfunctions.
Flexible Couplings — Flexible couplings, in addition
to transmitting torque, accommodate unavoidable mis- The proximity probe is a noncontacting transducer, typically
alignment between shafts. Mechanically flexible couplings installed on the bearing or bearing housing, and observes
provide for misalignment by clearances in the design of the the rotor radial dynamic motion and position with respect
coupling. The most common type of mechanically flexible to the bearing clearance. This same type of proximity probe
coupling is the gear type. Material flexible couplings use can be used to measure axial position and vibration as well.
the natural flexing of the coupling element to compensate For machines which exhibit significant amounts of casing
for shaft misalignment. Metal, elastomer, or plastic hav- motion, it may be necessary to add to this system a seismic
ing sufficient resistance to fatigue failure may be used for transducer measuring machine casing vibration. Some
the flexing element of the coupling. Many types of flexible unique applications dictate that measurements are neces-
couplings are in common use and selection for a particu- sary in the high frequency region, where accelerometers are
lar application depends on many factors including cost, typically employed.
horsepower, shaft speed, and reliability. A specialist should The American Petroleum Institute (API) has published a
always be consulted for proper selection on any critical piece specification describing vibration monitoring systems, API
of equipment. 670, “Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring Systems.”
Vibration Monitoring
The oldest and most basic type of vibration measurement
involved the use of the human senses to feel and listen to
a machine. The basic approach has not changed, just the REFERENCE
method. It was always difficult to justify enough time for 1. Malenshek, M., Olsen, Daniel B., “Methane number testing of
one individual, or a group of individuals, to acquire peri- alternative gaseous fuels,” Fuel 88 (2009), pg 650–656.
odic measurements on a large number of machines. Also,
with the advent of high speed, high performance machines,
failures can occur faster than personnel can react. In ad- BIBLIOGRAPHY
dition, very subtle changes can occur over a long period of Brown, T., Cadick, J. L., “Electric Motors are the Basic CPI Prime
time, making it difficult to realize by the human senses, but Movers,” Chemical Engineering, Vol. 86, No. 6, 1979.
still affecting the machine’s mechanical stability and safety. Gartmann, Hans, Editor, “DeLaval Engineering Handbook,”
Vibration monitoring is simply the full-time electronic mea- McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1970.
surement and monitoring of vibration levels from a given Karassik, I. J., Krutzsch, W. C., Fraser, W. H., Messina, J. P.,
machine. Typically, the monitoring responds to the overall Editors, “Pump Handbook,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976.
signal input from the transducer regardless of the source
Kosow, I. L., “Control of Electric Machines,” Prentice-Hall, 1973.
of vibration (in-balance, bearing wear, coupling problems, Kubesh, John T., “Effect of Gas Composition on Octane Number
misalignment, etc.). of Natural
A typical vibration monitor provides two levels of alarm: Gas Fuels,” SwRI-3178-4.4, GETA 92-01, GRI-92/0150, May 1992.
alert and danger, that can be adjusted to fit the character- Kubesh, John, King, Steven R., Liss, William E., “Effect of Gas
istics of a given machine. These set points have associated Composition on Octane.”
relays which can be connected to external audible or visual Molich, K., “Consider Gas Turbines for Heavy Loads,” Chemical
annunciators on the control panel. If the alert or danger set Engineering, Vol. 87, No. 17, 1980.
point is exceeded, the monitor and annunciator will alert Neerken, R. F., “Use Steam Turbines as Process Drivers,”
operations and maintenance personnel of this event. Ideally, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 87, No. 17, 1980.
the alert alarm will indicate that the machine condition has “Number of Natural Gas Fuels,” Society of Automotive Engineers,
changed significantly, but allow some discrete time before Inc., SAE 922359, 1992.
the machine is in a dangerous condition. For most applica- Obert, E. F., “Internal Combustion Engines,” International
tions, if the machine does reach the danger level of vibration Textbook Co., 1968.
and continued operation would probably result in machine
Salamone, D. J., “Journal Bearing Design Types and Their
failure, automatic shutdown is mandatory regardless of the Applications to Turbomachinery,” Proceedings of the Thirteenth
time lag that has occurred between alert and danger signal. Turbomachinery Symposium,
There are three types of vibration sensors: (1) accelerom- Turbomachinery Laboratories, Department of Mechanical
eters, (2) velocity transducers, and (3) proximity probes. For Engineering, Texas A&M University, 1984.
most large critical machinery, and certainly for machinery Sawyer, J. W., Editor, “Gas Turbine Handbook,” Gas Turbine
with fluid film-type bearings, the important measurement Publications, Inc., 1966. Spletter, Kathy, Adair, Lesa,
to be made is rotor motion relative to the machine bearing “Processing,” Oil and Gas Journal, May 21, 2001. CTSS

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COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS
 TECH CORNER
COMPONENT CARE

The link between rotating

machine reliability and
the hydrodynamic bearing
Proper component care pays dividends for we’ll focus on the sliding bearing, which is a
constant and essential component in high-
equipment functionality. By Lionel Pellevoisin power industrial machines.
Although it is the ancestor of bearings,
The reliability of rotating machines At first glance, we noticed the three the sliding bearing is the most advanced

S
ince the invention of the wheel, and technologies – the sliding bearing, the rolling mechanical component since the industrial
even, according to some experts, the bearing and, more recently, the magnetic revolution, thanks to the materials used and
potter’s wheel that preceded it, the levitation. We won’t worry about the last the calculation capabilities made possible
reliability of the machines has been a prime two, which have their limits for functional, by computer technology. More precisely,
concern for operators. technical or economic reasons. Instead, this family is divided into two branches. The >
The reliability of rotating machines is a
major challenge for the industry. A process Bronze Babbitt bearings
machine provides the expected production
and therefore generates invoicing and
customer satisfaction.
These positive results come from
the adequacy of the machine, correct
installation, proper operation, monitoring and
maintenance. The majority of those factors
put plenty of pressure on the maintenance
managers of industrial sites.
One of the major components that
provide proper functionality is the sliding
bearing. The component’s origins date back
a few millennia before the Christian era
when the potter’s wheel and wheel became
popular. It was necessary to control the
friction and wear of an axle in its housing.
The choice of materials, their sizing, the
addition of a lubricant, are all problems
that have appeared and accompanied the
development of mechanics.
AUTHORS
CORNER

LIONEL PELLEVOISIN is a French

expert in hydrodynamic bearing
technology. Since the 2000s,
he has managed SAMR SAS, which
manufactures and sells plain bearing bushing
worldwide.

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TECH CORNER
COMPONENT CARE

Bronze parts Main bearing

first is the friction bearing where only the change it thinking the bearing has served its
friction coefficient controls the efficiency. time. But a pad rarely has an intrinsic reason Steel Copperlead Bearing
The second is the hydrodynamic bearing. to fail. There is almost always an extrinsic
It is here that we enter an extraordinary, motive. If it is not treated with the belief that favorable to the attenuation of vibrations.
unknown and mysterious world. replacing the bearing alone will be sufficient, Any particle contamination in the lubricant
then there is a high probability that the can be prevented by embedding it in the
The hydrodynamic bearing reliability of the machine will deteriorate and surface layer of the bearing. Other particles,
The hydrodynamic bearing, as its name the bearing will be grilled again under the compatible with the thickness of the
does not indicate, is a pump. A pump same conditions. When that happens, you hydrodynamic film, will simply be transported
which, provided that a viscous fluid is made have to unravel the mystery of its failure by to the next filter. A caloric input will decrease
available to it, will create a pressure field checking all aspects of the machine. the viscosity, increase the flow rate and
between the shaft and its housing. It is the Despite its discretion, the hydrodynamic regulate the temperature at the bearing.
function of the hydrodynamic bearing that bearing experiences all the power of the The clearances inherent in the mechanism
avoids solid-solid contact, limits heating, machine. Its successive improvements have will facilitate tolerance to misalignment. The
prohibits seizure, causes the coefficient led to the interposition of an intermediate accommodating power of the anti-friction
of friction to drop, tolerates contaminants, part: the sliding bearing (or the bush). It material might, in some cases, help position
dissipates vibration, and carries the load. is a critical piece, which, in the event of a the shaft and optimize its load-bearing
Additionally, it is self-regulating. The power problem, will sacrifice itself to preserve the capacity. The absence of metallurgical
demand increases, the temperature noble organ that is the shaft. In nominal compatibility between the metals present will
increases, the viscosity decreases, the flow operation, its lifetime is infinite, there is allow “touchette” without leading to seizure
rate increases, the calories are evacuated in no solid/solid contact but lamination of and its terrible consequences.
proportion and a new balance is established. layers of molecules between them in the This is an idyllic picture that accurately
All of this occurs without human intervention hydrodynamic film. describes what has been going on silently
or control. Moreover, if the bearing is guaranteed in most machine bearings in the industry for
Hydrodynamic bearing technology is not lubrication (the “gavage”), whether by centuries. However, the person in charge
widely taught and remains the domain of a splash, floating ring, gravity or pressure of rotating machines at such a site is not
few rare experts. On-site in the middle of the supply, the bearing itself pumps the fluid it so serene. This description goes hand in
machines, it is rarely talked about and easily needs to operate. A steady-state regime is hand with the hazards associated with the
forgotten. Under ideal conditions, it does not therefore established in which the pressure operation of rotating machines.
wear out and does not require any special is balanced with the loads at a given Although the hydrodynamic bearing
maintenance, aside from lubricant filtration temperature and regulated by the lubricant is generally auto stable, there are several
and regular draining. In the best case, we flow rate and the thermal conductivity of situations that lead to its failure.
follow its temperature, the position of the the bearing. In this ideal state, our bearing
shaft and its accelerations, but as soon as – which allows energy, pressure and linear Hydrodynamic bearing technology
we leave the instructions, it is urgent to stop velocity levels to be reached that are Its reliability, its tolerance to degraded
everything. beyond what would be possible with the operating modes and its safety in case of
All too often, a machine that has always best ball bearings – has excellent tolerance breakage make the hydrodynamic bearing an
run smoothly will one day burn a bearing. The to external stresses. Its film of lubricant essential technology found in all high-power
damage is read on the spare part, the journal will behave like a shock absorber, with a machines (compressors, turbines, motors,
bearing in the bearing. The first reflex is to stiffness and a damping coefficient very alternators, gearboxes, pumps, rolling mills, >
150 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com
We Love What We Make.
Compressor Valves.
Since 1946.
TECH CORNER
COMPONENT CARE

A hydrodynamic bearing is dimensioned

and designed for power; symbolized by the
PV factor where P represents the load (more
precisely the pressure) and V the relative
linear speed. Under these conditions, the
operating temperature, the position of the
shaft in its housing, the fluid flow rate, the
stiffness, and the damping of the lubricant
cushion are determined and are compatible
with proper operation.
These nominal operating conditions are
not always met. Let’s start with the viscous
fluid. It must be available in sufficient
quantities in the desired viscosity range,
not contaminated beyond the absorption
capacity of the bearing. Inadequate, missing
or poorly maintained lubricant is a major how the machine is driven. Stops, starts or
cause of loss of the machine’s reliability. reversals are critical phases, which cause
Next comes surface convergence. In a the speed to drop to zero and deprive
Journal static position radial bearing, it results from the difference the bearing of its hydrodynamic speed
in diameter of the shaft and its housing. with its oil cushion interposed between
crushers and so forth). Still, sometimes it It can also be improved by specific lobes the solids. Special attention must be paid
fails. and/or bore geometries, such as lemon to temperature changes, cold starts,
Only three conditions govern the bore or offset bore. These geometries are after a long stop or after disassembly/
establishment of a hydrodynamic regime. It guaranteed by the bearing manufacturers reassembly. These characteristics specific
requires a viscous fluid at disposal, surface with levels of precision that are among to hydrodynamic bearings mean that
convergence and relative motion. It is the the finest in industrial mechanics. The disassembly and reassembly cannot be
hydroplaning of the tire on the puddle or surface convergence, the clearance and the treated as a standard operation where it
the skier’s spatula on the water. These are thickness of the oil film can be measured would be sufficient to take new parts and
examples of hydrodynamic regimes, which in hundredths of a millimeter. They are the
carry the load with little friction. But behind result of a dimensional chain integrating at
this simplicity are a multitude of parameters least three components, which are the body,
that guarantee correct operation or, on the the shaft and the bearing. The stacking of
contrary, can lead to breakdowns. these dimensions and geometries, with
their respective tolerances, will result in
good surface convergence and operating
clearances. Components taken one by one
must remain in conformity under clamping,
after assembly and in operation under Lift control
kinematic effects, thermal expansion, elastic
deformation and misalignment.
Finally, the relative speed is dictated by

Bore measuring
Control on compressor casing

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 TECH CORNER
COMPONENT CARE

Training cession demonstrator the clearances and the lineage. Tightness

and the absence of particles that could
or degradation of the lubricant, electric interfere with the load-bearing capacity will
arcs, fatigue, cavitation, buttering, shocks, be guaranteed. Lubricant supplies should
scratches, and wear. This may include be checked, as well as pinning and direction
incorrect assembly, incorrect tightening of rotation in the case of ramps or complex
or contact, foreign bodies, excessive geometries (multi-center bores) or variable
loads, cold starts or reversal of direction, geometries. The quality of the lubricant will
poor lubrication, or oil film breakage. The be controlled.
clearances will be measured and compared
to the nominal ones. Starting the machine
This is a critical phase that reveals quickly
Reassembly whether an error has been made during the
Specialists will also ensure that the previous stages. A bearing instrumented
bearing has been crafted by a professional with temperature sensors will check that
able to guarantee the quality of the metals the temperature stabilizes asymptotically
reassemble the assembly for it to work. used and their suitability – from the shell at its nominal level. Lubricant pressure and/
Numerous checks are necessary and to the electrolytic coating, including the or flow rate are also good indicators. Noise
are carried out by specialists trained and anti-friction alloy (white metal or red metal). and especially vibration measurements can
experienced in this technology. Dimensional and geometrical qualities must reveal problems with alignment or balancing
be guaranteed. The same applies to the of moving parts. Depending on the machines,
Dismantling housing, which also must be evaluated. a starting protocol will be scrupulously
This phase is fundamental to the expertise Specialists will check and adjust the lift, followed (lubricant temperature setting,
of the bearing and must be entrusted to hydrostatic lift, progressive power loading).
specialists. The parts must be marked This means that in this field, more than
and any stacks of shims correctly any other, prior training and more than one
noted. Specialists will look for traces of evaluation is anything but superfluous and
molecular attrition, overheating, pollution quickly pays for itself. CT2

Proper care of
components, such
as the engine main
bearing, connecting
rods and crossheads,
are key to the
reliability of a
rotating machine.

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 TECH CORNER
DRY GAS SEALS

A dry approach to
centrifugal compressor
emissions mitigation
Dry gas seal retrofits,
C
entrifugal compressor end-users fugitive emissions while improving
across the oil and gas industry compressor performance.
recompression help face a host of challenges in today’s
environment. Chief among these include a DGS vs. wet oil seals
legacy compressors growing need to conserve costs and reduce All centrifugal compressors feature seals
carbon emissions simultaneously. installed around the rotating shaft, which
comply with current, Historically, fugitive emissions from prevent process gas from escaping the
centrifugal compressors in natural gas compressor casing. Wet seals use circulating
future regulations. applications have been accepted as a oil as a barrier and were utilized extensively
normal part of operation, particularly in up until the 1990s. Since then, dry gas seals
By Matt Lewis, the midstream and downstream markets. have been installed on virtually every newly
However, with increasing pressure to manufactured compressor. These seals offer
Randy Moore and decarbonize, many regulatory agencies
worldwide are proposing new limits on
Gautam Chhibber fugitive emissions. Canada leads this charge
with new federal compressor methane limits
set to take effect in 2023. Other markets,
including the United States and the European
Union, are implementing new and more
stringent policies.
Today, nearly all new centrifugal
THE AUTHORS

GAUTAM CHHIBBER leads the compressor installs feature dry gas seals
Proposals team for Siemens (DGS). While these units exhibit leakage
Energy’s Industrial Applications rates across seals that comply with virtually
business. He can be reached at every region’s current regulations and
[email protected] most, but not all, proposed (i.e., future)
regulations, there are still thousands of
MATT LEWIS is a proposal engineer legacy compressors in operation across
for Siemens Energy’s Industrial the midstream sector that predate DGS
Applications business. technology and utilize wet oil seals. With
He can be reached at fugitive emissions rates as high as 200
[email protected] cfm (5.6 m3/min), these compressors are at
significant risk of non-compliance [1].
RANDY MOORE is the head of the This article looks at how this problem can
Dry Gas Seals team for Siemens be addressed through either a DGS retrofit
Energy’s Industrial Applications and/or recompression. Both options require
business. He can be reached at a relatively low up-front CAPEX investment
[email protected] and represent the lowest possible emissions
approach to reduce (and even eliminate)

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 TECH CORNER
DRY GAS SEALS

numerous technical advantages over wet

seal systems, including:
REDUCED EMISSIONS Although wet and dry
seals exhibit similar leakage rates across
the seal face (typically between 2 to 6 cfm
[0.05 to 0.16 m3/min]), wet seals generate
significantly higher emissions when
circulating oil is degassed. In compressors
with dual wet seals, fugitive emissions rates
between 40 to 200 cfm (1.1 to 5.6 m3/min)
are not uncommon. The exact rate is mostly
a function of the seal size and operating
pressure.
IMPROVED RELIABILITY, LESS MAINTENANCE
Compressors with wet seals require ancillary
systems and equipment to circulate and
treat oil. These systems are often old and FIGURE 1 Nearly all of today’s centrifugal compressor installs use dry gas seals.
need extensive maintenance. If the oil
circulating system does fail, the compressor NO PARASITIC POWER LOSSES Oil circulation NO OIL INGRESS With dry gas seals, there
must be taken offline. Catalyst/oil equipment, such as pumps, require power is no oil ingress risk across the seal into
changeouts can also contribute to outages. to run. Electricity consumption can be as the process gas. Thus, the potential for
This is not an issue with dry gas seals, as high as 100 kW per hour, depending on the contamination is eliminated and product
complex electro-mechanical systems are not size of the compressor. This is an order of quality can be maintained.
required to support them. The result is fewer magnitude higher than the electrical load for
failure points and higher uptime. a DGS system (around 5 to 6 kW). DGS retrofit
Given the inherent drawbacks of wet seal
systems, particularly regarding fugitive
emissions, an increasing number of
centrifugal compressor end-users have
begun looking at options to upgrade their
legacy units.
While replacing a new compressor unit
equipped with a DGS system would be
preferable, it is not a viable option for many
across the oil and gas industry whose capital
budgets have been slashed amidst the
sustained low-price environment. For these
operators, a DGS retrofit is a more economical
option.
Siemens Energy has been manufacturing
and installing API 692-compliant DGS for
decades and offers a suite of DGS upgrade
solutions for centrifugal compressors.
Solutions apply to any compressor OEM/
nameplate. They are suitable for inlet
pressures of up to 3626 psi (250 bar) and >
FIGURE 2
Siemens Energy’s RF compressor family offers
high efficiency and a wide operating range,
helping midstream operators reduce fuel
consumption and lower emissions output.

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TECH CORNER
DRY GAS SEALS

temperatures from -175°F to 482°F (-115°C to

250°C) [maximum seal gas temperature of
320°F (160°C)].
To ensure retrofit compatibility for
installed compressors, the DGS cartridge is
designed to fit any casing cavity using site
tooling. DGS panels and boosters can also
be upgraded to meet the latest industry
standards. As part of the retrofit, advanced
analytics that can assist with diagnostics
and digital simulation of the DGS are offered.
At the heart of the DGS system is a pair
of rings. A stationary ring is held against a
rotating ring by spring pressure. The rotating
ring’s contact face incorporates unique
fill-riding geometries in the form of groves FIGURE 3 Greenhouse gas / fugitive emissions recovery via an integrated recompression solution.
or tapered lands on the outer portion [2]. The
seals are available in multiple configurations, and decarbonization. compressor, making it a highly cost-effective
including: In such cases, recompression via option for applications with multiple legacy
SINGLE DGS - for restrictive applications. an electric motor-driven reciprocating compressors operating in the same service.
DOUBLE DGS - for lower pressure applications compressor can be used to capture any A stand-by motor-reciprocating compressor
where zero-emissions operation is required. amount of leakage across seals. The can be installed for redundancy purposes.
TANDEM DGS - When a lower emission and recovered gas can then be injected back
high-pressure tolerant solution is needed into the process stream at the suction Conclusion
(optional without intermediate labyrinth). or discharge header. This solution is OEM Historically, conversations surrounding
Siemens Energy’s tandem DGS upgrade can agnostic and applies to greenfield and carbon emissions regarding compression
achieve emissions rates as low as 2 cfm brownfield installations. trains have focused on those generated
(0.05 m3/min). In cases where a gas turbine is used from combustion processes, such as
CARBON RING SEPARATION SEAL - for protecting nearby, either as a direct drive for the burning fuel in gas turbines or gas engines.
dry gas seals from bearing oil ingress. compressor or electricity generation, Blowdown/venting has also been a key
CARBON RING PROCESS SEAL - for minimizing the gas can be injected into the fuel area of interest. However, as regulations
clean gas flow and for maintaining a clean inlet. Another potential application is fuel tighten and operators look to decarbonize
process side environment. heating. The process gas volume and flow voluntarily, fugitive emissions are coming
Double and tandem DGS upgrades ensure rate will ultimately dictate the size of the under increased scrutiny.
compliance with all current and proposed reciprocating compressor unit needed for the Whenever possible, end-users should
emissions regulations, including Europe recompression system. simplify their upgrade projects by engaging
and the Americas. In certain countries, In all cases, recompression enables with vendors that can handle a large portion
re-bundling of internals (i.e., re-aero) of zero-emissions compressor operation. It of the supply scope. Sole-source provisioning
existing compressors are considered a also offers the added benefit of capturing streamlines interface management by
new installation, and previously established blowdown emissions from station enabling one point of contact for critical
emissions limits are no longer valid. In this depressurization or scheduled maintenance components, including the DGS system, the
case, end-users need to replace the DGS to activities. During these events, process gas recompression system and other ancillary
meet the latest regulatory requirements. between isolation valves must be vented mechanical and electrical systems. It also
to the atmosphere or flared. Depending ensures that synergy and optimization
Driving toward zero emissions on the compression system, a single opportunities are identified to minimize
Except for a double DGS configuration, depressurization could result in thousands of costs and emissions to the greatest possible
additional measures must be employed to standard cubic feet of methane emissions. extent. CT2
eliminate fugitive emissions from centrifugal It is not uncommon for this to take place
compressors. Although this is currently multiple times per year. REFERENCES:
not a requirement in many markets, it is Additionally, recompression offers https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/
documents/ll_wetseals.pdf
relevant for operators who have made scalability. A single system can be used https://www.siemens-energy.com/global/en/offerings/
commitments to achieve carbon neutrality to capture emissions from more than one industrial-applications/oil-gas/services/dry-gas-seals.html

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RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION

PACKAGERS
The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,
purchasers and training providers

PACKAGERS
 RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION

PACKAGERS
The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,
purchasers and training providers
PACKAGERS
 TECH CORNER
MODULE MOUNTED MACHINERY PACKAGES

Benefits of modular
facilities include
Module mounted
lower costs &
greater safety.
machinery packages
total installed cost. of workmanship due to health, safety, and environment
By Neetin Ghaisas ■ Reduces equipment grouting more controlled production (HSE), long-term reliable
requirements. environment. operation of the equipment and

M
any small and ■ Relocates underground ■ Minimizes safety risks performance requirements. The
large rotating, process drainage piping to associated with elevated work scope of this study typically
and reciprocating aboveground shop installation. and stacking labor. includes areas such as the
machinery packages are ■ Reduced material congestion following:
mounted on steel structures in SCHEDULE RELATED BENEFITS: and movement at construction ■ Requirements of local, and
the highly modularized facilities. ■ Facilitates parallel execution site. national (federal) environmental
A module consists of of fabrication and assembly ■ Enables sound and safe regulations and standards;
transportable pre-assembly activities and lowers the overall engineering practices in ■ Environmental conditions at
of process plant components construction labor cost due to the design and layout to site – minimum and maximum
designed to minimize site the differential between field and be duplicated in future temperatures, effects of wind,
installation and commissioning shop fabrication hourly rates. modularization programs, at the ice, snow, and rain on walkways;
labor costs. The modularized ■ Maximizes shop work to same time provide flexibility to ■ Potential for release of
program has several advantages reduce weather impacts on optimize space and equipment hydrocarbons and emissions
over the conventional stick-built productivity from large volume of arrangements to address issues from process and on-module
design approach. site work. such as transmission of vibration equipment;
■ Allows accelerated from one machine to other ■ Noise generated by machinery
COST RELATED BENEFITS: construction schedule and machines that share the same and contribution from the
■ It allows maximum shift of makes it possible to advance structure. surrounding auxiliary equipment;
labor hours from high cost plant commissioning and start- ■ Noise mitigation;
jobsites to fabrication shops or up activities. Equipment modularization ■ Ease of access for operation,
module yards. concept maintenance, inspection and
■ Reduces material quantities SAFETY AND QUALITY RELATED Factors such as the module testing of on-module equipment;
specifically for concrete, pipe, BENEFITS: size and weight, site-specific ■ Safe exit or evacuation paths
and cabling with resultant lower ■ Improves quality transportation limits, clearance in case of emergency;
requirements dictated by ■ Projections – panel doors,
THE AUTHOR

NEETIN GHAISAS is Senior Fellow - Rotating Equipment operation, maintenance and valving, cable trays, conduits;
in Fluor. He has 38+ years experience in turbomachinery human factors, and benefit- ■ Walkways, ladders, platforms,
with expertise in specification development and selection, to-cost analysis are helpful in and railing to reach areas that
troubleshooting, rotordynamic reviews and vibration analysis determining the type and scope require frequent inspection,
of rotating equipment. Prior to joining Fluor, he worked as a Machinery of machinery strings that can be adjustments, recording or
Reliability Engineer at Petrokemya (a SABIC affiliate) in Jubail, Saudi Arabia. installed on transportable steel maintenance;
Neetin Ghaisas has received M.Eng.(1988) from the University of Bombay structures. ■ Electrical cable routing;
and is a registered Professional Engineer in the provinces of Alberta and On almost every modularized ■ On-module lighting and utility
British Columbia in Canada. He has contributed to development of API project, the concept of stations;
Standards and Process Industry Practices for many years and currently machinery modularization ■ Mounting heights and
serves positions in API as the Chairman of API 612 standard, Chairman of API begins with a study during scope orientation – panel displays and
672 standard and member of Subcommittee on Mechanical Equipment. He is definition phase to assess its valves;
also a member of ASME and a member of PIP Machinery Functional Team. Mr. practicality before the concept ■ Clearance space for –
Ghaisas has authored and co-authored several papers which are published can be developed and accepted inspection openings, pull-out
in leading international magazines. He holds US patent related to machinery for implementation. lengths, and component
modularization. Usually the prime drivers removal. Available overhead
for module concept study are room; >
www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 159
TECH CORNER
MODULE MOUNTED MACHINERY PACKAGES

■ Material handling and Very large modules weigh in oriented process nozzles on including shipped-loose parts or
movement on-module and excess of 600 tons. In today’s compressor casings. This assemblies.
off-module; world-scale ethylene and results in unobstructed travel Obviously, the intent of this
■ Module plot size optimization other hydrocarbon processing of the overhead bridge crane effort is to avoid assumptions
– address needs for laydown facilities, module dry weights and is usually the preferred that can lead to omitted scope
space and extended travel of can be up to 10,000 tons. They arrangement. and potential delays.
on-module bridge crane to cover often require non-conventional In multibody centrifugal
the drop-down area without lifting/jacking and transporting compressor string, the radially Module structure
constraints; methods. Transportation is often split high-pressure casing is Weldable high-strength hot
■ Preliminary operability and by barge or heavy transport located outboard of the low rolled steel is used for fabrication
maintainability reviews; vessel and usually involves and medium pressure axially of module structure. The types
■ Initial static and dynamic use of self-propelled modular split casings to permit removal of steel sections; whether
analysis of module structure transporter (SPMT) to bring the of the inner bundle assembly. T-section, I-section or circular
– including sea and land module to its final location and Accordingly, the laydown area is section and their sizes are
transportation if applicable. set it in place. set on this end of the module. selected depending upon the
Structural steel mounted base material grades and the
Types of modules Machinery modules pumps and other types of imposed loads. Machinery
Modules can be designed Some machinery modules have a equipment such as positive support beams, main trusses,
as small, large or very large single deck while other modules displacement blowers, and deck plate girders contribute
modules (VLMs). Small modules include a single deck and a centrifugal fans and rotary screw to module stability and integrity.
are complete components of mezzanine floor for the auxiliary compressors are usually part They are of often of welded
plants and can be transported equipment. Depending on the of the process or packaged construction. Galvanized steel is
by road or rail. Typically, they specific layout, one machinery equipment modules. Dedicated often required in locations that
are complete packaged units string may be installed on pump modules typically have are prone to corrosion in long-
that can be placed on prepared a dedicated module or two pumps in different services term operation.
foundations and then connected strings in the same service installed on its floor. These Ladders, platforms, gratings,
to the adjoining modules. In most may be installed in longitudinal units are strategically located handrails, and cable tray
cases, they require minimum or transverse direction on the based on assessment of their supports are designed to provide
pre-commissioning activities. module’s floor. For modules that dynamic behavior, operating easy access and ensure safety
Large modules usually weigh do not have a roof, air-cooled and maintenance access of people working on the module.
between 100 tons and 600 tons. heat exchanger for lube oil may requirements and human factor These components are mostly
The upper limit on weight is set be integrated with the module design aspects. connected with high strength
by lift achievable at site using and mounted on top. Elevated Large, dedicated modules for bolts and nuts.
conventional rigging methods. modules allow vertically down rotating equipment packages Crane runway beams, floor
such as gas turbine driven stiffeners, pipe racks and
compressor string typically have external platforms are sized to
an elevated structure, partial impart structural integrity under
or fully enclosed side walls, all static and dynamic loading
removable roof, and surrounding conditions. They are usually
auxiliaries. Bridge crane and jib welded.
cranes are provided to facilitate Figures 1 and 2 show
maintenance and handling. three-dimensional views of a
An integrated machinery completed module and a pump
module project such as this unit installed on the module floor.
requires breakdown of activities
associated with several systems Loads on machinery
and components. At a higher module structure
level, this breakdown identifies Loads on module structure
responsibilities and locations are divided into two broad
such as in module yard or at categories, transportation
FIGURE 1 Equipment module. job site, for all major scope of loads and site loads. Site loads
work and scope of supply items comprise of module are dead

160 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023 www.compressortechsg.com

 TECH CORNER
MODULE MOUNTED MACHINERY PACKAGES
FIGURE2
Modularized
centrifugal pump unit. personnel. These requirements frequencies while steady-state
are inherited by structural dynamic analysis determines
engineers and analysts to design resonant natural frequency(ies).
weight, live loads, environmental the vessel deck that imposes the module structures. The The natural frequencies should
loads, and operating loads. vertical deflection of the module actual calculations methods are not interfere and have at least
Transportation loads consist of structure and loads involved outside of the context of this 20% separation margin with
loads imposed by module dry during rigging of the complete discussion and excluded. operating speed range of the
weight, stowage, wind, vessel module in the shop or yard Structural analyses are mounted machinery train.
hog and sag, ocean waves and such as during placement on used to accurately determine One of the outputs of dynamic
vehicle acceleration. the vessel, offloading from the deflections under load, relative response calculated from these
The bulk of the permanent vessel and installation of the displacements at shaft ends excitations is the amplitude
(dead) static structural load module at site on its foundation. of the coupled machines and versus frequency plots. The
comprises of weight of the Sea transportation loads arise calculate natural frequencies maximum permissible vibration
module steel structure including from peak acceleration forces (1x and 2x) of the module amplitudes for rotating machinery
its attachments and module’s on module beams due to sway, structure including mode shapes such as API 610 centrifugal
concrete foundation. Machinery heave, yaw, roll, pitch, and surge. associated with the frequencies. pumps fitted with rolling element
train, its on-module auxiliaries, Machinery module structures The acceptance criteria for bearings are stipulated in this
piping, and cabling (with are designed for all static static analysis is set by allowable standard. If specified for a given
conduits or trays) add to the conditions, variable loads, and inertia forces on the structure design, the calculated vibration
permanent load. operational scenarios such as and deflections of the module’s amplitudes at baseplate anchor
The other types of design normal/maximum/transient beams and columns under bolt locations are checked
loads consist of operating cases (for example, loss of the applied live and variable to confirm that they are less
and variable loads that are interference fit of a rotating loads. Machinery supports and than the maximum allowable
specific to the equipment component resulting in a interfaces of main columns and foundation vibration throughout
and the site conditions. Some disintegral rotor) and normal and beams with module’s deck and the machine’s operating speed
examples of general live loads emergency shutdown situations. roof are subjected to a range of range.
are concentrated loads on the Load combinations of dead stresses during transportation Strength and rigidity
module’s floor, stairs and on load and variable loads are also and operation. They are checked (resistance to deformation) of
roof, if provided. Operating loads analyzed, and results used to against the acceptance criteria module structural members
are due to fluid weight and its finalize design and sizing of the set for cumulative fatigue. A are checked in static as well as
thermal effects on equipment, steel members. static equivalent analysis is used dynamic analysis.
piping, and piping nozzle for loadings that are dynamic in ISO standard 2631-1 includes
loads. Moving loads on the Module structure analyses nature such as wind and seismic general requirements for
on-module overhead crane are Module mounted machinery forces. evaluation of human exposure
also categorized as operating requires special static and Dynamic design aspects to vibrations. This is also an
loads. Variable loads are the dynamic analyses of the module of module include mass and important aspect of module
dynamic forces generated by steel structure to confirm reliable center of gravity, stiffness design, specifically the areas
the operating machinery string. operation of the equipment and damping of structure that are accessed by plant
Environmental loads are created within acceptable vibration and foundation, applied force, personnel for operation and
by various factors such as limit throughout the range of its resonant frequency, acceptable maintenance activities. It also
wind velocity, ice accumulation, operating conditions, ensure amplitude of vibration and provides guidance on effects of
snow, seismic conditions, and safety of the personnel and rigidity of machine support vibration on health, perception,
thermal gradients due to site maintain structural integrity structure. Dynamic analysis and motion sickness. CT2
minimum and maximum ambient (stability and permissible involves effects of mass,
temperatures. deflections of module frame stiffness, damping, applied REFERENCES:
1
National Building Code of Canada NBC 2015
The other types of variable members under the applied force and deflections. Potential 2
Canadian Standards Association CSA S16-2014
loads on a module are shock loading). National/federal sources of excitation such – Design of Steel Structures
3
ISO 2631-1 Mechanical vibration and shock —
or impact loads during land regulations and local codes as rotor unbalance, coupling Evaluation of human exposure to whole-body
vibration — Part 1
transportation (load lifting and and standards have specific misalignment and internal rubs 4
Figures 1 and 2 are sourced from Fluor’s
internal design.
lowering), acceleration and requirements for structural create forcing phenomena. 5
Machinery Modules – A Technical Overview,
wind loads realized during design and analysis, the end goal Time-history analysis provides Webinar by Neetin Ghaisas and Bill Bounds,
October 2020 (Webinar hosted by Fluor’s
ocean transportation, sag of being safety of the facilities and information on mode shapes and Business Transformation and Innovation group).

www.compressortechsg.com 2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 161

PACKAGER GUIDE 2023

PACKAGER
GUIDE
2023
A listing of global compressor packagers, along with primary contact
information, types of compressors offered and the capacity range of the
packages they produce. If your company is missing from this listing, please
contact [email protected]. A PDF of this listing is available on our website.

www.compressortech2.com
162 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING SUPPLEMENT
GUIDE | 2023 | 2019 www.compressortechsg.com
www.CTSSnet.net
 LOCATION TYPES OF COMPRESSORS CAPACITY RANGE CONTACT

State/ Min Max Min Max

Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Screw
Other
COMPANY City Province Country (HP) (HP) (kW) (kW) Contact Name Title E-Mail
7 Compression Tyler Texas USA x 0 48 0 36 Chris Forstik CEO [email protected]
ABBY Services Inc. Canonsburg Pennsylvania USA x x x x 3 750 2 560 D.W. Fulmer Applications [email protected]

www.compressortechsg.com
ABC Compressors Eibar Spain x 5 6800 4 5000 Lucio Arizaga Oil & Gas Manager [email protected]
Adicomp Srl Isola Vicentina Vicenza Italy x x 4 1350 3 1000 Pietro De Faveri Tron Managing Director [email protected]
Aerzen USA Coatesville Pennsylvania USA x 0 13,410 0 10,000 Tim Grady Lead Application Engineer [email protected]
Process Gas Division
AG Equipment Co. Broken Arrow Oklahoma USA x x 20 10,000 15 7456 Kent Bright President [email protected]
Alegacy Equipment Waller Texas USA x x 50 10,000 37 7500 Will Reyes President [email protected]
ANGI Energy Systems LLC Janesville Wisconsin USA x x 40 1200 30 900 Jared Hightower Vice President, Sales [email protected]
Applied Compression Systems Cranbrook BC Canada x x x 2 1000 1.5 745 Mike Sanderman Operations Manager [email protected]
Arrow Engine and Compression Tulsa Oklahoma USA x 15 550 19 410 Sheri Vanhooser Director of Sales [email protected]
INTEGRITY Compression LLC Houston Texas USA x x 20 8000 15 5965 Tommy Balke COO [email protected]
Brahma Compression Calgary Alberta Canada x 5 400 4 298 Monte Scott Sales [email protected]
Cast Aluminum Solutions Batavia IL USA X Any Any Any Any Jeffrey Awe Global Marketing Director [email protected]
Clauger-Technofrigo S.p.A. Castel Italy x x x 0 13,412 0 10,000 Silvana Bazzani Head of Sales [email protected]
Maggiore Process, Gas and Efficiency
Cobey Inc. Buffalo New York USA x x x 0 30,000 0 22,065 Eric McKendry Vice President [email protected]
COMOTI Bucharest Romania x x 30 3740 22 2500 Marius Teodorescu Marketing and Sales Director [email protected]
Com-Pac Systems Inc. Odessa Texas USA x x 25 4000 19 2983 Jack Motley President [email protected]
Compact Compression Inc. Calgary Alberta Canada x x 10 100 7.5 75 Chris Scrupa Business Development [email protected]
Manager
Compass Energy Systems Ltd. Calgary Alberta Canada x x x 5 8000 4 5964 Scott Douglas Vice President, Sales [email protected]
Compass Manufacturing Oklahoma City Oklahoma USA x x 70 8000 50 6000 [email protected]
Compressor Systems Holland BV Vianen Utrecht Netherlands x x x 1.3 2000 1 1500 Bob Visser Managing Director [email protected]
Corken Inc. Oklahoma City Oklahoma USA x 7.5 75 5.6 55.9 Patrick Cormack Lead Application Engineering [email protected]
Custom Compression Systems New Iberia Louisiana USA x 95 5000 71 3728 Joey Belfour Vice President of Operations [email protected]
Dearing Compressor & Pump Co. Youngstown Ohio USA x x x x 5 10,000 3 7457 Albin Dearing President [email protected]
Encore Oilfield Services, LLC Granbury Texas USA x 50 1,860 37 1387 John Simonetti Owner/CEO [email protected]
Elliott Co. Jeannette Pennsylvania USA x x x x 100 120,000 74.5 89,500 Mike Giunta Sales Manager [email protected]
Enerflex Ltd. Houston Texas USA x x 0 10,000 0 7460 Aaron York Director, Sales, United States [email protected]
of America
Enerproject SA Mezzovico Ticino Switzerland x x x 30 4700 20 3500 Vito Notari Business Development [email protected]
Manager
Euro Gas Systems SRL Targu Mures Mures Romania x x x 200 21,500 150 1600 Roger Wachter General Manager [email protected]
FIMA Maschinenbau GmbH Obersontheim Germany x 1 6800 1 5000 Michael Loercher Sales Engineer [email protected]

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 163

2023 PACKAGER GUIDE
 LOCATION TYPES OF COMPRESSORS CAPACITY RANGE CONTACT

State/ Min Max Min Max

Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Screw
Other
COMPANY City Province Country (HP) (HP) (kW) (kW) Contact Name Title E-Mail
PACKAGER

Flatrock Compression Ltd. Houston Texas USA x 26 500 19 373 Brian McDonald President [email protected]
TECH CORNER
DRY GAS SEALS

Flogistix Oklahoma City Oklahoma USA x 20 800 15 597 Drake Andarakes Vice President, Sales and [email protected]
Marketing
FLSmidth Inc. Bethlehem Pennsylvania USA x 10 500 7.5 375 Brian Warmkessel Market Manager [email protected]
Foremost Calgary Alberta Canada x x x 5 400 3.7 298 Steve Moe Sales Manager [email protected]
Gas & Air Systems, Inc. Hellertown Pennsylvania USA x x x x 1 2000 1 1500 Stephen St. Martin President - General Manager [email protected]
GUIDE 2023

164 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 2023

Gas Compressors Ltd. London UK x x x x 7 20,000 5.5 15,000 Tony Silk Head of Sales [email protected]
Gas Futuro Ltda Campo Largo Paraná Brazil x x x 50 4,835 36 3,605 Rodrigo Bogacz Operation Director [email protected]
GEA North America York Pennsylvania USA x 0 5623 0 4193 Todd Kennedy Process Systems Sales [email protected]
Manager
GRAF GASTECH Nonantola Modena Italy x 16 750 22 1000 Mario Mormile Oil &Gas manager [email protected]
Great Plains Gas Compression Hugoton Kansas USA x x 30 500 4 373 Gloria Pollok Vice President, Sales and [email protected]
Holdings, LLC Marketing
HBR Equipamentos Ltda Sao Paulo Brazil x x x 0 5000 0 3729 Valdir Zuffo Director of Operations [email protected]
Howden Renfrew Scotland U.K. x x x x 0 20786 0 15500 Douglas Latta Product Director [email protected]
Indus Energy Systems (IES) Corona California USA x x x x 10 10,000 7.5 7500 Jogen Bhalla Business Development [email protected]
Industrias Juan F. Secco S.A. Rosario Santa Fe Argentina x 0 10,000 0 7457 Osvaldo Calvo International Business [email protected]
INGC Moscow/Perm Russia x x x x 40 46,500 30 34,000 Ivan Shestoperov Chief Engineer [email protected]
J J Crewe and Son Kearneysville West Virginia USA x x x 5 10,000 2 7,457 Jay Crewe President [email protected]
Jereh Oil & Gas Engineering Corp. Yantai Shandong China x x 85 10,002 63 7458 David Qu Sales Manager [email protected]
J-W Power Co. Addison Texas USA x x x 25 6000 19 4474 James R. Barr Vice President, Sales [email protected]
Kingsly Compression Inc. Cambridge Ohio USA x x 5 1400 4 1491 Michael A. Scott President [email protected]
Kirloskar Pneumatic Co. Ltd. Pune Maharastra India x x 30 10,000 22 7456 Samit Gujarathi DGM [email protected]
Kobelco Compressors America Inc. Corona California USA x x x 134 40,230 100 30,000 Kenji Fujimatsu Head of Sales Department [email protected]
Mayekawa USA Inc. Houston Texas USA x 0 4500 0 3300 Sales [email protected]
McClung Energy Services Longview Texas USA x 50 400 37 298 [email protected]
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Houston Texas USA x x 500 150,000 375 111,855 Steve Lucchesi Sales Manager [email protected]
Compressor International
Natural Gas Compression Systems Traverse City Michigan USA x x 0 2500 0 1864 Bill Jenkins Vice President, Sales [email protected]
Inc.
Natural Gas Services Group, Inc. Midland Texas USA x x 50 1500 37 1119 Jim Hazlett Vice President, Technical [email protected]
Services
Neuman & Esser USA Inc. Katy Texas USA x 0 40,000 0 30,000 Scott DeBaldo [email protected]
NEXT Compression Calgary Alberta Canada x x x 25 6000 18 4474 Alyssa Guiltner Sales & Marketing Manager [email protected]
NG Metalúrgica S.A. Piracicaba S฀o Paulo Brazil x x x 0 20,000 0 14,925 Júlio Cella Application and Sales Engineer [email protected]
OTA Compression LLC Irving Texas USA x 0 125 0 93 Vickie L. Gage-Tims Vice President, Sales [email protected]

www.compressortechsg.com
 LOCATION TYPES OF COMPRESSORS CAPACITY RANGE CONTACT

State/ Min Max Min Max

Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Screw
Other
COMPANY City Province Country (HP) (HP) (kW) (kW) Contact Name Title E-Mail
Palmero San Luis Buenos Aires Buenos Argentina x x 100 6700 75 5000 Matias Maggi Compression Manager [email protected]
Aires

www.compressortechsg.com
PEB Engineers & Constructors Zoetermeer South (Z-H) Netherlands x x 26 9383 20 7000 Duncan Naumann Sales Manager, Gas [email protected]
Compressor Systems
Propak Systems Ltd. Airdrie Alberta Canada x x 0 10,000 0 7456 [email protected]
PSE Engineering GmbH Hannover Germany x 100 10,000 75 7500 Dirk Heyer Division Manager, [email protected]
Compression Systems
Reagan Power & Compression Inc. Broussard Louisiana USA x x 0 10,000 0 7455 Joe Bellon Executive Vice President [email protected]
Ron Porter LLC Carmel Indiana USA x x x x 20 300 15 225 Ron Porter Founder [email protected]
ROOTS Systems, Inc. Houston Texas USA x 0 1341 0 1000 Mike Elliyoun Regional Sales Engineer, [email protected]
Americas
S&R Compression LLC Tulsa Oklahoma USA x x 0 400 0 298 David Bellamy President [email protected]
S&S Technical, Inc. Alpharetta Georgia USA x 1 1400 0.75 1044 Jim Zuccarell Director, Compression [email protected]
Systems
Safe San Giovanni Bologna Italy x 67 6714 50 5000 Dario Salvadori Team Leader, Oil & Gas/ [email protected]
in Persiceto Industrial Applications
SCFM Compression Systems Tulsa Oklahoma USA x x x x 50 10000 40 7000 Happy Pendley Sales [email protected]
SEC Energy Products & Services Houston Texas USA x 50 10,000 37 7457 Bill Bartkus Director- Sales [email protected]
Sertco Okemah Oklahoma USA x 20 200 15 149 Steve Morris [email protected]
SES International BV Delden Overijsel Netherlands x x 34 11560 25 8500 Rogier Levers Sales Manager, Gas [email protected]
Compressor Systems
Shandong Kerui Compressor DongYing Shandong China x x x 50 10,000 37 7456 David Ni Executive Dep. General [email protected]
Manager
Siad Macchine Impianti S.p.A. Bergamo Italy x 13 11,900 10 8700 Mauro Acquati Compressor Division Sales mauro฀[email protected] - c.c.: paola฀picci-
Manager [email protected]
Startec Compression and Process Calgary Alberta Canada x x x x 5 8000 4 5965 Will Van Den Elzen Business Development [email protected]
Ltd. Manager
Technical Thai Service Co., Ltd. Muangrayong Rayong Thailand x x x x 20 20,000 15 15,000 Alex Westphal Managing Director [email protected]
UEC-Gas Turbines, JSC Rybinsk Yaroslavl Russia x x 5361 33,512 3998 24,989 Igor Yudin Managing Director [email protected]
Oblast
UECompression Henderson Colorado USA x x x 50 7500 37 5592 Greg Herman VP Sales and Marketing [email protected]
VPT Kompressoren GmbH Remscheid NRW Germany x x 5 3500 5 3500 Carsten Kollenbach CEO [email protected]
Wasco Engineering Group Singapore Singapore Singapore x x x x 100 10,000 75 7500 Madhana Gopal Regional Sales Manager [email protected]
York Process Systems (Johnson Waynesboro Pennsylvania USA x x 100 15,000 75 11,200 Robert Fahey General Manager [email protected]
Controls)

2023 | COMPRESSORTECH2 SOURCING GUIDE | 165

2023 PACKAGER GUIDE
DIRECTORY OF ADVERTISERS

A K
ARIEL CORPORATION .......... INSIDE FRONT COVER, COMPRESSOR TAB KOHO KOMPRESSORSYSTEME KOHLER & HORTER GMBH .................77

B
L
BORSIG GMBH.................................................................................................43
LEOBERSDORFER MASCHINENFABRIK GMBH ................................68, 69
BURCKHARDT COMPRESSION AG ..........................................................108

M
C
COMOTI- ROMANIAN RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE FOR MAN ENERGY SOLUTIONS SE .............................................................. 56, 57
GAS TURBINES............................................................................................49

COOK COMPRESSION .............................................................................. 4, 55 N

NUOVO PIGNONE INTERNATIONAL SRL ............................................ 73, 87

D
DOTT. ING. MARIO COZZANI S.R.L. ..........................................................151
S

G SIAD MACCHINE IMPIANTI SPA ................................................................63

GERMAN PNEUMATICS ENGINEERING GMBH SOLAR TURBINES INCORPORATED

.............................................................................101, OUTSIDE BACK COVER ................................................. PRIME MOVERS TAB, INSIDE BACK COVER

GPA MIDSTREAM SUPPLIERS .....................................................COMPONENTS TAB

T
H TM.I.C. SRL TERMOMECCANICA INDUSTRIAL
HOWDEN AMERICAS COMPRESSORS .............................................. 80, 81 COMPRESSORS .................................................................................. 94, 95

RATINGS ■ SPECIFICATIONS ■ INFORMATION

2023
The industry’s leading reference tool for packagers,
purchasers and training providers

www.compressortechsg.com

www.compressortechsg.com

purchasers and training providers

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HELPING OUR CUSTOMERS SUCCEED BY
REDUCING EMISSIONS
Reduced carbon footprint using hydrogen or carbon neutral fuels.
Carbon reduction through equipment upgrades.
Emissions reduction solutions to help customers achieve near-zero
methane targets.
Energy optimization to minimize lifecycle costs.
SoLoNOx™ combustion system to reduce NOx emissions.

For more information, visit us at

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email [email protected]